Carbohydrates

-A GROUP OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS OCCURRING IN LIVING TISSUES AND FOODS IN THE FORM OF
STARCH, CELLULOSE, AND SUGARS.

-IT TYPICALLY BREAKS DOWN IN THE ANIMAL BODY TO RELEASE ENERGY.

 The Substance Most People Refer to as “Sugar” Is the Sucrose Disaccharide, Which Is Extracted
Either from Sugar Cane or Beets. Sucrose Is the Disaccharide Most Sweet. It’s Approximately
Three Times Sweeter as Maltose, And Six Times Sweeter as Lactose.

 in recent years, in many consumer products, sucrose has been replaced with corn syrup, which
is obtained when the polysaccharides in cornstarch are broken down. corn syrup is primarily
glucose, which is as sweet as sucrose only about 70 per cent.

History

-carbohydrates are also called saccharides which is a Greek word it means sugar because almost all
carbohydrates have a sweet taste. by the middle of the nineteenth century, a number of relatively pure
carbohydrates such as sucrose, cellulose from cotton, starch, glucose, fructose, mannose and lactose
were known to the chemists of Europe, especially in Germany. in 1878, Emil Fischer synthesized phenyl
hydrazine for his thesis at the university of Munich. in 1884 he further discovered that carbohydrates
gave crystalline phenylosazonein which two phenylhydrazines reacted with the aldehyde group and the
carbon adjacent to the aldehyde group.

•the ratio of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in carbohydrates is 1:2:1

•Generic formula for all carbohydrates Cn(H2O)n

ALL CARBOHYDRATES ARE POLYHYDROXYALDEHYDES OR KETONES OR SUBSTANCES THAT YIELD

THESE ON HYDROLYSIS.

 EXAMPLE OF ALDOSE IS GLUCOSE

 EXAMPLE OF KETOSE IS FRUCTOSE

CLASSIFICATION & STRUCTURE

 Carbohydrates in grains are classified based on their chemical structures or their digestibility
when consumed by humans as food or by livestock as feed.
Haworth Vs Fischer

 Haworth structure- Haworth projection is a common way of writing a structural formula to

represent the cyclic structure of monosaccharides with a simple 3D perspective.
 Fischer projection- 2D representation of an organic molecule by projection.
HEXOSES vs PENTOSES

ISOMERS
GLUCOSE HOMEOSTASIS

 the balance of Insulin and Glucagon to maintain blood glucose.

Gestational Diabetes

 Gestational diabetes is a type of diabetes that can develop during pregnancy in women who
don't already have diabetes. Every year, 2% to 10% of pregnancies in the United States are
affected by gestational diabetes. Managing gestational diabetes will help make sure you have a
healthy pregnancy and a healthy baby.

DKA

 Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is a serious complication of diabetes that can be life-threatening.

DKA is most common among people with type 1 diabetes. People with type 2 diabetes can also
develop DKA. DKA develops when your body doesn't have enough insulin to allow blood sugar
into your cells for use as energy.


LIPIDS

 Lipids are organic compounds (COMPOSED OF H,C,O sometimes N). They dissolve easily in a
nonpolar solvent (e.g. ether) but do not in a polar solvent (e.g water).
 Lipids make up 18–25% of body mass in lean adults.
 Most lipids are insoluble in polar solvents such as water; they are hydrophobic. Because they
are hydrophobic, only the smallest lipids (some fatty acids) can dissolve in watery blood
plasma

Fatty acids (FAs) are integral building blocks of lipids

 To become more soluble in blood plasma, other lipid molecules join with hydrophilic protein
molecules. The resulting lipid–protein complexes are termed lipoproteins

PROPERTIES OF LIPIDS

•OILY OR GREASY, STORED IN THE ADIPOSE TISSUEOF THE BODY

•HETEROGENEOUS GROUP OF COMPOUNDS, MAINLY COMPOSED OF HYDROCARBON CHAINS.

•ENERGY-RICH ORGANIC MOLECULES, WHICH PROVIDE ENERGY FOR DIFFERENT LIFE PROCESSES.

•A CLASS OF COMPOUNDS CHARACTERIZED BY THEIR SOLUBILITY IN NONPOLAR SOLVENTS AND

INSOLUBILITY IN WATER.

•LIPIDS ARE SIGNIFICANT IN BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS AS THEY FORM A MECHANICAL BARRIER DIVIDING A
CELL FROM THE EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT KNOWN AS THE CELLMEMBRANE.

How do fatty acids relate to lipids?

 Fatty acids are common components of complex lipids, and these differ according to chain
length and the presence, number and position of double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain.
Phospholipids

- are a class of lipids whose molecule has a hydrophilic "head" containing a phosphate group and two
hydrophobic "tails" derived from fatty acids, joined by an alcohol residue.
Eicosanoids

 class of molecules derived from 20-carbon (“eicosa” is Greek for 20) polyunsaturated fatty acids,
most frequently arachidonic acid.

Prostaglandins-modify responses to hormones, contribute to the inflammatory response, prevent

stomach ulcers, dilate (enlarge) airways to the lungs, regulate body temperature, and influence
formation of blood clots, to name just a few

Leukotrienes-participate in allergic and inflammatory responses

Ketone bodies

 “Excessive β-oxidation of fatty acids occurs in states of fasting and starvation and causes an
elevation in acetyl CoA levels. These acetyl CoA molecules are condensed with each other in
hepatic mitochondria to produce ketone bodies”
 “Ketone bodies are the water-soluble and acidic compounds known as acetoacetate, β-
hydroxybutyrate, and acetone. Their accumulation lowers the pH of blood”
 “Ketone bodies are produced only in the liver and serve as an important energy source for
peripheral tissues during periods of prolonged (> 24 h) fasting”
 LDL (low-density lipoprotein), sometimes called “bad "cholesterol", makes up most of your
body’s cholesterol. High levels of LDL cholesterol raise your risk for heart disease and stroke
 HDL (high-density lipoprotein), or “good "cholesterol, absorbs cholesterol and carries it back to
the liver. The liver then flushes it from the body. High levels of HDL cholesterol can lower your
risk for heart disease and stroke
LIPID METABOLISM

Metabolism of Bile Salts

 Before leaving the liver, a large proportion of the bile acids are activated with CoA and then
conjugated with the amino acids glycine or taurine
 The bile secreted by the liver becomes denser in the gallbladder as a result of the removal of
water.
 Intestinal bacteria produce enzymes that can chemically alter the bile salts

Additional Notes: CHOLESTEROL

 Some cholesterol is required in for the synthesis of bile acids (Bile acid is derived from fatty acid)
 Cholesterol keeps the membrane fluid
 Key regulatory enzyme in cholesterol synthesis is HMG Co-A reductase

Additional Notes: METABOLISM

 Liver converts glucose via Acetyl CoA into fatty acids

 •This process, called lipogenesis, creates lipids (fat) from the acetyl CoA and takes place in the
cytoplasm of adipocytes (fat cells) and hepatocytes (liver cells).When you eat more glucose or
carbohydrates than your body needs, your system uses acetyl CoA to turn the excess into fat.
What is lecithin?

 is a mixture of fats that are essential to cells in the human body. It can be found in many foods,
including soybeans and egg yolks.
 These data suggest that dietary lecithin is particularly effective in increasing the HDLC/total
cholesterol ratio in plasma.

Hyperlipidemia

 means your blood has too many lipids (or fats), such as cholesterol and triglycerides.

HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA

-means you have too much non-HDL cholesterol and LDL (bad) cholesterol in your blood. This condition
increases fatty deposits in arteries and the risk of blockages.

 Desirable: Below 200 mg/dL

 Borderline high: 200 to 239
 High: Above 240

HYPERTRIGLYCERIDEMIA

 means you have too many triglycerides (fats) in your blood. This raises your risk of
atherosclerosis and related heart diseases.

ATHEROSCLEROSIS

 it is the buildup of fats, cholesterol and other substances in and on the artery walls
COMPLICATIONS

•Coronary artery disease. When atherosclerosis narrows the arteries close to your heart, you may
develop coronary artery disease, which can cause chest pain (angina), a heart attack or heart failure.

•Carotid artery disease. When atherosclerosis narrows the arteries close to your brain, you may develop
carotid artery disease. This can cause a transient ischemic attack (TIA) or stroke.

•Peripheral artery disease. When atherosclerosis narrows the arteries in your arms or legs, you may
develop blood flow problems in your arms and legs called peripheral artery disease. This can make you
less sensitive to heat and cold, increasing your risk of burns or frostbite. Rarely, a lack of blood flow to
the arms or legs can cause tissue death (gangrene).

•Aneurysms. Atherosclerosis can also cause aneurysms, a serious complication that can occur anywhere
in the body. Most people with aneurysms have no symptoms. Pain and throbbing in the area of an
aneurysm may occur and is a medical emergency. If an aneurysm bursts, it can cause life-threatening
bleeding inside the body.
•Chronic kidney disease. Atherosclerosis can cause the arteries leading to the kidneys to narrow.
Narrowing of these arteries prevents enough oxygen-rich blood from reaching the kidneys. The kidneys
need enough blood flow to help filter waste products and remove excess fluids