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Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Method For Power Components Estimation In

Power Meters

Conference Paper  in  WIT Transactions on Information and Communication Technologies · August 2014

DOI: 10.2495/CTA140241

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Anastasios G. Bakaoukas Shuli Liu

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Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) method for power
components estimation in power meters
A. G. Bakaoukas1, S. Liu1 & P. Petridis1
1
Faculty of Engineering and Computing,
Coventry University, UK.
Address: Sir John Laing Building, Faculty of Engineering and computing, Coventry
University,CV1 5FB, UK
Contact email: ab3369@coventry.ac.uk and Shuli.liu@coventry.ac.uk

Abstract
The scope of this paper is to present the Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) based method for Active
Power (AP) and Reactive Power (RP) measurements as can be applied in Power Meters. Necessarily,
the main aim of the material presented is a two-fold, first to present a realisation methodology of the
proposed algorithm, and second to verify the algorithm’s robustness and validity. The method takes
advantage of the fact that frequencies present in a power line are of a specific fundamental frequency
range (a range centred on the 50Hz or 60Hz) and that in case of the presence of harmonics the
frequencies of those dominating in the power line spectrum can be specified on the basis of the
fundamental. In contrast to a number of existing methods a time delay or shifting of the input signal is
not required by the method presented and the time delay by ⁄ of the Current signal with respect to
the Voltage signal required by many of the existing measurement techniques, does not apply in the
case of the PWM method as well.
Keywords: Active Power, Reactive Power, Power Measurement Method, PWM, Power Meters.

1 Introduction
The Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) algorithm originally proposed in [1] is one of a number of
Power components estimation algorithms which have been proposed the recent years as part of the
increasing interest in the effects introduced in a Power line by Power electronics, microprocessor-
based devices, and extensive Non-linear loads. It is a well-known fact for some years now that these
loads contribute extensively to the distortion of the Voltage and Current waveforms due to harmonics.
The main advantages of the Pulse Width Modulation algorithm are: a) it does not depend on
the Power line’s operational fundamental frequency, b) is immune to frequency variations from the
fundamental after a large block of load or a large generator unit is connected to or disconnected from
the Power system, and c) for every harmonic present as frequency component of the Current
waveform the realisation of the method does not require a separate hardware based function generator.
 The material in this paper is presented in a total of six sections. In section two the Active and
Reactive Power equation calculations are presented, the results of which form the mathematical
foundation of the method. The final representation of the Instantaneous Electric Power equation in a
matrix form is presented and explained. Section three, based on the results obtained in the previous
section, presents the step-by-step approach to the algorithm. Section four, presents the realisation
methodology to the algorithm and explains the main functional constituent parts leading to optimal
implementation of the algorithm. In section five simulation results are given for both the simulated
input signals case and the actual input signals case for different input Current and Voltage conditions.
Finally, section six includes the conclusions of the paper.

2 Power Equation Calculation

If we start by taking into consideration the Power equation relating Voltage and Current we can define
the Power equation for a system to relate mutually the Active, Reactive, and Apparent Power
components (P, Q, S), as a sinusoidal Voltage source and a sinusoidal Current, taken to be
contaminated with the third order Current harmonic, stated by IEEE standard (1459-2000):

(√ ( )) (√ ( ) ( ))
( ) ( )( ( ) ( ))
( )( ( ) ( ))
( ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ))
(1)

Where Av and Ai are the rms values of the Voltage and the Current respectively, Ai3 is the amplitude
value of the third harmonic, and θ3 is the phase difference between the fundamental and the third
harmonic.

Figure 1: Voltage, Current, Instantaneous Power, and Reactive Power.

In this case the Active and Reactive Power components are defined as:

Active Power Component (P) = ( )

Active Power Component (P3) = ( )

Reactive Power Component (Q) = ( )

Reactive Power Component (Q3) = ( )

The Instantaneous Electric Power is given by:

( ) ( )( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )
(2)
Converting the equation into its equivalent digital form, we obtain:
 ( ) ( )( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )
(3)
The individual Power components, for the 60Hz fundamental frequency Power line case, are
as illustrated in Figure 1.
The dominant harmonic frequencies produced by most of the industrial loads are the odd
integer multiples of the fundamental frequency (Figure 2). Higher order harmonics which are expected
to be dominantly present in the case the Current waveform is harmonics distorted, can be treated the
same way. If we present the equation obtained above in an equivalent matrix form, becomes apparent
that if we could eliminate successively each of the Active/Reactive Power components multipliers, the
process results effectively to the calculation of the Active and Reactive Power components
respectively, by elimination of the unwanted multiplier component respectively.

Figure 2: The odd integer multiplies of the fundamental (60Hz) frequency.

( ) [ ( )] [ ( ) ( )] [ ( ) ( )] ( )
( )
( ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( )) ( )

(4)

Considering the analytic formula for a Pulse Wave S(t) with half-amplitude A, period T,
offset t0, and H(t) the Heaviside Step Function; for an offset t0=0 so we can consider a purely odd
function for the Pulse wave, we obtain:

∫ ( ){ [ ( )]}

∫ { [ ( )]} ( )( ){ [ ( )]}

( )( ){ [ ( )]} ( ){ [ ( )]}

( ){ [ ( )]}
(5)

Equivalently, the right-hand side of the equation above can be decomposed into its five
constituent parts as:
 ∫ { [ ( )]}
(6)
∫ ( )( ){ [ ( )]}
(7)
∫ ( )( ){ [ ( )]}
(8)
∫ ( ){ [ ( )]}
(9)
∫ ( ){ [ ( )]}
(10)

Under the conditions given for the Pulse Wave results in the full rectification of the term:

∫ ( ){ [ ( )]} ∫ | ( )( )|
(11)

Figure 3: The fully rectified third harmonic distorted Reactive Power waveform (fundamental at
60Hz).

Solving for Q we obtain:

∫ ( ){ [ ( )]}
(12)

At this point we need to pay attention to the fact that the term Q 3 represents the influence of
the third order Current harmonic and the term ( ) represents exactly the magnitude of that
influence.
In order to estimate the magnitude of the third order harmonic influence we need to work the
same way as in the case of the fundamental:

∫ ( ){ [ ( )]} ∫ ( ){ [ ( )]}

∫ ( ){ [ ( )]} ∫ ( ){ [ ( )]}
(13)
 Corresponding equations, which can be derived following the same lines, for the equivalent
digital approach are omitted, since their derivation involves only the trivial process of converting the
analogue frequency components into their digital equivalent and the substitution of each integral in the
equations for its digital summation equivalent.

3 The Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Algorithm

The PWM algorithm is expanded around a signal generator and a PW Modulator unit. As the input
Current signal enters the system a filtering process takes place, which purpose is the isolation of the
fundamental frequency component from the possible harmonics and noise present.
Because we know beforehand that power lines are operated either at a 50Hz or a 60Hz
fundamental frequency a low-pass filter with a Cut-off frequency (-3db) of 80Hz is adequate for the
job at hand.

Figure 4: The Yulewalk recursive IIR digital filter with a cut-off frequency at 80Hz.

The fact that the filter design corresponds to low-pass filter with a Cut-off frequency at 80Hz
actually means that the system is immune to frequency deviations throughout the first portion of the
spectrum. For our purposes a Yulewalk recursive IIR digital filter using least-squares fit to the
specified frequency response is used. The design allows for a stable IIR filter with good performance
and reliability levels; and its frequency characteristic response is as presented in Figure 4.
After the filtering process has been completed, the algorithm can detect the fundamental
frequency value out of the filtered Current frequency spectrum and pass on the information to the next
algorithm stage.
From the mathematical analysis presented in the previous section we know that the Reactive
Power component of the Power line comes always at double the fundamental frequency, and the third
harmonic distorted Reactive Power component at four times the fundamental frequency (sin (4ωt)).
The terms Q and Q3 can be safely ignored at this stage as their only contribution is to the amplitude of
each Power component. Based on this fact and the fundamental frequency component value, the
algorithm’s next stage generates a sine waveform and a sawtooth waveform at double and four times
the fundamental frequency value respectively, matching that way the requirements for both Reactive
Power components.
The amplitude of each sine wave is set at 1, while the amplitude value for both sawtooth
waveforms is set at a magnitude of 0.1 to insure a straight forward-sharp edge sawtooth envelope for
both cases. From this relationship between the two signals we take in each case a PWM waveform
with a 50% duty cycle (Pulse Wave) possessing a positive half-cycle maximum amplitude of 1 and a
negative half-cycle minimum value of -1. As in all the PWM cases where this trailing edge
modulation technique is used, the condition applies that when the sawtooth waveform is less than the
sine waveform, the PWM signal is in the high state (1), otherwise it is in the low state (0).
The Pulse Wave generated in each case is now at a frequency matching exactly the frequency
of the Reactive Power components. Multiplication between the Reactive Power component
waveforms and that of the Pulse Waves results in full scale rectification of the Reactive Power
components of the entire Instant Power signal. Integration of the rectified Reactive Power components
is giving us essentially the Average Reactive Power value.

4 The Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Algorithm Realisation for Power Meters
This section describes the realisation methodology for the Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) algorithm.
The first challenge was in terms of choosing a device to accept input Current and Voltage signals, at
the same time robust and flexible in its programming capabilities, especially because a non-invasive
realisation solution was to be implemented. The ©Arduino device met all those requirements in that
perspective and gradually became the device on which the entire software was built upon, as well as
the analog-to-digital converter. As shown in Figure 5 the Voltage and Current signals are fed initially
to the ©Arduino device which acts as both the input device and the digital-to-analog convertor.

Figure 5: Block diagram of the complete software system design.

In order for this to become possible two well-known, well-tested ©Arduino interfaces were
used to meet the device’s input signal requirements [2]. In Figure 6a the ©Arduino interface diagram
appropriate for measuring Current is presented; while in Figure 6b the corresponding diagram for
measuring Voltage is presented.

(a) (b)

Figure 6: (a) ©Arduino interface diagram to measure Current and, (b) ©Arduino interface diagram to
measure Voltage.

From this point onwards further processing of the signals is entirely software centred. The
fundamental frequency of the power line is detected using the Yalewalk recursive IIR digital filter
coefficients (b1 = 0.0275, b2 = -0.0456, b3 = 0.0266, b4 = 0.0268, b5 = -0.0435, b6 = 0.0259, b7 = -
0.0055, a1 = 1.0000, a2 = -4.2618, a3 = 8.1110, a4 = -8.7111, a5 = 5.5348, a6 = -1.9637, a7 = 0.3031)
in a recursive algorithm realisation.
The generation of the sine and sawtooth waveforms takes place next as soon as the
fundamental frequency of the power line has been determined. Another advantage of the presented
method is that the fundamental frequency of the power line is considered as an unknown parameter
simultaneously estimated with the signal’s spectrum, so the method becomes insensitive to
fundamental power line frequency changes. The resulting 50% duty cycle PWM waveforms are
multiplied by the Reactive Power Component waveform to obtain the fully rectified Reactive Power
Component. At the next and final stage, the fully rectified signal is integrated to obtain the Average
Reactive Power.

5 Simulation Results
In this section simulation results are presented for both the simulated input signals case and the actual
input signals case of the proposed measurements algorithm. For purposes of direct comparison
between results from both testing cases the actual signals used were generated using the RIGOL
(DG4162) Functions/Arbitrary Waveform Generator capable of producing signals with harmonics.

(a) (b)

Figure 7: Reactive Power (Q) simulation results for the 50Hz & 60Hz fundamental (simulated input
signals case & actual input signals case).

The results presented in Figure 7a are those corresponding to the simulated input signals case
(obtained through computer simulated tests with the PWM algorithm developed within the
MATLAB™ programming environment, against a number of phase difference values between the
input Current and Voltage signals). The results presented in Figure 7b are those corresponding to the
actual input signals case.
The ©Arduino based implementation of the algorithm (the algorithm now developed within
the ©Arduino programming environment) was tested against signals of the same nature as those for
the simulated input signals case. In order to fully simulate a Current and Voltage signal coming
directly from the mains the interface used between the functions generator and the ©Arduino device
was the one presented in Figures 6a & 6b in the previous section, without the need to employ a
Current Transformer (CT) and a Mains Current Transformer (AC to AC power adapter), respectively.

6 Conclusion
Optimum operation of many of the already proposed algorithms and methods for calculating Power
components is restricted due to their strong dependency on a stable fundamental frequency for the
system. Some other methods and algorithms can only operate optimally with one specific fundamental
frequency for the system.
In this paper the realisation methodology of the PWM based method for Active and Reactive
Power measurement presented. The approach to the method is based on the application of a
combination of filtering and PWM to calculate the Average value of the Power components. The
mathematical foundation of the method is found on the definition of the Instantaneous Electric Power.
The considerable simplification factor of the realisation approach is based on the capabilities and the
programming flexibility offered by the ©Arduino device, around which the prototype evaluation of
the algorithm was built. Within the algorithm the number of computing operations considerably
restricted to summations, instead of the more computationally demanding multiplications, and this is
 one of the strong holds of the method. The algorithm is currently under extensive expansion through
further optimisation procedures.

7 Acknowledgements
This work has been funded by the EPSRC, within the (Build)TEDDI network programme (Project
Name: “An Intelligent Digital Household Network to Transform Low Carbon Lifestyles”, E8439).

References
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