S&G Module Ii

MODULE II – CHAIN SURVEYING & COMPUTATION OF AREAS
Chain surveying: Introduction to chain survey, basic definitions, surveying chains and types
of chains, measuring tapes, principles of chain surveying, well-conditioned triangle,
Instruments for chaining and taping, ranging, error due to shrinkage of a map, error due to
wrong measuring scale, obstacles in chaining, chaining on uneven or sloping ground, Tape
corrections (correction for Standardization, pull, temperature, sag) instruments for setting out
right angles.
Computation of areas - Simpson’s rule, trapezoidal rule, average ordinate
2.1. INTRODUCTION
Chain surveying is one of the methods of land surveying. Chain surveying is the simplest and at
the same time most accurate method of surveying, when the area of land to be surveyed is
limited. In this type of surveying, only linear measurements are taken in the field, with the help
of chain, tape and offset rod.
Generally, for ordinary precision works the distance between the stations can be measured with
chain. For higher precision works and to locate the details of the objects from the chain line a
tape can be used. When the objects or the boundary of an area is located at a small distance. (i.e.,
less than 2 or 3 m) from the chain line, preferably an offset rod can be used.
2.2. SUITABILITY OF CHAIN SURVEYING

The chain surveying is suitable in the areas that met the following conditions:
1. It is suitable when the ground is fairly level and open with simple details.
2. When large scale plans are needed, this type of survey is not suitable.
3. It is suitable when the area to be surveyed is comparatively small in extent.
4. It is suitable for ordinary works as its length alerts due to continued uses
5. Sagging of chain due to its heavy weight reduces the accuracy of measurements.
6. It can be read easily and repaired in the field itself.
7. It is suitable for rough usage.
8. It is suitable when well-conditioned triangle is easy.
However, chain surveying is not recommended in the areas that are over-crowded with many
details or the area is very large with too many undulations.
2.3. PURPOSE OF CHAIN SURVEYING

1. To fix the boundaries of the land.
PREPARED BY: SOMA JAGADISH SAI 1

2. To prepare the plan of the site.

3. To calculate the area of the plot.
4. To divide land into smaller units.
5. To collect necessary data for exact description of the land.
6. To collect data required for engineering works, such as Roads. Railways, canals etc.
2.4. PRINCIPLE OF CHAIN SURVEYING

The principle of chain surveying is triangulation. When it is done with a chain it is called chain
triangulation. According to this principle, the area to be surveyed is divided into number of
small triangles, connected with each other. Possibly, the triangles formed should be well -
conditioned.
The sides of the triangles are measured directly in the field with a chain or tape, and no angular
measurements are taken. The triangles are plotted from the measured length of sides. For getting
accuracy in plotting, the triangles are to be nearly equilateral as possible. And also, the accuracy
of work can be checked by taking tie lines and check lines.
2.5. IDEAL, WELL-CONDITIONED AND ILL - CONDITIONED

TRIANGLES
An equilateral triangle is said to be an Ideal - Triangle. It means, all the interior angles should be
equal to 60°.
A triangle is said to be well - conditioned, when no angle in it is less than 30° or more than 120°.
Well - Conditioned triangles are preferable, because their apex points are very sharp and can be
located by a single 'dot'. In such a case, there is no possibility of relative displacement of the
plotted point.
A triangle in which an angle is less than 30⁰ or more than 120⁰ is said to be ill-conditioned. Ill-
Conditioned triangles are not preferred, because their apex points are not sharp and well defined.
Hence, there is a possibility of error in plotting.

2.6. TERMS USED IN CHAIN SURVEYING
INDEX SKETCH
SURVEY STATIONS
Survey Stations are the important points on the chain line. They can be at the beginning, at the
end or at anywhere on the chain line. A survey station may be marked on the ground by driving a
peg Survey stations may be of the following types.
(i) Main Stations: Stations located along the boundary of an area as controlling points are
known as Main stations. Generally there is a main station at the starting and end of a survey
line. The main stations are denoted by ‘A’ with letters A, B, C, D etc.
(ii) Subsidiary Stations: Stations located on main survey lines or any other survey lines are
known as 'Subsidiary stations. These stations are denoted with letters S1, S2, S3 etc. These
stations are marked to run check lines, through them.
(iii) Tie stations: These are also subsidiary stations, located on the main survey lines. These
stations are denoted with letters T1, T2, T3 etc. These stations are marked, to run tie lines,
through them.
SURVEY LINES
The Lines joining the survey stations are called survey lines. The survey lines are denoted by
‘… - … - … -’ Survey lines may be of the following types.

(i) Main Survey Lines: The lines joining the main survey stations are called 'Main Survey
Lines'. The main survey lines should cover the whole area to be surveyed.
(ii) Base Line: The longest of the main survey lines of an area is known as 'Base line'. It is a
most important line in chain surveying various stations are plotted with reference to base
line. The network of triangles are built up on it. Hence, this line should be measured more
accurately.
(iii) Check Lines: A check line may be laid by joining the apex of the triangle to any point on
the opposite side or by joining two points on any two sides of triangles. The purpose of
check line is to check the accuracy of the frame work. It is also known as proof line. Each
triangle must have a check line.
(iv) Tie Lines: The chain lines joining subsidiary or tie stations on the main survey lines are
known as 'tie lines. The object of running a tie line is to locate the details, which are far
away from main survey lines. It also serves the purpose of check line.
The following points should be kept in mind while selecting survey stations,
1. The stations should be intervisible.
2. The stations are selected keeping in view of the surveying general principle that is working
from whole to part.
3. The stations are selected in such a manner that the triangles formed by them should be well
conditioned.
4. Each triangle, should have at least one check line.
5. The stations should not be located on roads.
6. The tie stations should be suitably selected to fix the directions of adjacent sides,
7. While selecting the stations care should be taken that obstacles to chaining are avoided as
far as possible.
8. The survey lines should be taken close to the objects, so that the objects can be located by
measuring short offsets.
9. The survey lines should be run on a fairly level ground.
10. As far as possible minimum number of survey lines should be run, to cover all the details.
2.7. INSTRUMENTS USED FOR CHAIN SURVEYING

The following Instruments/Equipments are used for chain surveying:
A. Metric chain (20 or 30 m)
B. Arrows
C. Metallic tape
D. Ranging rods
E. Offset rod

F. Cross - staff or Optical square

G. Plumb - bob
H. Wooden pegs
I. Mallet
J. Field book
K. Pencils, Eraser, Knife etc.,
A. CHAIN:
Chains are prepared of galvanised mild steel wire straight links bent into rings at the ends and
joined each other by three small circular or oval wire rings. The ends of the chain are provided
with brass handle at each end with swivel joint, so that the chain can be turned without twisting.
The length of the link is the distance between the centres of two consecutive middle rings. The
length of the chain is, outside of one handle to the outside of the other handle.
The following are the various types of chains, in common use.
(i) Metric chain
(ii) Gunter's chain or surveyor's chain
(iii) Engineer's chain
(iv) Revenue chain
(v) Steel band or band chain.
(a) Metric Chain: Metric chains are available in lengths of 5, 10, 20 and 30 metres. Among the
20 m and 30 m are commonly used. 20 m chain is divided into 100 links and 30 m chain is
divided into 150 links. Length of each link is 0.2 m. The brass tallies are fixed at every 5m
length and small brass rings are provide at every metre length. The least count of the metric
chain is 0.2 m or 20 cm.

(b) Gunter's Chain or Surveyor's Chain: This chain is 66 feet long and having 100 links. So,
each is of 0.66 ft. It is very useful for measuring the distances in miles and furlongs. It is also
useful for measuring the area in acres.
1 Gunter's chain = 22 yards
10 Gunter's chains = 1 furlong
80 Gunter's chains = 1 mile
1 Square Gunter chain = 484 sq. yards (10 cents).
10 Square Gunter chains = 1 Acre = 4840 sq. yards (100 cents)
(c) Engineer's Chain: The engineer's chain is 100 ft. long and divided into 100 links. So,
length of each link is of 1 foot. Tallies or tags are provided at every 10 links (10 ft.).
Engineer's chain was previously used for all engineering works.
(d) Revenue Chain: This chain is 33 ft. long and divided into 16 links. Length of each link
being 2 ft. 0.75 inches. It is commonly used for measuring fields in cadestral surveys and
also used by the revenue department for measuring land in bighas. One square Revenue chain
equal to one bigha.
(e) Steel Band or Band Chain: It consists of a ribbon of steel of width 16 mm and of length 20
or 30 m. It has a brass handle at both ends. On one side it is graduated in metres, decimetres
and centimeters and on the other side graduation are provided at 0.2 m. For carrying and
handling it is wound on special steel crosses. The steel band should be used for accurate
work. It should be operated by skilled chainmen.
B. ARROWS:
Arrows are made of good quality hardened and tempered steel wire of diameter 4 mm. The
overall length of the arrow may be 400mm. One end of the arrow is bent into a ring of 50 mm
diameter and other end is made sharp pointed.

C. TAPES:
Tapes are used to take more accurate measurements. They are classified according to the
material of which they are made.
(i) Cloth or linen tape
(ii) Metallic tape
(iii) Steel tape and
(iv) Invar tape
(i) Cloth or Linen Tape: It is a tape made of closely woven linen and is varnished to resist
moisture. It is 12 to 15 mm wide and available in lengths of 10, 20 and 30 metres. It is
generally used for measuring offsets and for ordinary works.
(ii) Metallic Tape: If a linen tape is reinforced with brass, copper or bronze wires to make it
durable, then it is called a metallic tape. In this tape the wires are provided to avoid
stretching. These tapes are available in lengths of 2, 5, 10, 20 and 30 m. It is commonly used
for all survey works.
(iii) Steel Tape: The steel tape is made of steel ribbon of width varying from 6 to 16 mm wide.
These tapes are available in lengths of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 30 and 50 m. It is graduated in metres,
decimeters, centimeters and millimeters. Steel tape is delicate and very light, therefore it
cannot withstand for taking field measurements, but it can be used for standardising chain
and for measurements in construction works.
(iv) Invar Tape: It is made of an alloy of steel (64%) and nickel. (36%). Its coefficient of
thermal expansion is very low, hence it is not affected by change in temperature. These are 6
mm wide and available in length of 30, 50 and 100 m. It is costly and very delicate, hence it
is not used for ordinary work. It is used at places, where highest precision is required.
D. RANGING RODS:
Ranging rods are circular or octagonal in cross section of 30 mm diameter and having a length of
2 or 3 m.

This painting is done to make ranging rods visible for a long distance, about 200 m. Ranging
rods are used for locating station points and for ranging (i.e., the process of making a line
straight) a survey line. Occasionally the ranging rod can be used for rough measurement of short
lengths.
E. OFFSET RODS:
An offset rod is similar to a ranging rod and has a length of 3m. The graduations are marked
along the lengthwise in metres, decimeters, and centimeters.
F. CROSS-STAFF:
The cross-staff is a simple instrument used for setting out right angles. It consists of either a
frame or box with two pairs of vertical slits and is mounted on an iron pole shoed for fixing into
the ground. There are two types of cross staffs.
(a) Open Cross Staff: Open cross staff consists of four metal arms at right angles to each other
having eye vane at two adjacent sides and object vane at the others. Eye vane is provided
with a pin hole or a narrow slit. In object vane a slit is provided with a horse hair at the
middle. The line joining the eye hole and horse hair of one arm will be perpendicular to the
eye hole and horse hair of the other arm.
(b) French Cross Staff: Above figure shows a French cross staff. It consists of a hallow
octagonal box. Vertical sighting slits are cut in the middle of each face, such that the lines
between the centres of opposite slits make angles of 45° with each other. By using the cross-
staff it is possible, to set out angles of either 90° or 45°. It is also called octagonal cross-staff.
(c) Wooden Cross Staff: It consists of a square wooden block mounted on a iron pole having a
sharp edge at the bottom. For the wooden block grooves are cut upto the half thickness in
perpendicular directions.
In this cross staff all the slits can be used to set perpendiculars. The working of this cross
staff in similar to open cross staff.

G. PLUMB - BOB
While chaining along sloping ground, by the method of stepping a plumb bob is required to
transfer the points on to the ground.
It is used to check the verticality of ranging rods and to transfer points from a line ranger or
optical square. It is also used for centering of the surveying instruments such as compass,
theodolite, tacheometer and plane table. It is generally made up of Iron or Brass.
H. WOODEN PEGS:
The wooden pegs are used to mark the positions of the survey stations. They are made up of hard
timber. They are made 2 to 4 cm square or 2 to 5 cm diameter and 15 to 20 cm long. tapered at
the bottom end. They are driven into the ground with the help of a wooden hammer (Mallet) and
kept projected about 5 cm above the surface of ground.
I. MALLET:
Mallet or wooden hammer generally used in carpentry work, is used for driving pegs into the
ground. It is made from hard wood 8 to 10 cm in diameter.

J. FIELDBOOK:
The book in which the survey work is recorded by measurements and sketches is called survey
field book. It is rectangular book of size 250 mm x 120 mm and it opens length wise. It should be
made with good quality paper, well bound and of convenient to put in pocket. There are two
types of field books
(ii) Single line field book.
(iii)Double line field book.
2.8. OFFSETS
The lateral measurement taken from an object to the survey lines known as ‘offset’. Offsets are
taken to locate the objects with reference to the survey line. The offsets may be of two types:
(a) Perpendicular Offsets.
(b) Oblique Offsets.
(a) Perpendicular Offsets: If the lateral measurements taken right angles (ie. 90°) to the survey
line, they are known as perpendicular offsets. The following methods may be adopted to set
out perpendicular offsets.
(i) A perpendicular may be set by swinging a tape from the object to the chain line. The
point of minimum reading on the tape will be base of the perpendicular offset.

(ii) Setting a right angle in the ratio 3:4:5.

(iii) Setting a right angle by cross - staff or optical square.
2. Oblique Offsets: Offsets not perpendicular to the chain line is said to be oblique offsets.
These offsets are taken when the objects are located at a long distance from chain line.
2.9. RANGING OF SURVEY LINES

The process of establishing intermediate points on a survey line, between two stations is known
as ranging of survey lines or simply ranging.
Ranging must be done before chaining a survey line, if the distance between two stations is more
than the length of a chain or tape.
Ranging may be done by the naked eye or by the line ranger or by theodolite. For important
works theodolite can be used for ranging a survey line.
Ranging may be of two kinds:
(a) Direct ranging, and
(b) Indirect or reciprocal ranging
(a) DIRECT RANGING:

The ranging of a survey line done by direct observation from end stations, when the end stations
are intervisible, is called Direct Ranging.
The direct ranging is carried out by an eye or with line ranger.
1. Ranging by Eye:

The ranging with eye is carried out by following steps

(i) A and B be the two points at the ends of survey line.
(ii) Erect ranging rods at stations A and B.
(iii) The surveyor standing 1.5 to 2 m behind the ranging rod at A, directs the assistant to put a
ranging rod approximately in line, between A and B.
(iv) The surveyor standing behind A, signals the assistant to move left or right until three ranging
rods are exactly in a straight line.
(v) The surveyor check the verticality of the rode by sighting the lower ends of the rods.
(vi) Similarly, tanging is continued to put required no of Intermediate points, in between A and
B.
Code of Signals for Ranging:
S.no Signal by the Surveyor Action by the Assistant

1. Rapid sweep with right hand Move to the right considerably
2. Rapid sweep with left hand Move to the left considerably
3. Slow sweep with right hand Move slowly to the right.
4. Stow sweep with left hand Move slowly to the left.
5. Right arm extended Move continuously to the right.
6. Left arm extended Move continuously to the left.
7. Right arm up and moved to the right Plumb the rod to the right
8. Left arm up and moved to the left Plumb the rod to the left.
9. Both hands up above head and then brought The position is correct.
down
10. Both arms extended forward horizontally Fix the ranging rod in position.
and the hands depressed briskly
2. Ranging by Line Ranger:

Line ranger is an optical instrument used for fixing intermediate points on a chain line. A line
ranger consists of either two plane mirrors or two right angled isosceles prisms placed one above
the other, as shown in Figure below. The diagonals of the two prisms are silvered so as to reflect
the incidental rays. A handle with a hook is provided at the bottom to hold the instrument in hand
and to transfer the point on to the ground with the help of plumb – bob.

Procedure:
1. To fix an Intermediate station ‘P’ on the line AB, the observer stands as near P as possible and
holds the Instrument at his eye level.
2. A ray of light from A enters the upper prism and gets reflected from the hypotenuse dc, and
visible to the surveyor at right angles to the AB.
3. Similarly another light ray from B enters the lower prism and gets reflected from the
hypotenuse bd, and visible to the surveyor at right angles to the AB.
4. Surveyor observe the images of A and B in the upper and lower prisms at a time
5. If the point 'p' is not in line of AB two images will be seen separated as shown in Figure.
6. The surveyor then moves the instrument sideways till the two images are visible in the same
vertical line as shown in Figure.
7. The point p' is then transferred to the ground with the help of a plumb-bob.
8. Hence, the instrument can be conveniently used for her intermediate points on a survey line,
without going either end.
9. This method is most convenient, when there is no assister is available, as it can be done only
by surveyor.
(b) INDIRECT OR RECIPROCAL RANGING

Indirect ranging is employed when the two points are not intervisible either due to high ground in
between them or due to a long distance between them. This may be due to some kind of
intervention between the two points.

Procedure:
1. Let A and B are the two end stations of a line, between which there is a rising ground, and
establish the two intermediate points C and D on the chain line.
2. The two chainmen stands at C1 and D1 such that the chainman at C1 can see both the ranging
rods at B and D1, and the chainman at D1 can see both the ranging rods at C1 and A.
3. Now, the chainman at D1 directs the chainman at C1 to go towaards C2 so as to be within the
line with A.
4. Then the chainman at C2 directs the chainman at D1 to move to D2 so as to be within the line
with B.
5. By directing each other successively, the two chainmen proceed to the line AB and finally
come at C and D exactly in the line AB.
6. Thus, C and D are the required intermediate points between A and B.
2.10. CHAINING A LINE

To chain a line two persons are essentially required. The first person (surveyor) who pulls the
chain on the ground in the forward direction is called leader. And the second person (surveyor)
who holds the rear end of the chain is called follower.

While chaining a line the follower play an important role and all the measurements taken are
mainly dependent on the judgement and careful observation of the follower. Hence, the follower
should be well known about the chain surveying,
2.11. DUTIES OF A LEADER

The duties of the leader are as follows.
1. To pull the chain forward direction.
2. To carry the arrows and ranging rods.
3. To fix arrow at the end of every chain length
4. To obey the instructions of the follower.
2.12. DUTIES OF A FOLLOWER:

The duties of the follower are as follows.
1. To direct the leader at the time of ranging
2. To carry the rear handle of the chain
3, To pick up the arrows inserted by the leader after every chain length
4. To give necessary instructions to the leader
2.13. UNFOLDING AND FOLDING A CHAIN

(a) Unfolding a chain:
1. Before taking measurements the chain should be unfolded.
2. To unfold a chain, the strap is unfastened.
3. Now, the chain is lifted into right hand, keeping brass handles in left hand, the chain should be
thrown with right hand. Then follower stands at the starting station by holding one handle and
leader moves forward by holding the other handle until the chain is completely opened,
5. Now, the chain is checked for correct length by observing if there is any kinks or bent in links.
(b) Folding a chain:

1. After the day’s work is completed the chain should be folded and fastened with a leather strap.

2. To fold a chain, the two handles are to be brought to one end by pulling the chain at middle.
3. After this, commencing from the middle of the chain, two pairs of links are taken at a time
with the right hand and placed on the left hand alternatively in both directions
4. Finally, the two brass handles will appear at the top. The bunch should be then fastened with
the leather strap.
2.14. METHOD OF CHAINING ON LEVEL GROUND

1. Before starting the chaining, two ranging rods are fixed on the chain line, at the end stations.
2. An intermediate station can be fixed near the end of each chain length, by ranging the line
3. To start chaining operation first of all the chain should be unfolded properly and checked for
its correctness.
4. Then, the follower places the zero end of the chain in contact with the peg at the beginning of
the survey line.
5. The leader moves forward by taking handle of the chain in one hand, ten arrows and a ranging
rod in the other hand.
6. When the leader reaches approximately one chain length, the follower directs the leader, using
code of signals, to fix the ranging rod in line of the two end stations.
7. Then the follower stands firmly on the handle with the heels on it, and the leader stretches the
chain by moving it up and down with both the hands and finally places it on the line.
8. He then inserts an arrow on the ground at the end of the chain and marks a cross (‘X’).
9. Now, the leader picks up the ranging rod with remaining nine arrows. He moves forward by
swinging the chain a little off the line, so that the arrow placed in position may not be disturbed.
10. The follower carrying the rear handle of the chain comes upto the arrow inserted by the
leader at one chain length.
11. The leader fixes another arrow at the end of the chain length. As the leader moves further, the
follower picks up the arrows which were inserted by the leader.
12. During chaining, the surveyor or an assistant should conduct the ranging operation.
13. The process is repeated in this way until the complete length of the line is measured. The
number of arrows in the hand of follower indicates the number of chain lengths completed

14. To measure the fractional length at the end, the leader should pull the chain beyond the
station and the follower should hold the zero end of the chain at the last arrow. Then the links
should be counted by the follower or surveyor.
15. The total length of the survey line can be found by multiplying the number of full chains
completed with the length of chain plus the fractional length of the chain at end.
2.15. METHOD OF CHAINING ON UNEVEN (OR) SLOPING GROUND

Chaining on sloping ground gives the sloping distance. But, for all plotting works, horizontal
distances between the points are required. Hence, it is necessary either to directly measure the
horizontal distances between the points or to measure the sloping distance and calculate its
horizontal equivalent. Thus, there are two methods for determining horizontal distance on
sloping ground (a) direct method or stepping method (b) indirect method,
(a) Direct Method or Stepping Method:

This method is applied when the slope of the ground is very steep. In this method, the sloping
ground is divided into a number of horizontal and vertical strips, like steps. The lengths of the
horizontal portions are measured with chain or tape and added to get the total horizontal distance
between the points. The steps may not be uniform, and they would depend on the nature of the
ground.
Procedure:
1. Let it is required to find the horizontal distance between points A and B.
2. First, the line AB Is ranged properly.
3. The follower holds the zero end of the tape at A and the leader select a suitable length AP, (l1),
so that P1 is about chest level.
4. The horizontality of line AP, is maintained by eye estimation or by tri - square.
5. The point P2 is marked on the ground with the plumb bob, such that P1 is just over P2 and the
horizontal length 'l1' is noted.

6. Then the follower moves the position P2 and holds zero end of the tape at P2.
7. Again the leader select a suitable length P2 P3 (l2), the point P4 is marked on to the ground,
such that P4 is just over P3 and the horizontal length 'l2' is noted.
8. Similarly, the horizontal length 'l3' is measured and noted.
The total horizontal length, AB = L = AP1 + P2P3 + P4 P5 = l1 + 12 + 13.
(b) Indirect method:

This method is adopted when the slope of the ground surface is uniform and the stepping method
is not suitable. In this case the horizontal distance can be calculated by measuring the sloping
distance and the angle of slope or the difference in elevation between the points. To calculate the
horizontal distance indirectly, the following methods can be applied.
1. By measuring the angle of slope with clinometer,
2. By measuring the difference in level with a leveling instrument and
3. By applying hypotenusal allowance.
1. Measuring the Angle of Slope with Clinometer:

The slopes of the lines can be measured with the help of a clinometer. A clinometer is a simplest
instrument used to measure vertical angles. It consists of graduated semicircular li arc, two pins
(P1 and P2) for sighting the object and a plumb - bob suspended from middle of semicircular arc
with a thread when the line of sight is horizontal, the thread passes through 0°. When the line of
sight is tilted up or down, the thread remains vertical, but passes through a graduation on the arc
which gives the angle of slope.
Procedure:
(i) Let A and B are two points on sloping ground. Two ranging rods are fixed at these points.

(ii) Then two points A, and B are marked on these ranging rods at eye level, such that AA1 = BB1
(iii) Now, the clinometer is placed in such a way that its center touches the mark A1.
(iv) The clinometer is now tilted gradually until points P1, P2 and B, are in the same straight line.
(v) Now, the position of the thread of the clinometer will gives the angle 'θ' of slope of ground.
(vi) The sloping distance AB (l) is measured with a chain or tape.
So, The horizontal distance AC = l cos θ
2. Measuring the difference in level with a leveling instrument:

(i) Let A and B are two points located on sloping ground.
(ii) The difference of level between these points is determined with a leveling instrument. If it is
'h'.
(iii) The sloping length ‘l’ is measured with a chain or tape.
(iv) Now, the horizontal distance is given by
AC = d = √𝐴𝐵 2 − 𝐵𝐶 2 = √𝑙 2 − ℎ2
3. Applying Hypotenusal Allowance:

(i) In this method, a correction is applied in the field for every chain or tape length and at every
point where the slope changes.
(ii) The slope of the ground 'θ' is first found out by using clinometer or Abney level.
(iii) When the chain or tape is stretched on the slope, the arrow is not put at the end of the chain
or tape, but it is placed in advance of the end of an amount, which allows for the slope correction
(iv) In Figure below, AC' is the one chain length on slope.

(v) If AB = l, AC is given by AB sec θ = l sec θ.

(vi) Hypotensual allowance = C'C = AC - AC' = l sec θ - l
= l (sec θ - 1)
2.16. ERRORS AND MISTAKES IN ORDINARY CHAINING

Errors in chaining may be due to variation in temperature and pull. Defects in instruments may
also causes error in chaining
The errors may be classified as
(A) Compensating
(B) Cumulative and
(C) Personal Mistakes
(A) COMPENSATING ERRORS

Errors which may occur in both directions (i.e., both positive and negative) and which finally
tend to compensate are known as compensating errors. These errors do not have serious adverse
effect on the survey work. These may be due to the following
(i) Carelessness in holding chain and marking
(ii) Variation in pull
(ii) Horizontality and verticality of steps not being properly maintained during the stepping
operation.

(iv) Fractional parts of the chain not being uniform throughout its length.
(B) CUMULATIVE ERRORS:

Errors which may occur in the same direction and tends to accumulate are said to be cumulative.
The accuracy of survey work is seriously affected. These error, may be positive or negative.
 Positive Errors: When the measured length is more than the actual length, (ie., when the
chain is too short), the error is said to be positive error may occur due to the following
reasons.
(i) The length of chain or tape is too short die less than the standard length)
(ii) Improper ranging of a line.
(iii) Bad straightening of a chain
(iv) Slope correction not being applied, when measurements are taken on a sloping ground.
(v) Sag in chain due to irregular ground
(vi) The temperature during measurement is much lower than the standard temperature,
(vii) The applied pull is much lower than the standard pull
 2. Negative Errors: When the measured length is less than the actual length, (i.e., when the
chain is too long), the error is said be negative. Negative error may occur due to the
following reasons.
(i) The opening of the ring joints.
(ii) The temperature during measurement is much higher than the standard temperature.
(iii) The applied pull is much greater than the standard pull
(iv) Wearing of connecting rings.
(v) Elongation of links due to pulling.
(C) PERSONAL MISTAKES:

Errors occurring due to the carelessness of the chainman are called 'Personal mistakes'. Personal
mistakes always produce quite irregular effects. The following are the most common mistakes.
(i) Displacement of Arrows: If an arrow is disturbed from its position by pulling the chain, it
may be replaced wrongly.

(ii) Miscounting Chain Length: A full chain length may be omitted or added. This happens
when arrows are lost or wrongly counted.
(iii) Misreading: A confusion is likely between reading a 5 m tally and 15 m tally, since both are
similar in shape
(iv) Erroneous Booking: While making entries in the field book, the figures may be
interchanged due to carelessness for instance, 356 may be entered instead of 365.
(v) Some numbers may be called wrongly, for example, 602 may be called as "sixty-two without
the decimal point being mentioned
(vi) The numbers may be read from the wrong direction; for instance, a '6' may be read as a '9'.
2.17. PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN TO AVOID ERRORS & MISTAKES

The following precautions to be taken to avoid errors and mistakes
1. The zero end of the tape or chain should be properly held
2. The point where the arrow is fixed on the ground should be marked with a cross (X).
3. Ranging should be done accurately
4. Measurements should not be taken when the chain is in suspension.
5. Care should be taken, so that the chain is extended fully
6. In stepping method, horizontality and verticality should be properly maintained.
7. During chaining the number of arrows carried by the follower and leader should always tally
with the total number of arrows taken.
8. While noting the measurement from the chain the teeth of the tally should be verified with
respect to the correct end
9. While entering the measurements in the field book, the chainman should spell measurements
loudly and distinctly and the surveyor should repeat the same.
10. Before starting the chaining operation, the chain should be checked properly.
11. Standard pull should be applied while stretching the chain.
2.18. ERROR DUE TO SHRINKAGE OF MAP

Measured distance on map
Correct distance on map in term of original scale = SF
Measured area on map

Correct area on map in term of original scale = SF2

Measured volume on map

Correct Volume on map in term of original scale = SF3
ERROR DUE TO WRONG MEASURING SCALE

If a wrong measuring scale is used to measure the length or area of an already drawn line or area
on the plan, the measured length or area will not be correct.
Hence it is to be correct as follows
RF of wrong scale × measured length
Correct length = RF of correct scale
RF of wrong scale
Correct area = (RF of correct scale)2 × measured length
2.19. CORRECTION DUE TO INCORRECT LENGTH OF CHAIN

Due to continuous use of chain over ground, a chain may be elongated or shortened. If we take
measurements with these chains, the values obtained are wrong. This can be avoided by testing
and adjusting the chain. The chains are tested with the help of standard steel tape.
If the length of chain does not tally with the length of standard steel tape, then an attempt should
be made to rectify the error, by closing the joints of the rings, straightening the bent links etc. If
full adjustment is not possible, then the amount of elongation (known as too long or the amount
of shortening (known as too short') should be noted clearly, to apply the required corrections for
the measurements taken by using that incorrect chain or tape. Correction to the measurements
taken by using incorrect chain or tape is applied by using the following formulae.
1. Correction applied to incorrect length of chain or tape.
True length of line,
L′
(TL) = x measured length (ML)
𝐿
where
L = standard or correct length of the chain.
L' = Incorrect length of chain
= true length error ± error = L ± e
(e = error in length of chain or tape i.e., it is too long, or too short).
Use the positive sign when the chain or tape is too long, the negative sign when it is too short.

2. Correction to incorrect area.

L′
True area = ( )2 x measured area
𝐿
3. Correction to incorrect volume

L′
True volume = ( )3 x measured volume
𝐿
2.20. CORRECTION DUE TO INCORRECT LENGTH OF TAPE

The following are the various tape corrections to be applied for eliminating errors in taping
procedures:
(a) Correction for standardization
(b) Correction for slope
(c) Correction for pull
(d) Correction for temperature
(e) Correction for sag
(f) Correction for misalignment
(a) Correction for standardization:

This correction is to be applied when the true length of the tape is not equal to the designated or
the nominal length of the tape.
L
The correction in the measured length (L), Ca = (l '- l )
𝑙
Where, l = Designated length of the tape
l ' = Actual length of the tape
This correction is positive if l '>1, and is negative if l ' < 1
(b) Correction for Slope

Let, L = Sloped distance i.e., distance measured along the slope

D = Horizontal projection of the measured sloped length L
θ = Angle of slope
Then, The slope correction, Cs = √(L2 − h2 ) - L
h2
=- (This correction is always negative.)
2L
Where, h = Difference in elevations of the two ends of the tape
(c) Correction for Pull
When pull applied at the two ends of the tape, (P) differ from the standard pull/tension (P) at
which the tape was calibrated, then a correction is to be applied to the measured length.
L
The correction for pull is given by, CP = (P – Po)
AE
If P> Po then pull correction is positive, and if P< Po then pull correction is negative
Where, P = Pull applied for measurement
Po = Standard pull at which the tape was calibrated
L = Measured length
A = Cross sectional area of the tape
E = Modulus of elasticity of the tape material = 2 x 105 N/mm² for steel
(d) Correction for temperature
If measurement is taken at a temperature different from the standard temperature, then
temperature correction is necessary to be applied to the measured length.
Let, L = Measured length
To = Standard temperature at which the tape is calibrated
Tm = Mean temperature of the tape during measurement
α = Coefficient of thermal expansion of the tape material
The correction for temperature is given by, Ct = α (Tm – T0) L
If Tm >T0, correction is positive and if Tm < T0 then, correction is negative.
(e) Correction for sag

When tape is supported at the two ends, then due to its self-weight, the tape always sag
downwards. Thus, apparent length measured is large as compared to the actual length. Therefore,
this correction is negative.
w2 𝑙1 3
The sag correction is given by, Cg =
24P2
Where, w = Weight per unit length of the tape
P = Applied pull
l₁ = Length of the tape suspended between the supports
(f) Correction for misalignment
This error occurs when the survey line is not properly ranged out. The measured distance is
always greater than the actual distance and hence this correction is always negative. This
correction is calculated similar to the way adopted in correction for slope with the only
difference that 'h' here will now be the distance by which line is out of the straight alignment.
From the above figure, correction due to Misaligned tape measurement,
Cm = (L1 cos θ1 + L2 cos θ2) - (L1 + L2)
2.21. OBSTACLES IN CHAIN SURVEY AND THE METHODS TO

OVERCOME OBSTACLES
The objects, which create obstruction or disturbance in chaining of a survey line, are called as
obstacles. There are many obstacles which makes disturbance in the chaining or ranging. Pond,
Hill, river, valley, building etc. are some of the obstructions that may obstructs the chaining
process. Different methods are adopted to overcome these obstacles and to measure the distance
that crosses the obstructions.
The obstacles that occurs in chaining process are as follows:
1. Vision is free, but Chaining is obstructed
2. Vision is obstructed, but Chaining is free, and
3. Both vision and Chaining are obstructed.

2.21.1. VISION IS FREE, BUT CHAINING IS OBSTRUCTED

Such a problem arises when a pond or a river comes across the chain line. The problem may be
solved and chaining can be continued by adopting following ways.
CASE I:
It is possible to go around the obstruction, if a pond is an obstruction to the chaining process. So,
following methods are adopted to overcome this type of obstacles.
Method 1: Let AB is the chain line, two points P and Q are marked on the chain line, at either
side of the obstacle. Now two same perpendiculars PP1 and QQ1 are erected at points P and Q.
The distance P1Q1 is measured. Then PQ = P1Q1.
Method 2: A perpendicular PR is erected at point 'P', such that point 'Q' can be chained from 'R'.
The distance PR and QR are measured. Now, the distance PQ is given by
PQ = √QP1 2 − PP1 2
Method 3: With the help of cross-staff or optical square, plot a point R which makes 90° with
points P and Q. Now, measure PR and QR.

Then, from the triangle PQR,
PQ2 = 𝑄𝑅 2 + 𝑃𝑅 2
Therefore, the distance PQ = √𝑄𝑅 2 + 𝑃𝑅 2
CASE II:
It is not possible to go around the obstruction, if a river is an obstruction to the chaining process.
So, following methods are adopted to overcome this type of obstacles.
Method 1: If a small river comes across the chain Line. Let AB is the chain line and two points
P and Q are plotted on both banks of the river.

At point P, a perpendicular PP1 is erected and bisected at T. A perpendicular is set out at P1 and a
point Q1 is selected in such a way that Q, T and Q1 are in the same straight line.
From triangles PQT and TP1Q1, PQ = P1Q1
Measure P1Q1 with chain or tape, and the distance PQ is obtained indirectly.
Method 2: Consider the case when a large river interrupts the chain line. Let AB be the chain
line, points P, Q and R are selected on this line such that P and Q are on opposite banks of the
river.
The perpendiculars PP1 and RS are erected on the chain line in such a way that Q, P1 and Q1 are
on the same straight line. The line P1S is taken parallel to PR.
Now, from similar triangles PQP1 and S P1Q1
PQ SP1
=
PP1 SQ1
SP1
PQ = x PP1 (Since, SP1 = PR and PP1 = RS)
SQ1
𝑃𝑅
PQ = x RS (Since, SQ1 = RQ1 – RS)
RQ1 − 𝑅𝑆
The distances PR, RQ1, and RS are measured with chain or tape. Thus, the required distance PQ
can be calculated.

2.21.2. VISION IS OBSTRUCTED, BUT CHAINING IS FREE

This type of obstacles occurs, when a rising ground or a forest area obstructs the chain line. Here
the end stations are not intervisible. There are two cases where vision is obstructed though
chaining can be done.
CASE I:
Both the ends of the chain line may be visible from Intermediate points on the line. In this case,
reciprocal ranging is adopted and chaining is done by stepping method. This concept is detailed
in Ranging topic.
CASE II:
The end stations are not visible from intermediate points when a jungle comes across the chain
line. In such case, the obstacle might be crossed over by taking a random line as shown in figure.
Let AB be chain line, which is interrupted by a jungle as shown in figure.
Let the chain is extended from point A upto C. A point ‘D’ is chosen on the chain line and a
random line DH is plotted in a suitable direction. Points E, F and G are selected on the random
line, and perpendiculars are projected from them. The perpendicular at E joins the chain line at
E1. Therefore, the perpendiculars of F and G will also joins the chain line at F1 and G1. Now the
distances DE, DF, DG and EE1 are measured.
Now, from similar triangles DEE1 and DFF1
FF1 EE1
=> =
DF DE
EE1
FF1 = x DF ………………..(1)
DE
Similarly, from similar triangles PQQ1 and PSS1

GG1 EE1
=> =
DG DE

EE1
GG1 = x DG ………………..(2)
DE
From equations (1) and (2), the lengths FF1 and GG1 are calculated. The distances calculated are
set out on the perpendiculars from F and G. Points F1 and G1 should lie in the chain line AB,
which can be extended accordingly.
Therefore, Distance DG1= √DG 2 + GG1 2
2.21.3. BOTH CHAINING AND VISION ARE OBSTRUCTED

This type of obstacles occurs, when a building comes across the chain line. These obstacles can
be surpassed using the following methods.
Method 1: Let AB is the chain line on either sides of the building as shown in figure.
Two points P and Q are selected on it at one side of the building. Equal perpendiculars PP 1 and
QQ1 are erected through points P and Q. Join P1 Q1 and extend it until the building is crossed. On
this extended line select two points, S1 and T1. Again perpendiculars S1S and T1T are erected
from S1 and T1 such that,
PP1 = QQ1 = SS1 = TT1
Therefore, the points P, Q, S and T may appropriately lie on the same straight line AB. The
distance Q1S1 is measured, and it is equal to the obstructed distance QS.
Method 2: Let A and B are points on the chain line proposed on either side of the building
which is considered as an obstruction.

Select a point C on one side of the building, and draw a perpendicular CE such that it is equal to
AC. Join AE and extend it to G, such that the other side of obstacle may be visible from point G.
Erect a perpendicular GB to GA, and make GF equal to GE. Now, with F and B as centres, draw
two arcs of radius equal to CE. Let these arcs intersect with each other at point 'D', join DF and
FB. Measure the distance EF.
Therefore, CD = EF.
2.22. PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN WHILE ENTERING THE

MEASUREMENTS AND DETAILS IN THE FIELD BOOK
1. After taking measurements, they should be entered immediately in the field book
2. Each chain line should be recorded on a separate page
3. The lines should start at bottom and end at the top of the page and Over writing should be
avoided.
4. The entries in the field book should be recorded with a pencil and not with a pen.
5. Figures and hand writing should be neat and legible and Index sketch and notes should be
clear.
6. The field book is an important document, hence it should be preserved carefully
7. The surveyor should face the direction of chaining, so that the object on the left-hand and
right hand can be recorded without any confusion
8. Reference sketches to the stations should be entered in the field book, so that the stations can
be located, when required.
9. In case of measurements of a tie line, the beginning and end of the tie station to be clearly
noted.
10. The field book should contain the following.
(a) Title of the survey

(b) Location
(c) Date of survey
(d) Name of the surveyor and members of the party
(e) Index sketch of chain lines and stations.
2.23. PLOTTING A CHAIN SURVEY FIELD WORK

Drawing details to scale on a drawing paper from field measurements is known as plotting. The
following procedure can be adopted for plotting a chain survey field work.
1. A suitable scale is selected so that the entire area can be plotted with in the space available on
the map.
2. A 15 mm margin is provided on all sides, but on left hand side a 30 mm margin may be
provided for filing purpose.
3. A title block is prepared on the right-hand bottom corner and conventional symbols used in
the map should be shown on the right hand side over title block.
4. The north line is marked on the right hand top corner, as per the bearings observed in the
field and preferably it may be vertical.
5. First of all the base line is drawn on the sheet, so that the whole area along with all the
objects can be drawn within the space available in the map.
6. Now, the entire frame work is completed with all survey lines, check lines and tie lines. If the
error is not much, it can be suitably adjusted, but when it is large, a resurvey has to be done
in respect of those lines.
7. After the network of chain triangles are plotted and checked as above, the other details are
plotted by means of the offsets.
8. The main stations, subsidiary stations, chain lines, objects etc. should be shown as per the
standard symbols.
9. The heading may be written on top or bottom of the map and the scale of the map is drawn
below the heading.
10. Unnecessary lines, objects etc. should be erased.
11. The inking of the map should be started only after completion of the pencil work in all
respects.
12. Proper color conventions may be used while plotting. The inking should be begun from the
left-hand - side towards the right hand side, and from the top towards the bottom.
2.24. METHODS FOR CALCULATION OF AREAS

The following are the various methods generally adopted while calculating the area of land.

1. Graphical Methods:
A. From field notes
B. From plotted plans
I. Entire Area
(i) By dividing area into triangles
(ii) By dividing area into triangles

(iii) By dividing area into triangles

II. Boundary area
(i) Mid-ordinate Rule
(ii) Average ordinate Rule
(iii) Trapezoidal Rule
(iv) Simpson’s Rule
2. Instrumental Method: By using instruments such as planimeter, Digital planimeter et. Area
of the field can be calculated.
A. CALCULATION OF AREA FROM FIELD NOTES

This method is mostly useful, when the given area is small. No plotting is required, only rough
sketches will suffice, so that the area can be calculated very quickly by using simple formulae.
This is done in two steps.
Step 1: The area of field can be calculated directly from field notes, while carrying out cross-
staff survey. During surveying of field, the whole area is divided into some figures of geometry,
such as triangles, rectangles, squares and trapeziums, and then the area is calculated by using
with their geometrical relations. The following are few formulas for various geometrical shapes.
1. Area of triangle = √S(S − a)(S − b)(S − C)

𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
Where a, b and c are the sides of triangle S =
2
1
(or) Area of triangle = x b x h.
2
where b = base of triangle, and h = Height of triangle.

2. Area of a rectangle = a x b
where a and b are the sides.
3. Area of a square = L2, where ‘L’ is the side of the square.
1
4. Area of a trapezium = x d x (a + b)
2
Where a and b are the parallel sides,

and d is the perpendicular distance between them.
Step 2: If the boundary area of the field is irregular, then the area is calculated as follows:

O1, O2 are Ordinates and x1, x2 are Chainages
O1 + O2
Now, Area of shaded portion = x (x2 – x1)
2
Remaining areas for different geometrical shapes can be calculated by using their respective
formulas. ( given in Step 1)
Now, Total area of the field = area of geometrical figures + boundary areas
= area of ABCD + area of ABEFA.
B. CALCULATION OF AREA FROM PLOTTED PLAN

The area of the field from plotted plan can be calculated by using the following two ways
CASE I: CONSIDERING THE ENTIRE AREA

The entire area is divided into suitable geometrical shapes and the area calculated as following:
(i) By dividing the area into triangles:

The plotted area is divided into required number of triangles that covers the irregular boundary
line of the area as shown in the figure. Then, the bases and heights of the triangles are
determined in accordance to the scale to which the plan was drawn. Then, the areas of all the
triangles are calculated by using following formula
1
Area of triangle = x base x height.
2
Now, total area of the field is calculated by adding all areas of the triangles divided.
Total area = sum of the calculated areas of the divided triangles.
(ii) By dividing the area into squares:
In this method, similarly sized squares are drawn on a piece of tracing paper. The squares must
indicate an unit area, which may be of 1 cm2 or 1 m2.
The tracing paper is placed on the field plan and the total number of squares, which are inside
boundary area, are counted. Then, the total area of the field can be calculated by multiplying the
number of squares by unit area of each square.
(iii) By dividing the area into rectangles:
In this method, a series of parallel lines, which are divided into equal intervals, are drawn on a
tracing paper. Then, the tracing paper is placed on the plan, so that, the area is enclosed between
the two parallel lines at the top and bottom. Thus, the area is divided into a number of strips. The

curved ends are replaced by perpendicular lines, and no. of rectangles are formed. The sum of
the lengths of the rectangles is calculated to obtain total area..
Therefore, The total area of the plan = sum of the lengths of all rectangles x constant distance of
the strip.
CASE II: CONSIDERING THE BOUNDARY AREA

In this method, a large square or rectangle is formed with in the area in the plan as shown in
figure. Now, the ordinates are drawn at regular intervals from the sides of the square or
Rectangle to the irregular curved boundaries. The areas of the square or rectangle are calculated
usually by their geometrical formulas.
The area of the boundary is calculated according one of the following rules
(i) The mid-ordinate rule
(ii) The average ordinate rule
(iii) The trapezoidal rule
(iv) Simpson's rule
(i) The Mid-ordinate Rule:

The mid-ordinate rule states that “The area of the plot is equal to sum of all the mid-ordinates
taken at mid-points of each division, multiplied by the common distance (d) between the
ordinates”.
i.e., Area of the plot = Sum of mid-ordinates x common distance between ordinates

From the figure,

Let the base line AB is divided into no. of equal parts and ordinates are measured at the middle
of each division.
Let, 01, 02, 03. ... 0n = The ordinates which are divided at equal intervals
0m1, 0m2, 0m3. ... 0mn = The mid ordinates measured at mid points of each division.
The area between the base line and boundary line is given by
A = (0m1 + 0m2 + 0m3 + ... + 0mn) x d
Where,
d = Common distance between the ordinates
n = Refers to the number of equal parts or divisions the base line is divided
L = Length of the base line = d x n
(ii) The Average Ordinate Rule:

The average ordinate rule states that “The area of the plot is equal to division of sum of all the
ordinates in equal intervals and total number of ordinates. There after it is multiplied with the
length of the baseline”.
In Average Ordinate Rule method, the area of the plot is determined, by dividing the base line
into a number of equal divisions, ordinates are drawn at each point of division, and their lengths
are measured. The area between the base line and the boundary line is given by multiplying the
average length of the ordinates and the length of the base line gives.

From the figure, Let AB be the base line having a length of 'L' and
01, 02, 03… 0n = The ordinates which are divided at equal intervals
01 + 02 + 03 +⋯+ 0n
Area = xL
𝑛+1
Where, n = The total number of equal parts or divisions the base line is divided
And n + 1 = Total number of ordinates
L = length of the base line = d x n
(iii) The Trapezoidal Rule:

The trapezoidal rule states that “The area of the plot is equal to the sum of the first and the last
ordinates and twice the sum of intermediate ordinates is added. This total sum is multiplied by
half of the common distance”. This method is more accurate than Average ordinate and Mid-
ordinate rules.
In the case of the trapezoidal rule, the irregular boundaries between the ends of the ordinates are
considered straight. Thus, the area between the base line and the irregular boundary line are
assumed as trapezoids. This rule can be applied for any number of ordinates.

Let 01, 02, 03… 0n = The ordinates which are divided at equal intervals
d = Common distance between ordinates.
From the figure,
01 + 02
1st area = ( )xd
2
02 + 03
2nd area = ( )xd
2
02 + 03
3rd area = ( )xd
2
0n−1 + 0n
Last area = ( )xd
2
𝑑
Total area = 2 [01 + 0n + 2(02 + 03 + ……. + 0n-1]
Common distance
=
2
{[1st ordinate + last ordinate] + 2[sum of the ordinates]}

Thus, the trapezoidal rule may be stated as follows:
(iv) Simpson's Rule:

The Simpson's rule states that “The area of the plot is equal to the sum of the first and last
ordinates, four times of sum of even ordinates and twice of sum of the remaining odd ordinates
are added. This total sum is then multiplied by one - third of the common distance”.
In the case of Simpson’s rule, the boundaries between the ends of ordinates are assumed to form
an arc of a parabola. Hence Simpson’s rule also called the parabolic rule.

From the Figure,

Let 01, 02, 03 are three consecutive ordinates
d = common distance between the ordinates.
𝑑
Therefore, Total area = A = (01 + 402 + 203 +404 +…… +0n)
3
𝑑
= [01 + 0n] + 4(02 + 04 +………+ 0n-1) + 2(03+ 05 +……+0n-2)
3
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
A= {(1st ordinate + last ordinate)} + 4 (sum of even ordinates) + 2 (sum of
3
remaining odd. ordinates)
This rule is applicable only when number of divisions is even. Therefore, if the number of
divisions is odd then trapezoidal method is feasible.

PROBLEMS
PROBLEMS ON INCORRECT LENGTH OF CHAIN

1. The distance between two points, measured with a 20m chain, was recorded as 327 m. If
was afterwards found that the chain was 3 cm too long. What was the true distance
between the points? (March/April. 2009).
Solution:
Given data,
True length of the chain, L = 20 m
Error in chain, e = 3 cm = 0.03 m. too long
Incorrect length of the chain, L' = L + e = 20+ 0.03 20.03m
Measured length = ML = 327 m
𝐿′ 20.03
Therefore, True length of the line = x ML = x 327 = 327.49 m.
L 20
2. The length of the line measured with a 20 m chain was found to be 360 m. The true
length of the line was known to be 362.50 m. Find the error in the chain.
Solution:
Given data,
Measured length of the line = ML = 360 m
True length of the line = TL = 362.50 m
𝑇𝐿 362.50
∴ Incorrect length of chain, L' = xL= x 20 = 20.13 m
𝑀𝐿 360
Error in chain, e = L' – L = 20.13 - 20.00 = 0.13 m, too long.

3. The length of a line was found to be 600 m when measured with 20 m chain. If the chain
is 15 cm short, find out the correct length of line. (Oct. 2011)
Solution:
Given data,
Error in chain, e = 15 cm = 0.15 m, too short
∴ Incorrect length of the chain, L' = L - e = 20 - 0.15 = 19.85 m
Measured length, ML = 600 m
𝐿′ 19.85
Therefore, True length of the line = x ML = x 600 - 595.5 m.
L 20
4. The distance between two points, measured with a 30 m chain, was recorded as 300 m.
It was afterwards found that the chain was 5 cm too long. What was the true distance
between the points?
Solution:
Given Data,
Error in chain, e = 5 cm = 0.05m, too long
∴ Incorrect length of chain, L' = L + e = 30 + 0.05 = 30.05 m
Measured length = ML = 300 m
𝐿′ 30.05
True length of the line TL = x ML = x 300 = 300.50 m.
L 30
5. The distance between the two stations was measured with a 20 m chain and found to be
500 metres. The same was measured with a 30 m chain and found to be 495 metres. If
the 20 m chain was 5 cm too short, what was the error in the 30 metre chain?

Solution:
Given data,
1. When the distance measured with a 20 m chain L= 20 m.
Error, e = 5 cm = 0.05 m, too short,
Measured length, ML = 500m
L' = L - e = 20 - 0.05 = 19.95 m
𝐿′ 19.95
Therefore, True length = TL = = x ML = x 500 = 498.75 m
L 20
2. When the distance measured with a 30 m chain, L = 30 m,

Measured length, ML = 495 m, TL = 498.75 m
𝑇𝐿 498.75
Therefore, Incorrect length of chain = L' = xL= x 30
𝑀𝐿 495
= 30.22 m
Error in 30 m chain, e = L' - L = 30.22 - 30.0
= 0.22 m, too long.
6. A 30 chain, was tested before the commencement of the day's work and found 4 cm too
long. After chaining a distance of 1500 m, it was checked again and found 8 cm too
long. At the end of days work, after chaining 2500 m, the chain was found to be 12 cm.
too long. Find the true distance measured.
Solution:
For first 1500 m distance,
4+8
Average error = e1 = = 6 cm
2
= 0.06 m, too long.

Incorrect length of chain, L1' = 30 + 0.06 = 30.06 m
L1 ′ 30.06
True length = l1 = x ML1 = x1500 = 1503 m
L 30
For next 1000 m distance,

8+12
Average error = e2 = = 10 cm = 0.10 m, too long.
2
Incorrect length of chain. L2' = 30 + 0.10 = 30.10 m
L2 ′ 30.10
True length = l2 = x ML2 = x1000 = 1003.33 m
L 30
Total true length of line, l = l1 + l2 = 1503 + 1003.33

= 2506.33m.
7. The area of field was found to be 4000 Sq.m, when measured with a chain of 30m
length. If the length of the chain was 0.11 m too short, find the correct area of the field.
(Oct/Nov-2006)
Solution:
Given data,
Length of the chain, L = 30 m
Error in the chain, e = 0.11 m, too short.
Hence incorrect length of chain, L' = L - e = 30 - 0.11 = 29.89 m
And Measured area, MA = 400 sq.m
(L′ )2
True area = x Measured area
(L)2
29.89 x 29.89
= x 4000 = 3970.72 sq.m.
30 x 30
8. A line was measured with a steel tape which is exactly 30 m long at 18°C and found to
be 452.343 m. The temperature during measurement was 32°C. Find the true length of
line Take coefficient of expansion of tape per 0C = 0.0000117.
Solution:

Given data,
Length of tape, L = 30 m
Coefficient of thermal expansion, α = 0.0000117
Temperature at which the tape is standardized = T0 = 18°C
Mean temperature in the field during measurement, Tm = 32° C
Correction for temperature = Ct = α (Tm – T0) L
= 0.0000117 (32 - 18) x 30
= 0.004914 m
The length of the tape at 32° C = 30 + Ct
= L' = 30 + 0.004914
= 30.004914 m
Measured length of a line = 452.343 m
𝐿′
True Length of a line = x measured length
L
30.004914
= x 452.343 = 452.417m
30.00

PROBLEMS ON OBSTACLES IN CHAIN SURVEYING

9. A chain line AB is obstructed by a big pond and the points A and Bare on either side of
pond. At 'A' a line CAD was ranged out. The distance AD = 320 m, AC = 280 m, DB =
530 m and CB = 485 m, are measured. Find the distance AB. (April 2017, 2015)
Solution:
Given data,
AD = 320 m,
AC = 280 m,
BC = 485 m,
BD = 530 m.
In the figure, from Δ BCD
(BC2 +CD2 −BD2 )

cos θ =
2 x BC x CD
(4852 +6002 −5302 )

= = 0.54
2 x 485 x 600
Now, from Δ BCA,
(BC2 +CD2 −BD2 )

cos θ =
2 x BC x CD
 AB = √BC2 + AC2 − 2 x AC x BC cos θ

= √4852 + 2802 − 2 x 280 x 485 x 0.54
∴ AB = 408.60 m
10. There is a tower 'T'. on the other bank. A point 'C' is selected opposite to the tower and
'CB' is set out right angles to the line 'CT' at 'C' with a optical square. Line BC is
produced to 'A' and the angles CBT and CAT measured were 300 and 45°. If the length
of the line AB = 210m, find the width of the river. (Oct. 1992)
Solution:
from Fig. ∠CAT = 45° and ∠CBT = 30°, AB = 210 m
From Δ ACT:
𝐶𝑇
tan45º =
𝐴𝐶
𝐶𝑇
 AC = ……………………..(1)
tan 45º
Now, from Δ BCT,

𝐶𝑇
tan30º =
𝐵𝐶
𝐶𝑇
 BC = ……………………..(2)
𝑡𝑎𝑛30°

By adding of the above equations (1) and (2)

1 1
AC + BC = CT [ + ]
tan 45º tan 30º
But AC + BC = AB = 210 m
210 = CT x (2.732)
210
CT = = 76.867 m
2.732
The width of the river 76.867 m
11. A Survey line ABDE intersects a building between B and D. To overcome the obstacle a
perpendicular BC 90 m long, is set out at B. From C, two lines CD and CE are set out at
angles 45° and 50° respectively with CB. Find the lengths CD and CE such that points D
and E fall on the prolongation of line AB. Also find the obstructed distance BD.
(April. 2013)
Solution:
Given data,
BC = 90 m,
∠BCD - 45°, ∠BCE = 60°

From Δ BCD,
𝐵𝐶
cos 45° =
𝐶𝐷

𝐵𝐶 90
CD = = = 127.28m
𝑐𝑜𝑠 45° 𝑐𝑜𝑠 45°
𝐵𝐷
and tan 45º =
𝐵𝐶
BD = BC tan 45º = 90 x tan 45º = 90m

Similarly, from Δ BCE.
𝐵𝐶
cos 60° =
𝐶𝐸
𝐵𝐶 90
CE = = = 180m.
𝑐𝑜𝑠 60° 𝑐𝑜𝑠 60°
12. A survey line AB is obstructed by a high building. To continue the line AB beyond the
building a perpendicular 60 m long is set out at point B. Two lines CD and CE are
ranged from point C making angle of 45 degrees and 60 degrees respectively with BC.
A, B, D and E form a straight line ABDE. Work out the length BD which is obstructed.
(Sept./Oct. 2001)
Solution:
Given data,
BC = 60 m
∠BCD 45⁰

∠BCE = 60⁰
In the Δ BCD
𝐵𝐶
tan45º =
𝐵𝐷
𝐵𝐶
1=
𝐵𝐷
∴ BC = BD = 60 m
For finding the points D and E on the field, It is necessary to find lengths CD and CE
𝐵𝐶
Cos 45º =
𝐶𝐷
𝐵𝐶
CD =
𝐶𝑂𝑆 45𝑂
CD = 60√2
CD = 84.85 m
𝐵𝐶
Cos 60º =
𝐶𝐸
𝐵𝐶
CE =
𝐶𝑂𝑆 60𝑂
60
CE = = 120 m
0.5
Therefore, the obstructed length, BD = 60 m.
13. A survey line ABC crosses a river at right angles and cuts its banks at B and C. To
determine the width BC, a line BD, 50 m long, was set out roughly parallel to the near
bank. Points C and D were joined and line CD extended to another point E. Point D was
joined to the mid-point O of the line BE and the line DO extended to point F such that
DO = OF. Points E and F were joined and the line EF extended to cut the survey line
ABC at G. If FG = 30 m and GB = 70 m, determine the width of BC. (Oct./Nov. 2017)
Solution:

Given data,
BD = 50 m, FG = 30 m, GB = 70 m
From the figure, in parallelogram BDEF,
BO = OE and DO = OF
Hence, FE = BD = 50 m
∴ GE = GF + FE
= 30 + 50 = 80 m
From similar triangles CGE and CBD
𝐵𝐶 𝐶𝐺
=
𝐵𝐷 𝐺𝐸
𝐵𝐶 𝐵𝐶+𝐵𝐺
=
50 80
50 x 𝐵𝐶+50 x 3500
BC =
80
80 BC - 50 BC = 3500
30 BC = 3500
BC = 116.67 m
∴ Width of BC = 116.67 m

PROBLEMS ON CALCULATION OF AREA FROM PLOTTED PLANS

14. (a) The distance between two points measured along a slope is 126 m. Find the
horizontal distance between them if the slope is I in 4. (April. 2006)
(b) Plot the following cross-staff survey of a field and calculate its area. (April. 2013,
2006)
Solution (a):
Given data:
Sloping length = 126 m.
Slope 1 in 4, means 1 vertical 4 horizontal from Fig.
1 1
tan θ = => θ = tan-1 => θ = 14.04
4 4
𝐴𝐵
cos θ = => AB = AC cos θ
𝐴𝐶
Horizontal distance AB = 126 cos 14.04 = 122.24 m
Solution (b):

1
(i) Area of triangle AQB = 2 x 30 x 35 = 525 Sq. m.
5
(ii) Area of Trapezium BQSC = 20 2
1
(iii) Area of triangle DSC = 2 x 20 x 20 = 200 Sq. m.
1
(iv) Area of Triangle DER = 2 x 30 x 55 = 825 Sq m.
55+30
(v) Area of Trapezium ERFP = 20 ( ) = 850 Sq m.
2
(iv) Area of Triangle FPA = 2 x 20 x 30 = 300 Sq. m.

Total area = 525 + 550 + 200 + 825 + 850 + 300 = 3250 Sq. m.
15. Following figure shown a page in a field book of cross staff survey. Calculate the area
enlarged between the stations. (April. 2012)

Solution:
1
1. Area of triangle AHD = 2 x 30 x 22.5 = 337.5 m2
22.50+33.80
2. Area of Trapezium HDFJ = (88.0 - 30.0) x ( ) = 1632.70 m2
2
1
3. Area of Triangle BFJ = 2 x (120 - 88.0) x 33.80 = 540.80m2
1
4. Area of Triangle BIE = 2 x (120 - 63.50) x 26.50 = 748.63m2
26.5+38.6
5. Area of Trapezium IECG = (63.50 – 16.50) x ( ) = 1529.85 m2
2
1
6. Area of Triangle ABC = 2 x 16.50 x 38.60 = 318.45 m2
Total area = 337.50 + 1632.70 + 540.80 + 748.63 + 1529.85 + 318.45 = 5107.93 m2.
16. The following perpendicular offsets were taken at 30 m. intervals from a base line to an
irregular boundary line:
5.9 m, 12.5 m, 16.5 m, 15.8 m, 18.4 m, 20.9 m, 24.2 m, 21.8 m and 19.4 m. calculate the area
in square meters enclosed between the baseline, the irregular boundary line and the first
and last offsets by.
(i) Average ordinate rule
(ii) Trapezoidal rule, and
(iii) Simpson's rule (April. 2015)

Solution:
Given data,
d = 30 meters
01 = 5.9 m, 02 = 12.5 m, 03 = 16.5 m, 04 = 15.8 m, 05 = 18.4 m, 06 = 20,9m 07 = 24.2 m,
08 = 21.8 m, 09 = 19.4 m
(i) Average-ordinate rule:

𝑂1 +𝑂2 +𝑂3 +⋯+𝑂𝑛
А=( )XL
𝑛+1
n = no. of divisions = 8 no's

n+1 = no of ordinates 8+1= 9 no's
L = Length of base line = n x d = 8x30 = 240
Substituting in equation
(5.9+12.5+16.5+ 15.8+ 18.4+ 20.9+ 24.2 + 21.8+ 19.4)
A= x 240
9
155.4
= x 240 = 4143.999 ~ 4144 m2
9
(ii) Trapezoidal rule:

𝑑
A = 2 {𝑂1 + 𝑂2 + 𝑂3 + ⋯ + 𝑂𝑛 + 𝑂𝑛−1 }
Substituting,
30
A= 2
{(5.9+19.4) + 2(12.5+16.5 + 15.8+18.4 +20.9+24.2+21.8)}
30
= {(25.3) + 2(130. 1)} = 4282.50 m²
2
(iii) Simpson's rule:

A = (01 + 0n) + 4(02+04 +06 +…….+ 0n-1)+2(03 +05 +07 +.. +0n-2)1
30
= {(5.9 +19.4) + 4(12.5+ 15.8+20.9+21.8)} + 2(16.5+18.4 + 24.2)
2
30
= (25.3) + (284) + (118.2)
3
30
= (427.5) = 4275 m2.
3

17. The following offsets were taken from a survey line to a curved boundary line,
Distance (m) 0 5 10 15 20 30 40 60 80
Offset (m) 2.50 3.80 4.60 5.20 6.10 4.70 5.80 3.90 2.20
Find the area between the survey line, the curved boundary line and the first and last
offsets by
(a) Trapezoidal rule
(b) Simpson's rule (April. 2006,2016)
Solution:
On observation from the given question and fig the common distance is not the same throughout.
The common distance for offsets 1 to 5 is 5 m, 5 to 7 is 10m, 7 to 9 is 20 m Hence the formulae
shall be applied three times and total area is found out.
(a) Trapezoidal Rule:

d1 = 5 m, d2 = 10 m, d3 = 20 m
𝑑1
A1 = {(01 +05) + 2 (02 +03 +04))}
2
5
= 2 {(2.50 +6.10) + 2(3.80 +4.60+5.20)} = 89.5 Sq. m
𝑑2 10
A2 = {(05 + 07) + 2 (06)} = ((6.10+5.80) + 2(4.70)} = 106.5 Sq. m
2 2
𝑑3 20
A3 = 2
{(07 + 09) + 2 (08)} = 2
{(5.80+ 2.20) + 2(3.90)} = 158 Sq. m

Therefore, Total area = A = A1 + A2 + A3

= 89.5 + 106.5 + 158 = 354 Sq. m.
(b) Simpson's Rule:

𝑑1
A1 = {(01 +05) + 4 (02 +04) + 2(03)}
3
5
= 3(2.50 + 6.10) + 4 (3.80 + 5.20) + 2(4.60)
= 89.67 Sq. m.
𝑑2
A2 = {(05 + 07) + 4 (06)}
3
10
= {(6.10+5.80) + 4(4.70)
3
=102.33 Sq. m.
𝑑3
A3 = {(07 + 09) + 2 (08)}
3
20
= {(5.80+2.20) +4(3.90))
3
= 157.33 Sq. m.
Total area = A = A1 + A2 + A3
= 89.67 + 102.33 +157.33
= 349.33 Sq. m.
18. The following offsets were taken from a survey line to a hedge.
Distance (m) 0 5 10 15 20 30 40 55 70
Offset (m) 3.29 4.05 6.23 5.75 4.76 5.26 4.32 3.92 2.91
Find the area between the survey line hedge by using Trapezoidal & Simpson's rule.
(March/April 2007)
Solution:
From the given data, the intervals between the offsets is irregular. The line may be divided into
three sections each having a uniform interval.
The areas of different sections may be calculated separately and then added to obtain the total
area.

(a) By Trapezoidal rule:

Let, A = The required total area
A1 = the area of the first section
A2 = the area of the second section
A3 = the area of the third section
Let d1, d2 and d3 be the intervals
d1 = 5 m, d2 = 10 m, d3 = 15 m
3.29+4.76
Now, A1 = 5 [ + 4.05 + 6.23 + 5.75] = 100.30 sq. m.
2
4.76+4.32
A2 = 10 [ + 5.26] = 98.00 sq. m.
2
4.32+2.92
A3 = 15 [ + 3.92] = 113.10 sq. m.
2
Total area, A = A1 + A2 + A3
= 100.30 + 98.00 + 113.10 = 311.40 sq. m.
(b) By Simpson's rule:

𝑑1
A₁ = {01 + 4 (02 + 04) + 2(03) + 05}
3
5
= 3 [3.294 + (4.05 + 5.75) + 2 x 6.23 + 4.76]
= 99.52 sq. m.
𝑑2
A2 = {05 + 4 (06) + 07}
3
10
= [4.76 + 4 x (5.26) + 4.32]
3
=100.40 sq. m.
𝑑3
A3 = {07 + 4 (08) + 09}
3
15
= [4.32 + 4 (3.92) + 2.91]
3
= 114.55 sq. m.
∴ A = A₁ + A₂ + A3 = 99.52 + 100.40 + 114.55 = 314.47 sq. m.

PROBLEMS ON INCORRECT LENGTH OF TAPE





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MODULE II – CHAIN SURVEYING & COMPUTATION OF AREAS

MODULE II – CHAIN SURVEYING & COMPUTATION OF AREAS

2.2. SUITABILITY OF CHAIN SURVEYING

2.3. PURPOSE OF CHAIN SURVEYING

PREPARED BY: SOMA JAGADISH SAI 1

2. To prepare the plan of the site.

2.4. PRINCIPLE OF CHAIN SURVEYING

2.5. IDEAL, WELL-CONDITIONED AND ILL - CONDITIONED

PREPARED BY: SOMA JAGADISH SAI 2

2.6. TERMS USED IN CHAIN SURVEYING

PREPARED BY: SOMA JAGADISH SAI 3

2.7. INSTRUMENTS USED FOR CHAIN SURVEYING

PREPARED BY: SOMA JAGADISH SAI 4

F. Cross - staff or Optical square

PREPARED BY: SOMA JAGADISH SAI 5

PREPARED BY: SOMA JAGADISH SAI 6

PREPARED BY: SOMA JAGADISH SAI 7

PREPARED BY: SOMA JAGADISH SAI 8

PREPARED BY: SOMA JAGADISH SAI 9

PREPARED BY: SOMA JAGADISH SAI 10

(ii) Setting a right angle in the ratio 3:4:5.

2.9. RANGING OF SURVEY LINES

(a) DIRECT RANGING:

PREPARED BY: SOMA JAGADISH SAI 11

The ranging with eye is carried out by following steps

Code of Signals for Ranging:

S.no Signal by the Surveyor Action by the Assistant

2. Ranging by Line Ranger:

PREPARED BY: SOMA JAGADISH SAI 12

(b) INDIRECT OR RECIPROCAL RANGING

PREPARED BY: SOMA JAGADISH SAI 13

2.10. CHAINING A LINE

PREPARED BY: SOMA JAGADISH SAI 14

2.11. DUTIES OF A LEADER

2.12. DUTIES OF A FOLLOWER:

2.13. UNFOLDING AND FOLDING A CHAIN

(b) Folding a chain:

PREPARED BY: SOMA JAGADISH SAI 15

2.14. METHOD OF CHAINING ON LEVEL GROUND

PREPARED BY: SOMA JAGADISH SAI 16

2.15. METHOD OF CHAINING ON UNEVEN (OR) SLOPING GROUND

(a) Direct Method or Stepping Method:

PREPARED BY: SOMA JAGADISH SAI 17

(b) Indirect method:

1. Measuring the Angle of Slope with Clinometer:

PREPARED BY: SOMA JAGADISH SAI 18

2. Measuring the difference in level with a leveling instrument:

3. Applying Hypotenusal Allowance:

PREPARED BY: SOMA JAGADISH SAI 19

(v) If AB = l, AC is given by AB sec θ = l sec θ.

2.16. ERRORS AND MISTAKES IN ORDINARY CHAINING

(A) COMPENSATING ERRORS

PREPARED BY: SOMA JAGADISH SAI 20

(B) CUMULATIVE ERRORS:

(C) PERSONAL MISTAKES:

PREPARED BY: SOMA JAGADISH SAI 21

2.17. PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN TO AVOID ERRORS & MISTAKES

2.18. ERROR DUE TO SHRINKAGE OF MAP

Measured area on map

PREPARED BY: SOMA JAGADISH SAI 22

Measured volume on map

ERROR DUE TO WRONG MEASURING SCALE