MCON 1: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

LECTURE 1: CELLS: THE LIVING UNITS

SOURCE: PPT (CHAPTER 3 PART A)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

1ST SEMESTER | A.Y. 2022 – 2023

3.1 CELLS: THE LIVING UNITS

• Cell theory

– A cell is the structural and functional unit of life

– How well the entire organism functions depends

on individual and combined activities of all of its
cells

– Structure and function are complementary

• Biochemical functions of cells are

dictated by shape of cell and specific
subcellular structures

– Continuity of life has cellular basis

• Cells can arise only from other

preexisting cells Extracellular Materials

• Cell diversity • Substances found outside cells

– Over 200 different types of human cells • Classes of extracellular materials include:

– Types differ in size, shape, and subcellular
components; these differences lead to
differences in functions
– Extracellular fluids (body fluids), such as:
• Interstitial fluid: cells are submersed
(bathed) in this fluid

• Blood plasma: fluid of the blood

• Cerebrospinal fluid: fluid surrounding

nervous system organs

– Cellular secretions (e.g., saliva, mucus)

– Extracellular matrix: substance that acts as glue

to hold cells together

PART 1 – PLASMA MEMBRANE

• Acts as an active barrier separating intracellular fluid

(ICF) from extracellular fluid (ECF)

• Plays dynamic role in cellular activity by controlling what

• Generalized cell enters and what leaves cell

– All cells have some common structures and • Also known as the “cell membrane”
functions
3.2 STRUCTURE OF PLASMA MEMBRANE
– Human cells have three basic parts:
• Consists of membrane lipids that form a flexible lipid
1. Plasma membrane: flexible outer bilayer
boundary
• Specialized membrane proteins float through this fluid
2. Cytoplasm: intracellular fluid membrane, resulting in constantly changing patterns
containing organelles
– Referred to as fluid mosaic (made up of many
3. Nucleus: DNA containing control pieces) pattern
center
• Surface sugars form glycocalyx

• Membrane structures help to hold cells together through

cell junctions
MCON 1: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
LECTURE 1: CELLS: THE LIVING UNITS
SOURCE: PPT (CHAPTER 3 PART A)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

1ST SEMESTER | A.Y. 2022 – 2023

• Hydrophilic areas interact with water

– Function as transport proteins (channels and

carriers), enzymes, or receptors

• Peripheral proteins

– Loosely attached to integral proteins

– Include filaments on intracellular surface used

for plasma membrane support

– Function as:

• Enzymes

• Motor proteins for shape change

during cell division and muscle
contraction

• Cell-to-cell connections

Membrane Lipids

• Lipid bilayer is made up of:

– 75% phospholipids, which consist of two parts:

• Phosphate heads: are polar

(charged), so are hydrophilic (water-
loving)

• Fatty acid tails: are nonpolar (no

charge), so are hydrophobic (water-
hating)

– 5% glycolipids

• Lipids with sugar groups on outer

membrane surface

– 20% cholesterol

• Increases membrane stability

Membrane Proteins

• Allow cell communication with environment

• Make up about half the mass of plasma membrane

• Most have specialized membrane functions

• Some float freely, and some are tethered to intracellular

structures

• Two types:

– Integral proteins; peripheral proteins

• Integral proteins

– Firmly inserted into membrane

– Most are transmembrane proteins (span

membrane)

– Have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions

• Hydrophobic areas interact with lipid

tails
MCON 1: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
LECTURE 1: CELLS: THE LIVING UNITS
SOURCE: PPT (CHAPTER 3 PART A)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

1ST SEMESTER | A.Y. 2022 – 2023

Glycocalyx

• Consists of sugars (carbohydrates) sticking out of cell

surface

– Some sugars are attached to lipids (glycolipids)

and some to proteins (glycoproteins)

• Every cell type has different patterns of this “sugar

coating”

– Functions as specific biological markers for cell-

to-cell recognition
• Desmosomes
– Allows immune system to recognize “self” vs.
“nonself”
Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 3.1
• Glycocalyx of some cancer cells can change so rapidly
that the immune system cannot recognize the cell as
being damaged.
• Mutated cell is not destroyed by immune system so it is
able to replicate
– Rivet-like cell junction formed when linker
proteins (cadherins) of neighboring cells
interlock like the teeth of a zipper
– Linker protein is anchored to its cell through
thickened “button-like” areas on inside of
plasma membrane called plaques
– Keratin filaments connect plaques intercellularly
for added anchoring strength

– Desmosomes allow “give” between cells,

Cell Junctions reducing the possibility of tearing under tension

• Some cells are “free” (not bound to any other cells) – Where might these be useful in body?

– Examples: blood cells, sperm cells

• Most cells are bound together to form tissues and organs

• Three ways cells can be bound to each other

– Tight junctions

– Desmosomes

– Gap junctions

• Tight junctions

– Integral proteins on adjacent cells fuse to form

an impermeable junction that encircles whole
cell

– Prevent fluids and most molecules from moving

in between cells

– Where might these be useful in body?

MCON 1: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
LECTURE 1: CELLS: THE LIVING UNITS
SOURCE: PPT (CHAPTER 3 PART A)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
1ST SEMESTER | A.Y. 2022 – 2023
• Gap junctions
– Transmembrane proteins (connexons) form
tunnels that allow small molecules to pass from
cell to cell
– Used to spread ions, simple sugars, or other
small molecules between cells
– Allows electrical signals to be passed quickly
from one cell to next cell
• Used in cardiac and smooth muscle
cells
How do substances move across the plasma membrane?
• Plasma membranes are selectively permeable
– Some molecules pass through easily; some
do not
• Two ways substances cross membrane
– Passive processes: no energy required
– Active processes: energy (ATP) required
3.3 Passive Membrane Transport
• Passive transport requires no energy
• Two types of passive transport
– Diffusion
• Simple diffusion
• Carrier- and channel-mediated
facilitated diffusion
• Osmosis
– Filtration
• Type of transport that usually occurs
across capillary walls
Diffusion
• Collisions between molecules in areas of high
concentration cause them to be scattered into areas with
less concentration
– Difference is called concentration gradient
– Diffusion is movement of molecules down their
concentration gradients (from high to low)
• Energy is not required
• Speed of diffusion is influenced by size of molecule and
temperature
• Molecules have natural drive to diffuse down
concentration gradients that exist between extracellular
and intracellular areas
• Plasma membranes stop diffusion and create
concentration gradients by acting as selectively permeable
barriers
Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 3.2
• If plasma membrane is severely damaged, substances
diffuse freely into and out of cell, compromising
concentration gradients
• Example: burn patients lose precious fluids, proteins,
and ions that weep from damaged cells
• Nonpolar, hydrophobic lipid core of plasma membrane
blocks diffusion of most molecules
• Molecules that are able to passively diffuse through
membrane include:
– Lipid-soluble and nonpolar substances
– Very small molecules that can pass through
membrane or membrane channels
– Larger molecules assisted by carrier molecules
• Simple diffusion
– Nonpolar lipid-soluble
(hydrophobic) substances
diffuse directly through
phospholipid bilayer
– Examples: oxygen, carbon
dioxide, fat-soluble vitamins
MCON 1: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
LECTURE 1: CELLS: THE LIVING UNITS
SOURCE: PPT (CHAPTER 3 PART A)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

1ST SEMESTER | A.Y. 2022 – 2023

• Facilitated diffusion • Gated channels

– Certain hydrophobic molecules (e.g., glucose, – Controlled by chemical or

amino acids, and ions) are transported passively electrical signals
down their concentration gradient by:
• Osmosis
• Carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion
– Movement of
– Substances bind to protein solvent, such as
carriers water, across a
selectively
• Channel-mediated facilitated diffusion permeable
membrane
– Substances move through
water-filled channels – Water diffuses
through plasma
• Carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion membranes
– Carriers are •
transmembrane Through
integral proteins lipid
bilayer
– Carriers transport
(even
specific polar
molecules, such
as sugars and
though water is polar, it is so small
amino acids, that
that some molecules can sneak past
are too large for
nonpolar phospholipid tails)
membrane
channels • Through specific water channels
called aquaporins (AQPs)
•
Example of – Flow occurs when water (or other solvent)
specificity: glucose carriers will carry concentration is different on the two sides of a
only glucose molecules, nothing else membrane
– Binding of molecule causes carrier to change • Osmolarity: measure of total concentration of solute
shape, moving molecule in process particles
– Binding is limited by number of carriers present • Water concentration varies with number of solute particles
because solute particles displace water molecules
• Carriers are saturated when all are
bound to molecules and are busy – When solute concentration goes up, water
transporting concentration goes down, and vice versa
• Channel-mediated facilitated diffusion • Water moves by osmosis from areas of low solute (high
water) concentration to high areas of solute (low water)
– Channels with aqueous-
concentration
filled cores are formed
by transmembrane • When solutions of different osmolarity are separated by a
proteins membrane permeable to all molecules, both solutes and
water cross membrane until equilibrium is reached
– Channels transport
molecules such as ions – Equilibrium: Same concentration of solutes and
or water (osmosis) down water molecules on both sides, with equal
their concentration volume on both sides
gradient

• Specificity
based on pore
size and/or
charge

• Water
channels are
called
aquaporins

– Two types:

• Leakage channels

– Always open
MCON 1: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
LECTURE 1: CELLS: THE LIVING UNITS
SOURCE: PPT (CHAPTER 3 PART A)
________________________________________________________________________________________________________

1ST SEMESTER | A.Y. 2022 – 2023

• When solutions of different osmolarity are separated by a

membrane that is permeable only to water, not solutes,
osmosis will occur until equilibrium is reached

– Same concentration of solutes and water

molecules on both sides, with unequal volumes
on both sides

Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 3.3

• Intravenous solutions of different tonicities can be given
to patients suffering different ailments
– Isotonic solutions are most commonly given
when blood volume needs to be increased
quickly
– Hypertonic solutions are given to edematous
(swollen) patients to pull water back into
• Movement of water causes pressures:
blood
– Hydrostatic pressure: pressure of water inside – Hypotonic solutions should not be given
because they can result in dangerous lysing
cell pushing on membrane
of red and white blood cells
– Osmotic pressure: tendency of water to move
into cell by osmosis

• The more solutes inside a cell, the

higher the osmotic pressure

• A living cell has limits to how much water can enter it

• Water can also leave a cell, causing cell to shrink

• Change in cell volume can disrupt cell function, especially

in neurons

• Tonicity

– Ability of a solution to change the shape or tone

of cells by altering the cells’ internal water
volume

• Isotonic solution has same

osmolarity as inside the cell, so
volume remains unchanged

• Hypertonic solution has higher

osmolarity than inside cell, so water
flows out of cell, resulting in cell
shrinking

• Shrinking is referred to as
crenation

• Hypotonic solution has lower

osmolarity than inside cell, so water
flows into cell, resulting in cell swelling

• Can lead to cell bursting,

referred to as lysing