ELEMENTS OF HIGHWAY AND THEIR STUDY

Project Proposal
AIM :
To study the different elements used in construction of highways and understand
their roles/uses.

Course Outcome Addressed:

1. Understand the different types of elements present in a highway.
2. Understand the advantages and disadvantages of the elements.
3. Understand the regulations involved in construction of a highway.

Proposed Methodology:
1. Arrange means of finding information.
2. Search for different types of elements that are part of a highway.
3. Study the elements in details for listing the roles they play.
4. Study the methods involved for maintenance.

Action Plan:
Sr Topic Start Date End Date Team Members involved
No.
1 Search for elements of
highway
2 Study Separators
3 Study Kerb
4 Study Road Margins
5 Study Road Formations
6 Study Road Maintenance
7 Study certain regulations
involved in road
constructions
8 Collate the information into
a micro-project

Resources Required:
Sr No. Name of Resource Specifications Quantity Remarks
1 Internet Research Gather N/A
 information
2 Reference Books For theoretical 3
information
Introduction:
A highway is a type of road with access available to public for commuting between
major towns or cities. Construction of a highway requires various steps and parts
such as planning and designing of different elements of the road. After construction
of highways it requires maintenance of these roads to keep them safe and ensure
effective transport of people and goods. This branch of engineering involved in
construction and maintenance of highways is called Highway engineering.

Elements of Highway:
The different elements of highway that will be studied in the project are as follows:
1. Separators
2. Kerb
3. Margin
4. Road formation

Other elements that will be studied include Maintenance of highway and regulations
involved in construction of the road.

Separators:

In civil engineering (more specifically highway engineering), grade separation is a

method of aligning a junction of two or more surface transport axes at different
heights (grades) so that they will not disrupt the traffic flow on other transit routes
when they cross each other. The composition of such transport axes does not have
to be uniform; it can consist of a mixture of roads, footpaths, railways, canals, or
airport runways. Bridges (or overpasses, also called flyovers), tunnels (or
underpasses), or a combination of both can be built at a junction to achieve the
needed grade separation.
Advantages:

Separators have various advantages when used in a highway.

a) Roads with grade separation generally allow traffic to move freely with fewer
interruptions
b) It allows the traffic to move at higher overall speeds. This is why speed limits are
typically higher for grade-separated roads.
c) Along with reducing the complexity of traffic movements, separators reduce the
risk of accidents as well.

Disadvantages:

Along with having advantages as many different things, separators also come with
several disadvantages.

a) Grade-separated road junctions are typically spaceintensive, complicated, and

costly, due to the need for large physical structures such as tunnels, ramps, and
bridges.
b) Their height can b obtrusive, and this, combined with the large traffic volumes
that grade-separated roads attract, tend to make them unpopular to nearby
landowners and residents. For these reason, proposals for new grade-separated
roads can receive significant public opposition.
c) Rail-over-rail grade separations take up less space than road grade separations:
because shoulders are not needed, there are generally fewer branches and side road
connections to accommodate (because a partial grade separation will accomplish
more improvement than for a road), and because at-grade railway connections often
take up significant space on their own. However, they require significant engineering
effort, and are very expensive and timeconsuming to construct.
d) Grade-separated pedestrian and cycling routes often require modest space since
they do not typically intersect with the facility (such as a highway) that they cross.
However, grade-separated pedestrian crossings with steps introduce accessibility
problems. Some crossings have lifts, but these can be time-consuming to use.
e) Grade-separated roads that permit for higher speed limits can actually reduce
safety due to ‘weaving’ as well as a perceived sense of safety.
Kerb:

What is Kerb?
Kerb is the component of a city road. A kerb also termed as a curb is a vertical or
sloping member provided along the edge of a pavement or Shoulder to give strength
and protect the edge of the pavement. The meaning of kerb or curb is a barrier or
boundary. But in highway engineering, it indicates the boundary between the
pavement and shoulder or sometimes island or footpath or car parking space.

Kerb is generally constructed of cut stone or cement concrete slabs. The kerb and
the road surface near the edge together from a side-channel which carries rainwater
that comes from the road surface.

Types of Kerb:

a) Low or Mountable Kerb

This is also known as class I kerb. Its principal role is to control traffic to stay
within its own lane. As the height of this form of kerb is low, it facilitates the
driver to enter the area of the shoulder with less difficulty.

This type of kerb is also beneficial for the longitude drainage system. The height
of this type of kerb is 70mm to 80mm.
b) Low-Speed Barrier or Urban Parking Kerb
This is also known as Class II kerb. It prevents encroachment of slow speed or
parking vehicles to the footpath. However, with severe emergency vehicles, they
can climb and be parked on footpath or shoulder.

The height of this type of kerb is 150mm to 200mm with a batter of 25 mm to

avoid the scraping of tyres.

c) High-Speed Barrier Kerb

This is also known as Class III kerb. It is usually used in critical places such as
bridges or mountain roads, This type of kerb is 230mm to 450mm or more in
height.

d) Symmetrical Kerb
Submerged kerbs are provided in rural roads at pavement edges between edge
and shoulders. It is provided in the form of standing bricks or concrete blocks.

It offers lateral stability to the granular base course and flexible pavements.
What are the uses of road kerb?

Curb or kerb is provided for the following purposes:

1. It prevents the vehicle from parking beside the road.

2. It acts as a boundary between pavement and footpath.
3. Kerb provides structural support for the pavement.
4. It helps to overcome slipping risk of the vehicles.
5. It helps to reduce the number of accident.
6. It is also used for drainage purpose.
Road Margin:

What are road margins?

The portion of the road beyond the carriageway and on the roadway can be
generally called road margin. Different elements of road margin are shoulder,
parking lanes, bus bays, cycle track, footpath and guard rails.

a) Shoulder of the road

A shoulder is an emergency stopping lane by th verge of a road or motorway, on
the right side in countries which drive on the right, and on the left side in
countries which drive on the left. Should of the road is provided along with road
edge.

The main objectives of the shoulder of the road are:

i. The accommodation of stopped vehicles.
ii. It serves as an emergency lane for vehicles.
iii. Shoulder of the road provide lateral support for the base and surface courses

A shoulder of the road should be strong enough to bear the weight of fully
loaded truck even during wet conditions. The shoulder width should be adequate for
giving working space around a stopped vehicle. It is desirable to have a width of
4.6m for the shoulders. Minimum width of 2.5m is recommended for 2 lane rural
highway in India.

b) Parking Lanes
Parking lanes are provided in urban lanes for side parking. Parallel parking is
preferred because it is safe for side parking. Parking lanes should have minimum of
3m width in the case of parallel parking.
c) Bus bay
A bus bar, otherwise called bus turnout, bus pullout, off-line bus stop is a
designated spot on the side of a road where buses may pu; out of the flow of traffic
to pick up and drop off passengers. It is often indented into the sidewalk or other
pedestrian area. They are provided so that they don’t obstruct the movement of
vehicles in the carriageway. But at the cost of the time necessary to merge back into
flowing traffic.

d) Cycle Track
A Cycle track, otherwise called separated bike lane or protected bike lane is an
exclusive bikeway that has elements of a separated path and on-road bike lane. They
are provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle traffic is high. Minimum width
of 2m is required.

e) Footpath

A footpath is a type of thoroughfare that is intended for use only by pedestrians and
not other forms of traffic such as motorized vehicles, cycles, and horses. They can be
found in a wide variety of places, from the center of cities, to farmland, to mountain
ridges. Urban footpaths are usually paved, may have steps, and can be called alleys,
lanes, steps, etc. Footpaths are for pedestrians, especially in urban areas. Minimum
width should be 1.5m.

f) Guard Rails
They are provided at the shoulder of the road. Various designs of guard rails are
there. Guard rails painted in alternate black and white are usually used. They also
give better visibility of curves at night.
Road Formations:
A road is a wide way leading from one place to another, typically one with a usually
prepared surface which vehicles and bikes can use. Roads consist of one or two
roadways (British English: carriageways), each with one or more lanes and any
associated sidewalks (British English: pavement) and road verges. A bike path (British
English: cycle path) – a road for use by bicycles – may or may not run in parallel with
other roads.
Other names for road include: parkway, avenue, freeway, motorway or expressway,
tollway, interstate, highway, thoroughfare; or primary, secondary and tertiary local
road.

Historically many roads were simply recognizable routes without any formal
construction or maintenance.

The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) defines a

road as “a line of communication (travelled way) using a stabilized base other than
rails or air strips open to public traffic, primarily for the use of road motor vehicles
running on their own wheels”, which includes “bridges, tunnels, supporting
structures, junctions, crossings, interchanges, and toll roads, but not cycle paths”.

The Eurostat, ITF and UNECE Glossary for Transport Statistics Illustrated defines a
road as a “Line of communication (traveled way) open to public traffic, primarily for
the use of road motor vehicles, using a stabilized base other than rails or air strips.
Included are paved roads and other roads with a stabilized base, e.g. gravel roads.
Roads also cover streets, bridges, tunnels, supporting structures, junctions, crossings
and interchanges. Toll roads are also included. Excluded are dedicated cycle lanes.”
a) Design

Road design is part of highway engineering. Structural road design is designing a

road for the environment in order to extend its longevity and reduce maintenance.
The Shell pavement design method is used in many countries for the design of new
asphalt roadsides.

b) Construction

In transport engineering, subgrade is the native material underneath a

constructed road.
Road construction requires the creation of an engineered continuous right-of-
way or roadbed, overcoming geographic obstacles and having grades low
enough to permit vehicle or foot travel, and may be required to meet standards
set by law or official guidelines.

The process is often begun with removal of earth and rock by digging or blasting,
construction of embankments, bridges and tunnels, and removal of vegetation
(this may involve deforestation) ad followed by laying of pavement material. A
variety of road building equipment is employed in road building. After design,
approval, planning, legal and environmental considerations have been addresses
alignment of the road is set out by a surveyor. The radii and gradient are
designed and staked out to best suit the natural ground levels and minimise the
amount of cut and fill. Great care is taken to preserve reference and
benchmarks.

Roads are designed and built for primary use by vehicular and pedestrian traffic.
Storm drainage and environmental considerations are a major concern. Erosion
and sediment controls are constructed to prevent detrimental effects. Drainage
lines are laid with sealed joints in the road easement with runoff coefficients and
characteristics adequate for the land zoning and storm water system. Drainage
systems must be capable of carrying the ultimate design flow from the upstream
catchment with approval for the outfall from the appropriate authority to a
watercourse, creek, river or the sea for drainage discharge.

A borrow pit (source for obtaining fill, gravel, and rock) and a water source
should be located near or in reasonable distance to the road construction site.
Approval from local authorities may be required to draw water or for working
(crushing and screening) of materials for construction needs. The topsoil and
vegetation is removed from the borrow pit and stockpiled for subsequent
rehabilitation of the extraction area. Side slopes in the excavation area not
steeper than one vertical to two horizontal for safety reasons.

Old road surfaces, fences, and buildings may need to be removed before
construction can begin. Trees in the road construction area may be marked for
retention. These protected trees should not have the topsoil within the area of
the tree’s drip line removed and the area should be kept clear of construction
material and equipment. Compensation or replacement may be required if a
protected tree is damaged. Much of the vegetation may be mulched and put
aside for use during reinstatement. The topsoil is usually stripped and stockpiled
nearby for rehabilitation of newly constructed embankments along the road.
Stumps and roots are removed and holes filled as required before the earthwork
begins. Final rehabilitation after road construction is completed will include
seeding, planting, watering and other activities to reinstate the area to be
consistent with the untouched surrounding areas.

Processes during earthwork include excavation, removal of material to spoil,

filling, compacting, construction and trimming. If rock or other unsuitable
material is discovered it is removed, moisture content is managed and replaced
with standard fill compacted to meet the design requirements (generally 90–
95% relative compaction). Blasting is not frequently used to excavate the
roadbed as the intact rock structure forms an ideal road base. When a
depression must be filled to come up to the road grade the native bed is
compacted after the topsoil has been removed. The fill is made by the
“compacted layer method” where a layer of fill is spread then compacted to
specifications, under saturated conditions. The process is repeated until the
desired grade is reached.

General fill material should be free of organics, meet minimum California

bearing ratio (CBR) results and have a low plasticity index. The lower fill
generally comprises sand or a sand-rich mixture with fine gravel, which acts as
an inhibitor to the growth of plants or other vegetable matter. The compacted
fill also serves as lower-stratum drainage. Select second fill (sieved) should be
composed of gravel, decomposed rock or broken rock below a specified particle
size and be free of large lumps of clay. Sand clay fill may also be used. The
 roadbed must be “proof rolled” after each layer of fill is compacted. If a roller
passes over an area without creating visible deformation or spring the section is
deemed to comply.

Geo-synthetics such as Geo-textiles, Geo-grids and Geo-cells are frequently used

in the various pavement layers to improve road quality. These materials and
methods are used in low-traffic private roadways as well as public roads and
highways.Geo-synthetics perform four main functions in roads: separation,
reinforcement, filtration, and drainage; which increase the pavement
performance, reduce construction costs and decrease maintenance.

The completed roadway is finished by paving or left with a gravel or other

natural surface. The type of road surface is dependent on economic factors and
expected usage. Safety improvements such as traffic signs, crash barriers, raised
pavement markers and other forms of road surface marking are installed.

According to a May 2009 report by the American Association of State Highway

and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and TRIP – a national transportation
research organization – driving on rough roads costs the average American
motorist approximately $400 a year in extra vehicle operating costs. Drivers
living in urban areas with populations more than 250,000 are paying upwards of
$750 more annually because of accelerated vehicle deterioration, increased
maintenance, additional fuel consumption, and tire wear caused by poor road
conditions. When a single carriageway road is converted into dual carriageway
by building a second separate carriageway alongside the first, it is usually
referred to as duplication, twinning or doubling. The original carriageway is
changed from two-way to become oneway, while the new carriageway is one-
way in the opposite direction. In the same way as converting railway lines from
single track to double track, the new carriageway is not always constructed
directly alongside the existing carriageway.

c) Maintenance
Like all structures, roads deteriorate over
time. Deterioration is primarily due to
accumulated damage from vehicles, however
environmental effects such as frost heaves,
thermal cracking and oxidation often
contribute. According to a series of
experiments carried out in the late 1950s,
called the AASHO Road Test, it was
empirically determined that the effective
damage done to the road is roughly
proportional to the Fourth power of axle
eight. A typical tractortrailer weighing 80,000 pounds (36.287 t) with 8,000 pounds
3.629 t) on the steer axle and 36,000 pounds (16.329 t) on both of the tandem axle
groups is
expected to do 7,800 times more damage than a passenger vehicle with 2,000
pounds (0.907 t) on each axle. Potholes on roads are caused by rain damage and
vehicle braking or related construction works. Pavements are designed for an
expected service life or design life. In some parts of the United Kingdom the standard
design life is 40 years for new bitumen and concrete pavement. Maintenance is
considered in the whole life cost of the road with service at 10, 20 and 30 year
milestones. Roads can be and are designed for a variety of lives (8-, 15-, 30-, and 60-
year designs). When pavement lasts longer than its intended life, it may have been
overbuilt, and the original costs may have been too high. When a pavement fails
before its intended design life, the owner may have excessive repair and
rehabilitation costs. Some asphalt pavements are designed as perpetual pavements
with an expected structural life in excess of 50 years.
Right of way
A right-of-way (ROW) is a right to make a way over a piece of land, usually to and
from another piece of land. A right of way is a type of easement granted or reserved
over the land for transportation purposes, such as a highway, public footpath, rail
transport, canal, as well as electrical transmission lines, oil and gas pipelines. A right-
of-way can be used to build a bike trail. A right-of-way is reserved for the purposes
of maintenance or expansion of existing services with the right-of-way. In the case of
an easement, it may revert to its original owners if the facility is abandoned. This
American English term is also used to denote the land itself.

In the United States, railroad rights-of-way (ROW or R/O/W) are generally

considered private property by the respective railroad owners and by applicable
state laws. Most U.S. railroads employ their own police forces, who can arrest and
prosecute trespassers found on their rights-of-way. Some railroad rights-ofway
include recreational rail trails. In Canada, railroad rights-of-way are regulated by
federal law. In the United Kingdom, railway companies received the right to resume
land for a right-of-way by a Act of Parliament. Designations of railroad right of way.

The various designations of railroad right of way are as follows:

 Active track is any track that is used regularly or even only once in a while.
 Out of service means the right of way is preserved, and the railroad retains the
right to activate it. The line could be out of service for decades. Thus track or
crossings that have been removed need to be replaced.
 By an embargo the track is removed, but the right of way is preserved and
usually is converted into a walking or cycling path or other such use.
 An abandonment is a lengthy formal process by which the railroad gives up all
rights to the line. In most cases the track is removed and sold for scrap
and any grade crossings are redone. The line will never be active again. The right of
way reverts to the adjoining property owners. Rail rights-of-way uses other than rail
transport

Railroad rights-of-way need not be exclusively for railroad tracks and related
equipment. Easements are frequently given to permit the laying of communication
cables (such as optical fiber) or natural gas pipelines, or to run electric power
transmission lines overhead, along a railroad.