1.

2 Inclusive education

Inclusive education as set out in White Paper 6 refer to all learners being

accommodated in the education system and all teachers trained as inclusive teachers

(eds. Maguvhe & Magano 2015:96). Inclusive education can only work if the school,

teachers, parents, other learners, society, medical professional and other community

based organisations work together to support and assist the impaired learner to reach

full potential, i.e. a team approach is necessary. A learner – centred approach should

be adopted in the school environment where the curriculum and teaching techniques

should be flexible in adapting to the impaired learner’s needs, learning styles and

pace of learning. E.g., a flexible time – frame can be provided, specific learning style

can be adopted (i.e. depending on auditory, visual, physical or epileptic impairment),

time could be set aside for additional assistance in class, adapting teaching methods

and resources and taking the learner’s first language and cultural background into

account when adapting teaching techniques (eds. Maguvhe & Magano 2015:72).

1.2.1 Auditory impairment

Auditory impairment refers to a sensory impairment where hearing has been affected

and can range from partial hearing loss, to hard – of – hearing to deafness. This can

be contributed to conductive hearing loss (the conductive channel in the ear is

affected) where conversations can still be followed if loud enough or sensorineural

deafness (deterioration of the auditory cells) which is incurable and hearing cannot

improve (Weeks, 2003:153). The hard – of – hearing has enough hearing to acquire

speech and language in a natural way oppose to the child who was born deaf (Weeks,

2003:157).

1.2.1.1 Identification of auditory impairment

To meet learners’ unique needs it is the teacher’s responsibility to observe and remain

vigilant for any characteristics of possible hearing loss. The learner appears to be

dreaming (stares out the window) and has lack of concentration (inattentive). The

learner comes across as talkative or disruptive as they are trying to ask a friend what

they missed out on or didn’t understand. The learner is labelled as “learning impaired”

1
due to learning gaps in the work done (answers incorrectly or work done is incorrect)

but this could be attributed to the learner not being able to hear the teacher when

he/she turns around to write on the board and the learner can’t see him/her talking.

Learners who are frequently in fights or complain that their peers are picking on them,

i.e. they are finding it difficult to associate with friends. The learner shows total

withdrawal or excessive fidgeting. The learner is overly attached to the teacher and

seeks constant reassurance (ed. Landsberg et al. 2016:441). Speech impairments

occur, e.g. speaks with a lisp, mumbling, too loud or too soft, monotonous tone or

speaks too fast or too slow. The learner turns their head to listen, relies heavily on

gestures and avoids oral activities (Weeks, 2003:156).

1.2.1.2 Assisting learners with auditory impairment

Assign a fellow learner to take notes while the auditory impaired learner watches the

teacher and can’t take notes at the same time. For group discussions to be beneficial

auditory impaired learners should sit in a visually vantage position as to see all

participants clearly, asking participants to indicate to themselves when they speak,

making use of a chalkboard to recapture main points and including the auditory

impaired learner in the discussions by addressing questions to him/her. Teachers

should present content of lessons and questions asked in such a manner that is easily

understood by the auditory impaired learner, monitor progress and repeat the

instructions where necessary. The classroom should be conducive to a safe and

secure environment where learning can take place and auditory impaired learners feel

comfortable to ask questions. As auditory impaired learners have trouble with

vocabulary and comprehension it is advisable to provide them with content material

before new concepts are introduced and involve the parents to assist them in

reviewing the new material in the afternoons (ed. Landsberg et al. 2016:442). Always

face the visually impaired learner when talking, speaking in a clear, normal voice and

ensuring that sufficient lighting is available to show the teacher’s face clearly and

minimizing auditory disruptions. Make use of visual cues or signals to attract the

auditory impaired learner’s attention and indicate that e.g., someone is speaking over

the intercom (making sure that the message is conveyed) or there is a dangerous

2
situation. Supplement oral presentations with visual aids. Good idea to use an

overhead projector as the auditory impaired learner can see the presentation and

watch the teacher talking at the same time. Tests, assignments and lecture outlines

should be given in writing and any oral presentations should be repeated and main

points summarised in writing. Limit any unnecessary movements that will distract the

auditory impaired learner from watching your face while you are talking. Encourage

the learner to build his/her vocabulary by looking up difficult – to – pronounce words

(Weeks, 2003:158). Assist learners who are lip reading by always facing them, sitting

at their level, having no lights reflecting behind you, no shadows over your face,

making sure that the light illuminates your face by sitting at a distance from it and

speaking in a clear, normal voice. When assisting auditory impaired learners by using

finger spelling, according to Weeks (2003:159) “using the hands and fingers to

indicate the letters of the alphabet by specific position”), make sure that their language

proficiency is at a mature level. Signing is a visual – manual – communication system

where manual gestures are used to communicate, usually with the right hand and as it

develops a systematic, sign language evolves. To be able to communicate with an

auditory impaired learner through sign language, a language in its own right (not

based on any spoken or written language) with a separate grammar, a teacher would

have to undergo a formal course in Sign Language. Hard – of – hearing learners

can benefit from hearing aids, although it can’t provide normal hearing it does amplify

the sounds around them (Weeks, 2003: 160)

1.2.2 Visual impairment

Visual impairment refers to a sensory impairment where sight has been affected and

can range from low vision to complete blindness. Through observant and

knowledgeable teachers, eye conditions can be detected early on and through

professional treatment be prevented, cured or alleviated.

1.2.2.1 Identification of visual impairment

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Refraction errors occur when the bent light passing through the eye does not focus on

the macula. When a learner is unable to see distant objects clearly, e.g. what is

written on the board or refusing to take part in ball games because they cannot see

the ball coming from a distance, or finding it difficult to distinguish between friends at a

distance unless they hear their voices, might be an indication of myopia. If you notice

a learner has difficulty reading or doing work requiring close vision it could be

hyperopia. Possible signs of astigmatism could be the inability to distinguish between

similar letters and number shapes, e.g. B and D, R and S, or 3 and 8, 5 and 6, holding

reading material unusually close or far away from the eyes, clumsy movements,

sometimes dragging their feet in an effort to “feel” with their feet, stepping too high or

too low when going up or down steps. Cataracts are characterised by white pupils

(“pearl in the eye. After removal of the clouded lense(s) learners need to wear thick

spectacles. Strabismus could be indicated by the learner shutting or covering one eye

to try and focus, tilting their head or thrusting it forward, squinting or frowning, appears

crossed eyed or the one eye could appear higher or lower than the other or where

learners complain of blurred or double vision, dizziness, headaches or nausea after

doing work where close – up focus was required. Nystagmus causes serious reading

and writing problems and is indicated where a learner moves their head in a to – and

– fro movement or hold a book at an angle when looking at pictures or reading, loses

their place continuously when reading or poor spacing when writing. This is due to

excessive oscillating eye movement. Albinism is a hereditary melanin pigment

deficiency (ed. Landsberg et al. 2016:411). Learners with albinism should be wearing

tinted glasses as their eyes are extremely sensitive to sunlight. Further symptoms are

myopia, hyperopia or nystagmus (ed. Landsberg et al. 2016:407). Conjunctivitis (“pink

eye”) is characterized by red eyes, excessive rubbing due to itching, burning or

scratchy feeling in the eye, inflamed or teary eyes, red – rimmed, encrusted, or

swollen eyelids and recurring sty’s. Trachoma is one of the leading causes of

preventable blindness and is spread by humans through direct contact with infected

eye, nose or throat secretions or by contact with contaminated objects, e.g. toys,

clothing, towels, etc. Inflamed inner eyelids, discharge from the eyes, swollen eyelids,

turned – in eyelashes or cloudy cornea could all indicate trachoma, especially where it

4
occurs in regions with a hot climate, overcrowding, poverty, poor hygiene, lack of

clean water and poor sanitation. Glaucoma is caused by pressure build up in the

cornea and damage occurs to the optic nerve. If the cornea is blueish – grey

blindness occurs. Macular degeneration is where learners only have peripheral vision

left. Possible indications could be learners turning their heads to see out of the corner

of their eyes and sensitivity to light (ed. Landsberg et al. 2016:412). Retinitis

pigmentosa is where the learner only has tunnel vision due to the loss of peripheral

vision. Night – blindness could be an early indication of this condition (ed. Landsberg

et al. 2016:413).

1.2.2.2 Assisting learners with visual impairment

Blind learners should be assisted to make use of all of their remaining senses and

partially sighted learners to use their other senses in conjunction with their residual

vision.

1.2.2.2.a Adapting the teaching and learning environment

Signs across the school should be clear, well placed and visible (e.g. tactile, Braille or

large print). Corridors and stairs should be well – lit with steps and edges highlighted

in yellow paint. Handrails would assist in mobility. Learners with better sight in the

right eye should sit in front to the left of the class (ed. Landsberg et al. 2016:421).

Learners with myopia and cataracts should sit in front, close to the black board. The

teacher could further assist by repeating what was written on the black board.

Learners with hyperopia prefer to be seated at the back of the class (Weeks,

2003:151). Learners with albinism prefer to sit in a darker place in the class, away

from the window. Doors should not be left ajar to prevent a safety hazard (Weeks,

2003:152). Teachers should be flexible with seating arrangements to enable blind or

partially sighted learners to move around to better see the teacher and black board or

have access to special activity areas. The correct lighting is imperative for learners

with partial sight and ample natural light is necessary to prevent harsh shadows.

Learners with myopia, glaucoma, strabismus and macular degeneration will need

extra table/desk lamps for specific tasks, e.g. reading as book or fine motor skill

5
activities. Minimize distracting noises, as blind or partially sighted learners orientate

themselves in their environment through sound, e.g. a heavy curtain to muffle outside

noise or headphones when listening to audio recordings (ed. Landsberg et al.

2016:420).

1.2.2.2.b Adapting teaching strategies

Blind learners’ remaining senses should be stimulated to compensate for the loss of

sight. Sense of hearing should be stimulated through listening and memory exercises

so that they are able to localise environmental sounds and estimate the distance

between themselves and other objects. Exercises should be given to improve their

kinaesthetic senses (sense of movement) and tactile senses (sense of touch) in order

to recognise and discriminate between the shapes, forms and various textures of

objects as well as fine motor coordination which will assist them with the movement of

their fingers in a straight line over the Braille dots (Weeks, 2003:148). The sense of

smell and taste plays an important role in the orientation and mobility of blind and

partially sighted learners. Partially sighted learners should be encouraged to make

use of their residual vision in conjunction with their other senses to explore, discover

and learn. Blind learners need deliberate support to make discoveries as they don’t

have the visual stimuli to interact with people or objects in their environment (Weeks,

2003:149). Blind and partially sighted learners, e.g. those with myopia, macular

degeneration, cataracts, etc. whom rely on their other senses are heavily dependent

on explanations and experiences provided by their teacher. The teacher therefor has

to be creative and innovative in order for active learning to take place, e.g. the teacher

can lead the blind or partially sighted learner to the object of discussion and while

explaining to everyone in the class allow the blind or partially sighted learner to make

use of his other senses to explore the object while listening to the teacher. The sense

of touch has its limitations on the scale of objects as the learner can only experience

an object as far as their hands can reach. The teacher can however make use of

models to explain the size of an object, e.g. to explain an aeroplane, a model of an

aeroplane and person can be used with the learner’s body as point of reference. In

larger classes the teacher can divide the class into smaller groups with only one blind

6
or partially sighted learner per group (ed. Landsberg et al. 2016:422). Caution should

be taken not to overprotect the visually impaired and in doing so deprive them of their

own initiative to explore (ed. Landsberg et al. 2016:423).

Because language acquisition and physical development is reliant on concrete

experiences through visual stimuli, blind and partially sighted learners need to be

encouraged to explore objects. Teachers and parents should constantly provide

running commentary in conjunction with allowing the visually impaired learners to use

their other senses to explore new objects and experiences. Field trips, the use of

manipulative material, social play, finger plays and stories are activities that will

stimulate language development. Physical development can be encouraged through

rhythmic movement games to acquire rhythmic walking, balance and posture as well

as physical movement exercises to assist with motor development (Weeks,

2003:150). Visually impaired learners need constant motivation and praise to

complete tasks as they can easily loose interest due to learning material’s

uninteresting visual appeal or because teachers don’t expect the same performance

from them as from non – visually impaired learners (ed. Landsberg et al. 2016:423).

Blind and partially sighted learners need to be able to move and travel independently.

Orientation (the awareness of space and the position of the body in relation to the

environment, people and objects) and mobility (the safe movement through the

environment) skills are required. Teachers should teach them through various

exercises, in making use of their other senses to localise the direction of sounds in

relation to their bodies, to become aware of sounds, smells, textures and temperature

differences so they can identify places in their environment. Blind learners need

formal mobility training in the use of a cane and guide dog. Learners with macular

degeneration would rely on their peripheral vision, tactile and aural senses as clues to

directionality, e.g. finding their seat in the class (ed. Landsberg et al. 2016:425).

1.2.2.2.c Adapting technology

Braille, taught by a trained person will assist the blind learner with language

independence. Assistive technology can transform script into Braille or voice output.

7
Devices are also available in Braille to take notes on (ed. Landsberg et al. 2016:424).

For partially sighted learners script should be in large print, enough spacing and there

should be contrast between the print and the paper. The darkest, clearest copies

should be handed to the partially sighted learner (Weeks, 2003:151). Textbooks can

be recorded on CD’s or flash drives for blind and partially sighted learners and

technology made available for their use, e.g. CD players or computers (Weeks,

2003:152).

1.2.3 Physical impairments

Physical impairment could occur due to hereditary attributes or, pre -, peri -, or

postnatal birth problems, through an accident or illness and challenges the mobility

and physical vitality of learners (eds. Maguvhe & Magano 2015:158). Aids to assist

with mobility are wheelchairs, crutches, prothesis, etc (Weeks, 2003:7). These

learners may experience low self – esteem issues due to the negative reactions their

physical impairments evoke from other people (ed. Landsberg et al. 2016:328).

1.2.3.1 Identification of physical impairments

There are various types of physical impairment resulting in the following conditions.

Neurological conditions related to epilepsy, cerebral palsy, spina bifida or muscular

dystrophy or skeletal and muscular conditions related to amputations, osteogenesis

imperfecta or burn lesions. A basic knowledge of the different physical impairments

will equip teachers to have a better understanding of how to accommodate and

support learners with impairments as well as relaying this information to the rest of the

class to sensitise them into accepting the impaired learner into their class and thereby

allowing inclusion to take place and diversity to be accepted (ed. Landsberg et al.

2016:328). This will only transpire if the teacher has the initiative, the ability to

improvise and the positive drive to enforce inclusive education.

1.2.3.2 Assisting learners with physical impairments

The support will vary depending on the type of physical impairment but of utmost

importance is that collaboration should take place between all the parties (teachers,

8
parents, school, other learners, community and medical professionals) involved for

successful integrated learning to take place where learners can reach their full

potential.

1.2.3.2.a Psychosocial support

Physically impaired learners need active support (not pity) to build their self – esteem

and realisation that they have worth, potential and abilities, despite their impairment

and that it should be explored and nurtured to add meaning and growth to their lives.

Focus on their positive qualities. Socialisation should be encouraged by creating

opportunities in the class for active participation in group talks and activities. Role play

is of great value. Physically impaired learners should also be taught to consider others

and that they are not the only ones needing assistance in a class situation. An

emotionally secure space should be created where the physically impaired learner will

feel safe to explore and participate without ridicule from other learners. The teacher

can explain to the rest of the class what the specific impairment and aids entail so that

they have understanding of the condition and aids. Acceptance of their fellow learner

should be encouraged and voluntary tasks can be set out to assist their fellow learner

(ed. Landsberg et al. 2016:336).

1.2.3.2.b Improvement of mobility

Safe and secure mobility should be improved to contribute to the learner’s

independence. Wheelchairs should be accommodated by making sure there is easy

access to the classroom, bathrooms and hall. The wheelchair should be able to move

freely within the classroom without any obstacles and should fit easily under the

desks, a frame should be in place around the desk so that nothing can fall off and the

physically impaired learner should be made comfortable in the wheelchair, sitting up

straight and other aids should fit comfortably. Notice should be taken of any repairs

needed to wheelchairs or discomforts caused by other aids and these should be

brought to the attention of parents or community members to assist in repairing or

finding alternatives. All surfaces should be non – slip to prevent slipping and falling.

9
Fellow learners can also be brought in to assist their impaired fellow learner without

taking away their independence (ed. Landsberg et al. 2016:337).

1.2.3.2.c Improvement of the teaching situation

Provide aids by making use of community support so that impaired learners can be

independent. Apparatus and activities should be easily reachable and participation

should be encouraged by including physically impaired learners in all tasks, activities

and responsibilities as given to the rest of the class, taking their mobility into account.

Fellow learners can be involved with assistance. The teacher is responsible for

creating a physically and emotionally secure environment where all learners can

participate successfully, exploration can be encouraged and successes can be

enjoyed (Weeks, 2003:180).

1.2.4 Epilepsy

According to Weeks (2003:182) “epilepsy is a discharge of abnormal electrical activity

in the brain” and is observed during bodily seizures. It is an invisible, temporary,

neurological disorder that can be controlled by medication. Teachers need to have a

basic knowledge of epilepsy to be able to identify it and to remove any fear or

prejudice they might have had, as to successfully include the learner to experience

active learning in the class environment and develop to their full potential (ed.

Landsberg et al. 2016:344).

1.2.4.1 Identifying epilepsy

Absence is “invisible” and perceived as daydreaming (Weeks, 2003:184). Convulsive

general seizures (affects the whole brain) are accompanied by stiffening of the

muscles, the worst being tonic – clonic convulsive seizure (grand mal or “falling

sickness”) where it is brought on violently, without warning signs and the learner loses

consciousness immediately (ed. Landsberg et al. 2016:347). Partial seizures (affects

only part of the brain), e.g. focal motor seizure (or focal clonic seizures) where

convulsive movement of a single group of muscles occur. The affected learner is fully

conscious. Jackson seizures start the same as focal clonic seizures but “marches” on

10
from one group of muscles to include other muscle groups, e.g. convulsions could

start in the thumb, spread to the hand, arm, face, etc. The affected learner could lose

consciousness if the convulsions affect the entire body or move from one side of the

body to the other side. External symptoms of versive or adversive seizures (“turning”

seizures) are the eyes and head of the affected learner turning to one side. A learner

displaying external symptoms of a postural seizure will squat down, lift their arm in a

pointing gesture towards the sky while looking in that direction. Their face and arm

might show convulsive and contracting (“twitching”) movements. Seizures with

vocalisation, uttering of strange noises, are usually the indication of oncoming

convulsive or psychomotor seizures. A learner experiencing a psychomotor seizure

will continue with a movement activity they were busy with and uttering irrelevant

speech. Intervention could lead to aggression and after the episode the learner will

not remember anything (Weeks, 2003:185 – 186). According to Weeks (2003:187)

hidden or disguised epilepsy could be present when learners who do not normally

show signs of behavioural or learning problems “suddenly, unexpectedly and

sporadically show signs of bad temper, aggressiveness or vandalism”.

Teachers are not expected to diagnose epilepsy but rather to observe learners closely

for any deviating signs and to notarise external symptoms according to how often

deviations occur, how it commenced, what happened before, during and after the

seizure and present these to the principal who should discuss it with the parents,

including the school nurse or doctor and then recommend that referral to an

appropriate medical professional. Caution should however be taken not to see every

deviated sign as an epileptic seizure. Interviews with parents before the learner starts

school regarding medical history is advisable to prepare the teacher for the event of a

seizure taking place in the class. Close observation of such learners can be done for

any signs of oncoming seizures, in which event the other learners could be informed,

precautions can be taken to ensure the learners do not hurt themselves during the

seizure and assistance can be provided after the seizure (Weeks, 2003:187 - 189).

1.2.4.2 Supporting learners with epilepsy

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According to Landsberg (ed.) et al. (2016:355) learners with epilepsy are “more

vulnerable to frustrations and tension and they need more purposeful guidance to

adjust”. The teacher should observant of any deviations, and unnecessary tension

and frustration should be avoided. Learners with epilepsy (when they don’t have

seizures) should not receive preferential treatment because of their impairment and

realistic expectations should be set and discipline upheld. With the consent of the

learner with epilepsy and their parents the rest of the class should be informed about

the challenges a learner with epilepsy will face as well as impressing on them the

importance of unconditional acceptance of the learner with epilepsy as an equal, and

assisting them to reach their full potential (ed. Landsberg et al. 2016:356). Thereby

eradicating any misconceptions or stereotyping regarding the condition, e.g. that

people with epilepsy are bewitched, insane, dangerous, strong or intellectually

impaired (ed. Landsberg et al. 2016:346).

During absence the learner appears to be daydreaming. The learner might stop in the

middle of an activity, e.g. while speaking or writing, and after the episode, e.g.

continue talking or continue writing in the same line but in a smaller handwriting. It is

important that the teacher observe and record these incidences (ed. Landsberg et al.

2016:352). The learner misses out on sections of work that is detrimental to the

learning process. Teachers therefor need to keep repetition in mind (Weeks,

2003:184). During partial seizures learners do not lose consciousness but their

actions are confused and aimless. The teacher will not be able to manage any

reaction from them. An observant teacher will notice the change in the learner, guide

the learner to safety, comfort the learner as nausea, headaches, confusion and

tearfulness might ensue a seizure after which the learner should rest. The teacher

should record the events of the seizure. In the event of tonic – clonic seizures

teachers should be observant in noticing any warning signs that could lead up to the

seizure, calmly inform the other learners to prevent any panic or confusion and lead

the epileptic learner to a safe, quiet place where they will not injure themselves. In the

event of a convulsive seizure presenting itself without any warning the learner should

be prevented from falling and injuring themselves and all objects that could cause

12
additional injury to the learner should be removed. According to Weeks (2003:190)

“under no circumstances must anyone try to hold the learner” to prevent body

movements or “insert an object between the teeth to prevent the learners from biting

their tong”. Learners should further be turned on their side to get rid of excess saliva

and prevent possible choking. Clothing should be adjusted to prevent choking or

difficulty breathing. During the seizure it is imperative for the teacher to remain calm.

Medical assistance is required if the seizures are prolonged or recur in frequent

intervals, the child chokes and airways need to be cleared immediately or injuries

incurred during the seizure. The parents of the epileptic learner should be notified

immediately through the principal. The teacher should update the recordings of the

epileptic seizures of the learner. From previous recordings the teacher would be able

to determine whether the learner would be able to continue with scholastic activities or

be send home or to the doctor (Weeks, 2003:190). Medication is essential for the

control of epileptic seizures. However, medication could have side – effects that can

lead to drowsiness (the learner might then be labelled by an unknowledgeable person

as lazy or unintelligent), restlessness, irritability or agitation. It is imperative that the

teacher should be in charge of medication when taken at school to make sure that the

medication is kept in a safe place, administered correctly and notice taken of any

abnormal behaviour after ingestion of the medication (ed. Landsberg et al. 2016:357).

It is imperative that the learner with epilepsy be treated as any other learner in the

learning environment and that stereotyping and victimization are prevented by

informing other learners of the characteristics and implications of epilepsy. Learners

with epilepsy should be encouraged to join in all activities and should always be

supervised. Seizures should be taken into account in the participation of potentially

high risk or dangerous situations where extra precautions should be taken, e.g.

swimming pools, jungle gyms, etc. Social development, in relaxed group activities that

interest them and where they can participate actively, should be promoted. They

should be encouraged and guided to be independent so that they can reach full

potential. Certain circumstances in the classroom could trigger seizures and although

13
it is not possible to avoid or protect learners from all such encounters, care should be

taken to avoid situations which could lead to stress and frustration (Weeks, 2003:192).

The teacher should there for have efficient knowledge of the different types of

seizures to deal with them efficiently when they do occur. The teacher should be calm

and in control when a seizure does occur for the benefit of the rest of the learners.

They should be able to use their discretion with the knowledge obtained on epilepsy

and observations of the learner with epilepsy on whether to call for medical

assistance. All observed seizures should be well documented (e.g. any unusual

behaviour before the seizure, funny sensations, smells, etc., how the seizure

commenced, behaviour during and after the seizure) and presented to the principal,

parents, learner and doctor. Teachers should be aware of the medication learners are

receiving, and any side – effects observed due to the medication. Teachers should

observe the effect of epilepsy on the holistic development of the learner and assist the

learner to develop to his full potential. The teacher should be notified of any other

barriers to learning the epileptic learner suffer from as to best assist the learner. As

learners spend a great deal of time at school the teacher is in an ideal position to

observe the learner for any signs or warnings related to epileptic seizures or

accompanying problems. The teacher’s greatest role in relation to learners with

epilepsy is to assist the learners to adjust and to live up to their full potential as well as

to inform the rest of the class learners, teachers, etc. of the characteristics of epilepsy

and the consequences thereof to minimize stereotyping and victimization of the

epileptic learner (Weeks, 2003:193).

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