XII-Physics Practical (Code - 042)

The record to be submitted by the students at the time of practical examination

must include a record of at 8 Experiment (4 from each section) and 6 Activities (3
from each section).
Section - A

1. To determine resistivity of two wires by plotting a graph for potential difference

versus current.
2. To find resistance of a given wire / standard resistor using metre bridge.
3. To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using a metre bridge.
4. To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find
its figure of merit.

Section – B

5. To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and to
find the focal length.
6. To find the focal length of a convex mirror, using a convex lens.
7. To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or
between 1/u and 1/v.
8. To find the focal length of a concave lens, using a convex lens.
(or)
To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph
between angle of incidence and angle of deviation.

Section A (Activities)

1. To measure the resistance and impedance of an inductor with or without iron core.

2. To measure resistance, voltage (AC/DC), current (AC) and check continuity of a given
circuit using multimeter.

3. To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three (on/off) switches, a

fuse and a power source.

4. To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.

5. To study the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for a steady current.

6. To draw the diagram of a given open circuit comprising at least a battery,

resistor/rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not
connected in proper order and correct the circuit and also the circuit diagram.

Dr. PSR Page 1

Section – B (Activities)

1. To identify a diode, an LED, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of such
items.

2. Use of multimeter to see the unidirectional flow of current in case of a diode and an
LED and check whether a given electronic component (e.g., diode) is in working order.

3. To study effect of intensity of light (by varying distance of the source) on an LDR.

4. To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a

glass slab.

5. To observe diffraction of light due to a thin slit.

6. To study the nature and size of the image formed by a (i) convex lens, or (ii) concave
mirror, on a screen by using a candle and a screen (for different distances of the candle
from the lens/mirror).

7. To obtain a lens combination with the specified focal length by using two lenses from
the given set of lenses.

General Instructions:

1. Draw the circuit diagram, general diagram and model graphs on the white
page (Left hand side).
2. Write the observations (Tabulation) on the white page (Left hand side).
3. Write down the aim, apparatus required, formula used, procedure, result,
precautions and source of errors on the ruled side (Right hand side).

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Ohm’s Law

Aim: To determine resistivity of two wires by plotting a graph for potential difference versus current.

Apparatus required: The given two resistance wire, an ammeter, a voltmeter, a rheostat, a battery, one-way key,
meter scale and connecting wires.

Formula used: According to Ohm’s Law

𝑉 ∝𝐼
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 (𝑉)
𝑉
𝑅= (Ω)
𝐼
Where,

V = Potential difference across the given wire. (V)

I = Current flowing through the given wire. (A)

R = Resistance of the given wire (Ω)

The specific resistance or resistivity ρ of the material of the given wire is given as

𝜋𝑑2
𝜌=( ) 𝑅 (Ω𝑚)
4𝐿
Where,

d = Diameter of the wire (m)

L = Length of the wire (m)

R = Resistance of the given wire (Ω)

Circuit Diagram:

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Model graph:

Observation:

Range of ammeter =
Range of voltmeter =
Least count of ammeter =
Least count of voltmeter =
Length of the wire =

Table:

Wire 1:

Sl. No. Ammeter Reading (I) Voltmeter Reading (V) 𝑽

𝑹= (𝜴)
(volt ) 𝑰
(ampere)

Dr. PSR Page 4

Wire 2:

Sl. No. Ammeter Reading (I) Voltmeter Reading (V) 𝑽

𝑹= (𝜴)
(volt ) 𝑰
(ampere)

Procedure:

1. Clean the ends of the connecting wire with the help of sandpaper to remove any insulating coating on them.
2. Connect the resistance, rheostat, battery, key, voltmeter, and ammeter as shown in the figure.
3. Make sure that the pointers in the voltmeter and milliammeter coincide with the zero mark on the
measuring scale. If not, adjust the pointer to coincide with the zero mark by adjusting the screw provided at
the base using a screwdriver.
4. Note the range and the least count of the given voltmeter and milliammeter.
5. Insert the key K and slide the rheostat to the end where the current flow is minimum.
6. Note the voltmeter and the milliammeter reading.
7. Remove the key K and allow the wire to cool. Again, insert the key and slightly increase the voltage by
moving the rheostat. Note down the milliammeter and voltmeter reading.
8. Repeat step 7 for four different adjustments of the rheostat. Document the readings in a tabular column.
9. Repeat step 1 to 8 for the second wire.

Result:

The resistivity of wire 1 is determined to be:

The resistivity of wire 2 is determined to be:

Precautions:

1. Connection should be tight.

2. The voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
3. The voltmeter should be connected in parallel and ammeter should be connected in series.

Source of Error:

1. The wires used may not be of uniform cross section.

2. The length of the resistance wire measured should be between one terminal of the voltmeter to other.

Dr. PSR Page 5

METER BRIDGE – Determination of unknown resistance.

Aim: To find the resistance of the given wire using meter bridge.

Apparatus required: Meter bridge, two resistance coils, a resistance box, a rheostat, galvanometer, a jockey, one-
way key, a cell or battery eliminator and thick connecting wires.

Formula used:

The Unknown resistance ‘r’ of the wire is then given by

𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍
𝒓=( )𝑹 (Ω)
𝒍

Where

r = Unknown resistance of the given coil (Ω)

l = Balancing length (cm)

R = Resistance from the resistance box (Ω)

Diagram:

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Table:

Balancing
Resistance from Length 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝒍 Mean
Sl. Length AD = 𝒓= ( ) 𝑹(𝜴)
resistance box, R DC = (100 - l) 𝒍 Resistance
No. l
(Ω) (cm) (Ω)
(cm)

1
2
3
4
5

Procedure:

1. Make the connections as shown in figure. Take out suitable resistance R from the resistance box.
2. Touch the jockey at point A; see that there is deflection on galvanometer on one side.
3. Touch the jockey now on the point C of the wire. The deflection in galvanometer should be on the other
side. If it is so, connections are correct. If the deflection is one-sided, adjust R till the deflection is reversed.
4. If the deflections are on both sides, start sliding the jockey on the wire from end A towards C.
5. Note the point where the galvanometer shows zero deflection. This is called balance point.
6. Note the length AD and call it as balancing length l, DC will be (100 – l).
100−𝑙
7. Using the formula 𝑟 = ( )𝑅 the unknown resistance can be found out.
𝑙

Result:

The resistance of the given wire is _________ Ω

Precautions:

1) Clean the connecting wires and the connecting points of Meter Bridge properly.
2) All connections should be neat and tight.
3) Balance point should lie between 40cm and 60cm.
4) Move the jockey gently in the wire and do not keep the jockey and the wire in contact for a long time.
5) Hold the jockey perpendicular to the wire of Meter Bridge.

Source of Error:

1. There may be error due to contact resistances.

2. Length of the wire used up may not be correctly estimated.
3. There may be a change in resistance due to heating of wires when continuous current flows for some time.
4. There wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section.
5. The measurement of resistance is affected by the end resistances due to copper strips and connecting
screws.

3.

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METER BRIDGE - LAW OF COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES IN SERIES

Aim: To verify the law of series combination of resistances using meter bridge.

Apparatus required: Meter bridge, two resistance coils, a resistance box, a rheostat, galvanometer, a jockey, one-
way key, a cell or battery eliminator and thick connecting wires.

Formula used:

(i) The Unknown resistance ‘r’ of the wire is then given by

𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍
𝒓=( )𝑹 (Ω)
𝒍

Where,

r = Unknown resistance of the given coil (Ω)

l = Balancing length (cm)

R = Resistance from the resistance box (Ω)

(ii) When two resistances are connected in series, their combined resistance is given as

𝑟𝑠 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 (Ω)

Where,

𝑟𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (Ω)

𝑟1 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 (Ω)

𝑟2 = 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 (Ω)

Diagram:

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Table:

Resistance
Balancing
from Length 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝒍 Mean
Resistance Sl. Length 𝒓= ( ) 𝑹(𝜴)
resistance DC = (100 - l) 𝒍 Resistance
Coil No. AD = l
box, R (cm) (Ω)
(cm)
(Ω)
1
2
r1
3

r2 2

1
r1 and r2 in
series 2

Procedure:

1. Make the connections as shown in figure. Take out suitable resistance R from the resistance box.
2. Touch the jockey at point A; see that there is deflection on galvanometer on one side.
3. Touch the jockey now on the point C of the wire. The deflection in galvanometer should be on the other
side. If it is so, connections are correct. If the deflection is one-sided, adjust R till the deflection is reversed.
4. If the deflections are on both sides, start sliding the jockey on the wire from end A towards C.
5. Note the point where the galvanometer shows zero deflection. This is called balance point.
6. Note the length AD and call it as balancing length l, DC will be (100 – l).
100−𝑙
7. Using the formula 𝑟 = ( )𝑅 the unknown resistance can be found out.
𝑙
8. Repeat step 1 to 7 for the second resistance R2.
9. Connect two resistances R1 and R2 in series.
10. Repeat step 1 to 7 for the series combination of R1 and R2.
11. Compare the measured values of effective resistances using meter bridge with calculated values.

Result:

Within experimental errors 𝑟𝑠 ≈ 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 . Therefore, the law of combination of resistances in series stands verified.

Precautions:

1. Connection should be tight.

Dr. PSR Page 9

 2. The jockey should be made to slide gently.
3. The key in the battery circuit should remain inserted only when observations are to be taken.

Source of Error:

6. There may be error due to contact resistances.

7. Length of the wire used up may not be correctly estimated.
8. There may be a change in resistance due to heating of wires when continuous current flows for some time.
9. There wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section.
10. The measurement of resistance is affected by the end resistances due to copper strips and connecting
screws.

GALVANOMETER - FIGURE OF MERIT

Aim: To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method andto find its figure of merit.
Apparatus required: A galvanometer, 2 V battery, a resistance box of range (0 – 10,000Ω), a resistance box of
range (0 – 500 Ω), two one-way keys, and connecting wires.

Formula used:

(i) The resistance of the galvanometer is given as

𝑅𝑆
𝐺= (Ω)
𝑅−𝑆

Where,

G = Resistance of the Galvanometer (Ω)

R = Resistance from the resistance box (Ω)

S = Shunt resistance (Ω)

(ii) The Figure of merit (k) of the galvanometer is given by

𝐸 1
𝑘=( ) (𝐴 𝑑𝑖𝑣 −1 )
𝑅+𝐺 𝜃
Where,

k= Figure of merit of the galvanometer(𝐴 𝑑𝑖𝑣 −1 )

E = Emf of the battery (V)

R = Resistance form the resistance box (Ω)

G = Resistance of the Galvanometer (Ω)

θ = Deflection in the Galvanometer (div)

Dr. PSR Page 10

(iii) The current that produces full scale deflection is given as

𝐼𝑔 = 𝑁𝑘 (𝐴)

Where,

𝐼𝑔 = Current that produces full scale deflection (A)

N = Number of division on either side of the galvanometer (div)

k= Figure of merit of the galvanometer(𝐴 𝑑𝑖𝑣 −1 )

Diagram:

Table for finding resistance G of galvanometer

Half Deflection Galvanometer

Resistance Deflection in the Shunt Resistance
𝜽 Resistance
Sl. No R galvanometer, θ S
𝟐 𝑹𝑺
(Ω) (div) (Ω) 𝑮= (Ω)
( div ) 𝑹−𝑺

Mean =

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Table for finding the figure of merit

The Emf of the battery =

Resistance of the galvanometer =

Resistance Deflection in the Figure of Merit

Sl. No R galvanometer, θ 𝑬 𝟏
𝒌= . (𝑨𝒅𝒊𝒗−𝟏 )
(div) (𝑹 + 𝑮) 𝜽
(Ω)

Mean =

To find current required for producing full scale of deflection (I g)

Maximum number of divisions on the either side in the galvanometer, N =

Figure of merit of galvanometer, k =
Current that produces full scale deflection, Ig = Nk =

Procedure:

1. Make the connections as shown.

2. See that the plugs of resistance box are tight.
3. Introduce a resistance of 5000 from the resistance box R and then insert the K1 only.
4. Adjust the value of R so that the deflection in the galvanometer is maximum (say 30 div)
5. Note the deflection. Let it be θ i.e., θ = 30 div.
6. Now, insert the key K2. Without changing the value of R, adjust the value of k, such that deflection in
galvanometer reduces exactly to half the value obtained. i.e., θ / 2.
7. Note the value of R.
8. Repeat the above steps for various values of R.

Result:

(i) The resistance G of the galvanometer by half deflection method is found to be =

(ii) The Figure of merit of galvanometer is found to be =
(iii) The Current that produces full scale deflection is determined to be =

Precautions:

1. Connection should be tight.

2. To avoid damage to the galvanometer, a high resistance (5000 Ω) should be first taken out of the resistance
box R and then key K1 should be closed.
3. The plugs of the resistance box should be clean.

Dr. PSR Page 12

Source of Error:

1. The emf of the battery may change during the experiment.

2. Calibration of resistance in resistance boxes may not be correct.

3. Plugs in resistance boxes may not be tight and nay have contact resistance.

SONOMETER - FREQUENCY OF A.C MAINS

Aim: To Find the frequency of the a.c. mains with a Sonometer.

Apparatus required: A Sonometer, soft iron wire, a step-down transformer, ½ kg hanger, ½ kg slotted weights,
clamp, and an electromagnet.

Formula used:

The frequency of the a.c. mains using Sonometer is given as

𝑓 1 𝑇
𝜐= = √ (Hz)
2 4𝑙 𝑚

Where,

f = Fundamental frequency of the wire (Hz)

l = length of the wire in between the knife edges at resonance (cm)

T = Tension in the wire (N)

m = Mass per unit length (kgm-1)

Diagram:

Dr. PSR Page 13

Observation:

Length of the wire, L =

Mass of this length L, M’ =
Mass per unit length, m =
Mass of the hanger =

Table:

Resonant Length PQ = l Frequency of a.c

mains
Load Tension in wire
Sl.
M T = M x9.80 𝟏 𝑻
No. Increasing Decreasing Mean 𝝊= √
𝟒𝒍 𝒎
(kg) (N)
(cm) (cm) (cm)
(Hz)

Mean frequency of a.c. mains =

Procedure:

1. Check if pulley is frictionless.

2. Place sonometer parallel to one edge of the working table, such that, the pulley remains projected out of the
perpendicular edge. See that there are no kinks in the string of sonometer and its one end is rigidly fixed. Pass
string over pulley such that it stretches horizontally over the box of sonometer and attach a hanger of ½ kg weight
on its free end.

3. Connect the electromagnet to the secondary of step-down transformer and plug primary of the transformer in ac
mains. Hold the electromagnet in a stand and bring it close to the sonometer wire just above the centre of its length.

4. Switch on the mains and adjust the wedges on the sonometer, starting from minimum separation till you get
maximum amplitude of oscillation of the sonometer wire. At this resonance condition, rider flies off. Note the
length of the sonometer wire between the wedges and also note the load suspended on the string.

5. Increase the load on the hanger in steps of ½ kg weight and measure the resonating length. Take atleast 3
observations with three loads 1.5kg, 2kg and 2.5kg.

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6. Switch off ac supply and take out sonometer wire. Measure its mass M and length L. Then find its linear mass
𝑀
density 𝑚 = kgm-1
𝐿

Result: The frequency of the a.c. mains using Sonometer and electromagnet is found to be = Hz

Precautions:

1. The pulley should be frictionless.

2. The lower end of the electromagnet should be slightly above the Sonometer wire.
3. The knife edges should be sharp.

Source of Error:

1. Slotted weights may not have fixed value.

2. Pulley may not be frictionless.
3. Sonometer wire may not be of uniform cross-section

Dr. PSR Page 15

 SECTION – B

FOCAL LENGTH OF CONCAVE MIRROR

Aim: To determine the focal length of the concave mirror.

Apparatus required: Concave mirror, mirror holder, light source, white screen and meter scale.

Formula used:
The focal length of the concave mirror is given as

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + (𝒄𝒎−𝟏 )
𝒇 𝒗 𝒖

𝒖𝒗
𝒇= (𝒄𝒎)
𝒖+𝒗

Where,

f = focal length of the convex lens (cm)

u = object distance (cm)

v = Image distance (cm)

Diagram:

Dr. PSR Page 16

Observation:

Focal length using distant object method = cm

Table:

Observed
Position of
distance 𝟏 𝟏 𝒖𝒗
Sl. 𝒇=
Concave Object PO = 𝒖 𝒗 𝒖+𝒗
No. Image (I) PI = v
mirror (P) (O) u (cm-1) (cm-1) (cm)
(cm) (cm)
(cm) (cm) (cm)

Mean =

Procedure:

Distant object method:

• Focus the mirror to distance object.

• Place the screen in front of the mirror.
• Adjust the screen till a well – defined image of the object is formed.
• Measure the distance between surface of the screen and the center of the mirror as f cm.

U-V method:

• Find 2f using the value of f, found in distant object method.

• Write 2f value as the 3rd reading in the u column.
• Write (2f-4) and (2f-2) as the first and second reading.
• Also (2f+4) and (2f+2)as the 4th and 5th reading.

To find the value of V:

• Set the distance between the source and mirror as (2f-4) cm.
• Adjust the screen to get a well-defined image.
• Measure the distance between the mirror and the centre of the screen as v cm.
• The procedure is repeated for different values of u.
𝒖𝒗
• F is calculated using the formula 𝒇 = 𝒖+𝒗

Result: The focal length of the concave mirror is determined to be = cm

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Precautions:

1. The object distance should not be less than the focal length.

2. The object distance and the image distance should be properly measured without any parallax error.

3. The mirror should be handled properly so that it may not break or its polish spoiled.

Sources of error:

1. Personal error.
2. Sign convention not applied correctly.

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FOCAL LENGTH OF CONVEX MIRROR

Aim: To determine the focal length of convex mirror using convex lens.

Apparatus required: Convex mirror, convex lens, mirror holder, light source, white screen and meter scale.

Formula used: Same as book.

Diagram:

Dr. PSR Page 19

 Table:

Position of

Radius of
Sl. No. Convex lens Convex Image I curvature PI
Object O
L Mirror P (cm) (cm)
(cm)
(cm) (cm)

Mean radius of curvature =

Procedure:

• Place the convex mirror, a convex lens and the screen in a straight line as shown in the figure.

• Adjust the position of the convex lens or the convex mirror w.r.t. the source such that the inverted
image of the source is formed on the by the side of the source itself.

• Note down the position of the source (O), convex lens (L) and convex mirror (P).

• Remove the convex mirror without disturbing the source and the convex lens.

• Adjust the screen to get a well-defined inverted image of the object.

• Now note down the position of the image (I).

• The procedure is repeated for different position of convex lens and convex mirror.

• Now the distance between the position of the convex mirror and the screen gives the radius of
curvature (R) of the convex mirror.
𝑅
• F is calculated using the formula = .
2

Result: Focal length of Convex mirror is determined to be = cm.

Precautions:

1. The object distance should not be less than the focal length.

2. The object distance and the image distance should be properly measured without any parallax error.

Dr. PSR Page 20

 3. When the mirror is removed, the position of object and lens should not be disturbed.

4. The mirror should be handled properly so that it may not break or its polish spoiled.

Sources of error:

1. Personal error.
2. Sign convention not applied correctly.

FOCAL LENGTH OF CONVEX LENS

Aim: Find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v; or between 1/u and 1/v.

Apparatus required: Convex lens, Lens holder, light source, white screen and meter scale.

Formula used:

The focal length of the convex lens is given as

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= − (𝒄𝒎−𝟏 )
𝒇 𝒗 𝒖

𝒖𝒗
𝒇= (𝒄𝒎)
𝒖−𝒗

Where,

f = focal length of the convex lens (cm)

u = object distance (cm)

v = Image distance (cm)

Diagram:

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Model Graph:

(i) u Vs v graph

𝟏 𝟏
(ii) 𝑽𝒔 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉
𝒖 𝒗

Dr. PSR Page 22

Observation:

Approximate focal length by distant object method = cm

Table:

Position of Observed Distance

𝟏 𝟏 𝒖𝒗
Object 𝒇=
Sl. No. Lens L Image I 𝒖 𝒗 𝒖−𝒗
O LO = u LI = v
(cm-1) (cm-1) (cm)
(cm) (cm)
(cm) (cm) (cm)

Mean focal length =

Procedure:

Distant object method:

• Focus the lens to distant object.

• Place the screen on the other side of the lens.

• Adjust the screen till a well-defined image of the object is formed.

• Measure the distance between surface of the screen and the center of the lens as f cm.

U-V method:

• Find 2f using the value of f, found in distant object method.

• Write 2f value as the 3rd reading in the u column.

• Write (2f-4) and (2f-2) as the first and second reading.

• Also (2f+4) and (2f+2) as the 4th and 5th reading.

To find the value of V:

• Set the distance between the source and lens as (2f-4) cm.

• Adjust the screen to get a well-defined image.

Dr. PSR Page 23

 • Measure the distance between the lens and the center of the screen as v cm.

• The procedure is repeated for different values of u.

𝑢𝑣
• The focal length is calculated using the formula 𝑓 =
𝑢−𝑣

Result:

The focal length of the convex lens is determined to be

1. Calculation method =
2. u – v graph method =
𝟏 𝟏
3. − graph method =
𝒖 𝒗

Precautions:

1. The object distance should not be less than the focal length.

2. The object distance and the image distance should be properly measured without any parallax error.

3. The Lens should be handled properly so that it may not break.

Sources of error:

1. Personal error.
2. Sign convention not applied correctly.

FOCAL LENGTH OF CONCAVE LENS

Aim: To find the focal length of a concave lens using a convex lens

Apparatus required: Concave lens, convex lens, Lens holder, light source, white screen and meter scale.

Formula used:

The focal length of the convex lens is given as

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= − (𝒄𝒎−𝟏 )
𝒇 𝒗 𝒖

𝒖𝒗
𝒇= (𝒄𝒎)
𝒖−𝒗

Where,

f = focal length of the convex lens (cm)

u = object distance (cm)

v = Image distance (cm)

Dr. PSR Page 24

Diagram:

Observation:

Approximate focal length of convex by distant object method =

Table:

Sl. Position of Observed Distance Focal Length

No of Concave
Object Convex Concave Image at Image O 2I = u O2I’ = v Lens
Lens O1 Lens O2 I (cm) at I’ (cm)
(cm) (cm) (cm) 𝒖𝒗
(cm) (cm) 𝒇=
𝒖−𝒗

(cm)

Mean:

Dr. PSR Page 25

Procedure:
Combination method (Distant object method):
• Keep the convex and concave lens together and focus it to a distant object.
• Place the screen in front of the lens combinations.
• Adjust the screen till a well-defined image of the distant object is formed.
• Measure the distance between surface of the screen and the center of the combination as ‘f’.

Auxiliary foci Method:

• Place the screen in-front of the source at distance greater than 4f of the focal length of convex lens.
• Introduce the convex lens in between source and screen and adjust its position so that a diminished image is
formed on the screen.
• Now introduce the concave lens in between convex lens and screen and measure the distance between
concave lens and screen as ‘u’ cm.
• Adjust the screen to get well-defined image.
• Distance between the centre of the concave lens and the new position of the screen is taken as v cm.
• The procedure is repeated for different values of ‘u’.
𝒖𝒗
• The focal length of the concave lens is calculated using the formula 𝒇 = .
𝒖−𝒗

Result: The focal length of the concave lens is determined to be = cm

Precautions:
1. The object distance should not be less than the focal length.
2. The focal lengths of convex and concave lens should be such that the combination of two lenses in contact
is a converging lens.
3. The separation between the two lenses should be kept small, otherwise the field of view becomes very
narrow.
4. While finding the second image position I’, both the object and convex lens should be kept fixed.
5. The object distance and the image distance should be properly measured without any parallax error.
6. The Lens should be handled properly so that it may not break.

Sources of error:

1. Personal error.
2. Sign convention not applied correctly.

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PRISM – i-d CURVE

Aim: To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of
incidence and angle of deviation.

Apparatus Required: A prism, a drawing board, a sheet of white paper, drawing pins, protractor, a ruler and a
graph paper.

Formula used:

According to prism equation

i+e=A+δ

δ=i+e-A (degree)

Where,

A = Angle of the prism (degree)

i = Angle of incidence (degree)

e = Angle of emergence (degree)

δ = Angle of deviation (degree)

Diagram:

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Model graph:

Observation:

Angle of the prism =

Table:

Sl. No Angle of incidence Angle of deviation

i (in degree) δ (in degree)

1 35

2 40

3 45

4 50

5 55

6 60

Procedure:

1. Fix white paper on a drawing board with the help of thumb pins.
2. Draw a line through the centre of paper longitudinally.

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 3. Keep the triangular face of the prism with one of the edges on the line and draw the boundary of the
prism with the help of a sharp pencil.
4. Draw normal MN on the sides AB at Q.
5. Draw straight lines PQ making an angle of 30 ̊ with the normal.
6. Fix two paper pins P1 and P2 on line PQ. Keep the pins at maximum distance away from each other
(atleast 5cm).
7. Place the prism back on the mark ABC. Look for the image of the pins P1 and P2 through the face AC.
8. Take the third pin P3, close your left eye and fix the pin P3 at such a position that the image of pins P1,
P2 and P3 be on the same line.
9. Now take the fourth pin P4, again close your left eye and fix them at such a position such that pins P1,
P2, P3and P4 are on the same line. Remove the pins from their positions and encircle the points. Draw
lines through P1, P2, P3and P4.
10. Produce the emergent ray backward and incident ray forward to meet at O.
11. Measure the angle of deviation at δ.
12. Repeat all the above steps for angles 35 ̊, 40 ,̊ 45 ,̊ 50̊, 55̊ and 60̊.
13. Do not take i < 30 ̊ to avoid TIR.
14. Plot the graph i versus δ with δ on Y-axis and i on the X-axis.

Result:

The angle of minimum deviation from the graph is ……………….

Precautions:

1. All pins should be fixed vertically.

2. The distance between pins should be at least 7 to 8 cm.
3. The tips of both the pins on the emergent ray and images of tips of both the pins on the incident ray should
lie in the same straight line.

Sources of error:

1. The pins may not be exactly vertical.

2. Angles may not be measured properly

3. The tips of the pins may not be on the same line.

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