Erikson – 8 Stages of psychosocial development

Stage 1 – trust vs mistrust

This is the first psychosocial crisis; it occurs during the first year of life. The infant looks to the
caregiver or parent who is most present in his / her life for stability and consistency of care. This
is because the infant is uncertain about the world around him / her.

Trust develops when the if the care is consistent and reliable. If the care has been harsh or
inconsistent, the infant develops mistrust. The basic sense of trust or mistrust will follow them
into other relationships later in life.

Cold, detached or negligent parents can foster mistrust of others. Ideally, infants should trust
others later in life. The trust adds to the building of personality strength in the area

of hope.
Erikson – 8 Stages of psychosocial development

Stage 2 – autonomy vs shame and doubt

This is the second psychosocial crisis; it occurs between 18 months and 3 years. The infant
becomes more autonomous. He / she asserts independence and begin to make decisions
about and choose what he / she wants.

When the child discovers its own abilities and skills, their sense of autonomy and independence
increases. The child should be encouraged to explore his / her own limits and abilities in an
encouraging environment. Failure should be tolerated.

This means the adult should not do everything for the child, nor should they criticise the child for
failures. Ideally the child learns self-control without losing his / her self-esteem.

This stage, if negotiated successfully, encourages independence and the confidence

and security in the child’s ability to survive in the world. If the guidance is lacking or

harsh it can result in doubt. This is the stage in which willpower is developed.
Erikson – 8 Stages of psychosocial development

Stage 3 – initiative vs guilt

This is the third psychosocial crisis; it occurs between 3 to 5 years. During this time, the child
asserts themselves more frequently.

Children will make up games, initiate activities with others, develop initiative, grow in the their
ability to lead others and make decisions.

If they are citicised or controlled too closely, the guilt complex takes hold.

Children ask many questions in this stage as they want to know about certain things. It is ideal
that their questions are answered and that they are not treated as a nuisance.

There needs to be a balance in this stage. The personality strength of industry begins to
develop. Praise and encouragement and correction must be in balance too. This is the

stage in which purpose is developed.

Erikson – 8 Stages of psychosocial development

Stage 4 – industry vs inferiority

This is the fourth psychosocial crisis; it occurs between 5 to 12 years. During this time, the child
learns to read, write and count. They learn to do more things on their own. Teachers are central
in teaching children specific skills. They are industrious (learning to do things)

The child spends time learning and demonstrating a variety of skills. They attempt to
demonstrate the things which are valued by society.

Peer influence is quite important in shaping how the child sees himself / herself. (self-esteem)

The child who fails to develop specific skills may develop a sense of inferiority. Add to this the
reaction of adults and other children who can influence industry and inferiority.

There needs to be a balance in this stage between industry and inferiority because it is

the stage in which competence is developed. Feelings of competence and incompetence

influence motivation.
Erikson – 8 Stages of psychosocial development

Stage 5 – identity vs role confusion

This is the fifth psychosocial crisis; it occurs between 12 to 18 years. (Entry to high school)

It lasts into early adulthood which varies in different regions and in different cultures and social
or economic circumstances. (e.g. coming of age)

The child is entering adolescence and that biological stage is characterised by a search for
independence and the need to belong to a portion of society. The adolescent usually learns the
roles they will occupy as an adult. It is a time when the adolescent attempts to find out who they
are (identity formation).

The adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their body while they adapt to changes. When
they are unable to establish a sense of identity in society it can lead to role confusion.

The adolescent can experience not being sure of themselves or their place in society.
Erikson – 8 Stages of psychosocial development

Stage 5 – identity vs role confusion (contd)

This is the fifth psychosocial crisis; it occurs between 12 to 18 years. (Entry to high school)

This is the time where there are a plethora of roles which could confuse an adolescent.

This is a time when the adolescent thinks about who he or she is and where they are going in
the future.

There is pressure to make decisions. This can be overwhelming.

This phase in life calls for firm foundations set down in earlier stages.

Ideally the adolescent progresses to young adulthood with a strong and developing sense of
identity and belonging. It creates the idea of continuity.

This is the stage in which identity is formed. Identity formation is a lifelong journey.

This leads to reliability (accepting oneself) and fidelity (faithfulness to themselves)

Erikson – 8 Stages of psychosocial development

Stage 6 – intimacy and isolation

This is the sixth psychosocial crisis; it occurs between 18 to 40 years.

Adults begin to share themselves more intimately with others.

The adult commits to longer term relationships outside of the family. This can be in the form of a
long-term relationship / friendship / marriage. The stage is characterised by comfortable
relationships, a sense of commitment, safety and care within a relationship. (meaningful
relationships; caring for others in a reciprocal way)

Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness and
sometimes depression. This is a stage which is characterised by the virtue of love / mutuality.

Experiencing these factors is an important because it may settle the pattern for the

remainder of an adult’s life.

Erikson – 8 Stages of psychosocial development

Stage 7 – generativity and stagnation

This is the seventh psychosocial crisis; it occurs between 40 to 60 years.

Individuals usually establish a career / job (in the home / out of the home). They settle in
relationships, grow their families and develop a sense of being part of what others do
(generating ideas, giving back to society, shaping the new generation).

They raise children / continue their careers / engage in tasks in society. This is a time when the
adult feels that they are needed. They need to be generative and productive in society. It is
possible that failure to have this need met, can leave an adult with the feeling that they are
stagnating.

Ideally, being successful in this stage will lead to the virtue of care.
Erikson – 8 Stages of psychosocial development

Stage 8 – ego integrity vs despair

This is the eighth psychosocial crisis; as adults approach 65+ years.

Adults tend to slow down, slow down productivity and explore life in a different way from working
people. The adult looks back on their life and to evaluate their accomplishments.

This can lead to integrity development about the life lived. Some people become accepting.

Some might feel regret, despair and bitterness and see life as having been ‘wasted’.

Both accepting adults and those who see despair may fear death, either because they would
like to live their lives again or because they would like to start again to do things differently.

Ideally, the adult has a healthy sense of acceptance and a positive attitude.

They continue to find meaning in activities and in meaningful relationships with others.

This develops the personality strength of wisdom.

Erikson – the significance of the theory for teachers

The stages of development occur in sequence but they will overlap. The matter of trust,
missed in earlier years may be developed as the child develops through other stages.

There can be setbacks (unresolved crises) even for children who have had an ideal start in life.
When children have had a varied experience in the stages up to their entry to high school, they
may be able to deal with those aspects of development (resolve earlier crises) as they grow
older. Teachers must keep in mind that they are dealing with influences from a variety of issues
(unresolved or partially resolved crises) in different stages in a child’s life.

It is not that the trust need only be given in infancy, as teachers we must remember to continue
to build trust in learners. (Help the child overcome earlier unresolved crises)

We concern ourselves with Stages 4, 5 and 6 because those are the stages in which we

will find our learners to be. (High school years)

It is the role of teachers to guide and support learners through the stages of development.
Erikson and hope

Erikson promoted hope through his theory.

Unlike Freud, who proposed that earlier experiences could not be dealt with in later life, Erikson
believed that the earlier stages (or crises) could be developed at a later stage.
Erikson and you as a teacher

Questions

What are the implications of Erikson’s theory for the teacher?

Can you as a teacher promote the development of a positive

outcome in the stages relevant to a child at school?

Comment critically on Erikson’s theory.

What do you feel is useful and what is not useful to you as a teacher?

Does this theory relate to the South African context in which you
teach?

What alternatives might you employ?

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