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Floral Symmetry and Its Role in Plant-Pollinator S
Floral Symmetry and Its Role in Plant-Pollinator S
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Amots Dafni
Institute of Evolution, University of Haifa, Haifa 31905, Israel;
e-mail: adafni@research.haifa.ac.il
Martin Giurfa
Institute for Neurobiology, Free University of Berlin, Königin-Luise-Str.
28/30, 14195 Berlin, Germany; e-mail: giurfa@neuro.biologie.fu-berlin.de
ABSTRACT
Floral symmetry has figured prominently in the study of both pollination biology
and animal behavior. However, a confusion of terminology and the diffuse nature
of the literature has limited our understanding of the role that this basic charac-
teristic of flower form has played in plant-pollinator interactions. Here, we first
contribute a classification scheme for floral symmetry that we hope will resolve
some of the confusion resulting from the inconsistent application of terms. Next,
we present a short review of the distribution of floral forms in angiosperm fam-
ilies. Finally, we provide a list of hypotheses and, when available, supporting
evidence for the causes of the evolution of floral symmetry.
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0066-4162/98/1120-0345$08.00
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346 NEAL ET AL
INTRODUCTION
Floral symmetry played an important role in Sprengel’s (110) pioneering at-
tempt to relate form to function in the pollination of flowering plants. He
recognized two types of floral symmetry, regular and irregular. Regular flowers
were those in which the pistil(s), stamens, and segments of the perianth radi-
ated out uniformly from the central axis. Furthermore, all segments of each
organ type were equal in size and form. Irregular flowers were those in which
any parts of the perianth or sexual organs did not meet these criteria. Sprengel
suggested that regularity should be the rule unless circumstances resulted in an
advantage to irregularity. He went on to propose several hypotheses concerning
circumstances that would result in such an advantage.
Several forms of irregular flowers [i.e. nonradially symmetric or nonacti-
nomorphic in modern terminology (see below and Table 1)] have been recog-
nized. The modern phylogenetic approach, although philosophically far from
Sprengel’s teleological and creationistic outlook (121), suggests that most of the
species with irregular flowers were derived from species with regular flowers
(i.e. radially symmetric or actinomorphic) (16, 112, 114). We are still looking
for the circumstances that give the advantage to irregularity.
Study of pollination ecology has played an important role in investigations of
floral symmetry. In particular, honeybees have been the subject of many studies
related to symmetry preferences (69) and perception (39, 59). Honeybees can
be trained to respond to various visual stimuli, allowing investigation of the
perceptual and processing mechanisms associated with the responses to these
stimuli.
As a result of a long history and interest by biologists in a variety of fields, the
literature regarding floral symmetry is widely scattered in publications about
botany, ecology, animal physiology, and behavior. Unfortunately, the diffuse
nature of the literature and diversity of interests of the investigators have pre-
vented an integrated understanding of floral symmetry. The problem is further
exacerbated by inconsistent use of terminology regarding symmetry. We point
out and reconcile some of the problems relating to the description and classifi-
cation of floral symmetry. We summarize the hypotheses that have been used
to explain evolutionary changes in symmetry and suggest some directions for
new research in floral symmetry.
(Pontederiaceae), Solanum
di-enantiomorphy Style-stamen morphs on (Solanaceae), Barberetta and
separate plants Wachendorffia (Haemodoraceae)
a
Modified from References 32, 73, 102, 123, and 129.
347
b
Symmetry based on overall pattern of flower, not solely on perianth; see text for discussion.
c
Terms listed may be full or partial synonyms; many have been ambiguously applied.
d
Although organs radiate from the principal axis, the spiral arrangement of organs results in no repetition of pattern for the flower as a whole.
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348 NEAL ET AL
describe overall floral form (i.e. three-dimensional shape) but radial and bilateral
to describe floral symmetry. Most researchers have used the term radial sym-
metry as a synonym of actinomorphy, and the term bilateral symmetry as a syn-
onym of zygomorphy. However, according to Leppik’s classification scheme,
not all radially symmetric flowers are actinomorphic, and bilateral flowers may
or may not be zygomorphic. Leppik (72–75) also used similar terms to describe
structures other than flowers (for example, paleomorphy for primitive nonan-
giosperm fossil forms and amorphy for flowers arranged in clusters (e.g. catkins
in Salix and capitula in Asteraceae). In Table 1, we present a classification of
floral symmetry aimed to remove much of the present ambiguity. In accor-
dance with common usage in the literature, we equate radial symmetry with
actinomorphy. Similarly, we equate bilateral symmetry with the most common
type of zygomorphy (i.e. medial zygomorphy). We favor the term medial zy-
gomorphy over dorsiventral zygomorphy because the latter implies a vertical
en face orientation of the flower; the term is thus inappropriate for species that
are oriented horizontally (e.g. most Apiaceae, Asteraceae, Dipsacaceae).
350 NEAL ET AL
352 NEAL ET AL
Number of families
Symmetry type All families Dicots Monocots
Number of families
Symmetry type All families Dicots Monocots
Ancestrally asymmetric
Exclusively 10 9 1
Primarily 1 1 0
Actinomorphic
Exclusively 129 116 13
Primarily 46 40 6
Equally actinomorphic and 14 12 2
medially zygomorphic
Medially zygomorphic
Exclusively 13 12 1
Primarily 28 22 6
Total 241 212 29
a
Compiled from References 3, 55, 56, 68, 98, 104, and 105.
(e.g. petals and stamens, or stamens and pistil) (13, 133). The polar coordinate
model for zygomorphy builds on the ABC model to hypothesize that another
gene(s) varies in function in the upper and lower halves of the flower, generally
with a gradient of increasing functional effect through the vertical axis of the
flower (7, 12, 79). There is, thus, a unique polar coordinate specified for each
floral organ and the result is reflectional symmetry. This model explains several
phenomena of floral morphology and/or function observed in A. majus and other
species. For example, the vestigial uppermost stamen in A. majus and other
species in the Scrophulariaceae may result because it lies further up along the
vertical axis than do the other stamens.
Position of flowers in the inflorescence also appears to play an important
role in floral symmetry (12). The inflorescence of A. majus has indeterminant
growth; however, there is a recessive allele that results in mutants with termi-
nal flowers (62). These flowers have radial symmetry and all organs resemble
those in the lower half of the typical zygomorphic flower, so they are peloric
mutants. There are, however, other mutants with peloric flowers in axillary po-
sitions (12). The asymmetric environment of the axillary floral meristem of the
inflorescence may be necessary for action of genes controlling zygomorphic
floral symmetry (14, 79). That zygomorphy is a derived condition is suggested
by the fact that there are many mutations producing actinomorphic flowers
in normally zygomorphic species, but few mutations in the reverse direction
(21, 136). Certainly, the evolution of zygomorphy and the evolution of the
inflorescence may be intimately related (11).
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354 NEAL ET AL
Environmental Conditions
PROTECTION FROM RAIN HYPOTHESIS As originally proposed by Sprengel
(110), the upper lip of horizontally positioned flowers functions as a “nectar
cover,” protecting the nectar from rain. The lower lip, which does not serve
this function, differs in shape. Sprengel suggested that the upper lip would be
similar in form to the corolla of a pendulous flower, while the lower lip would
resemble that of an erect flower. It has also been proposed that protection
of the pollen from rain may be the driving force in the evolution of medial
zygomorphic symmetry (118). We know of no systematic research on the
relationships among symmetry, covers over nectar and/or pollen, dilution of
nectar by rain, and effects of rain (water) on pollen viability and presentation.
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356 NEAL ET AL
which an insect has been trained (9, 38, 131). For colored patterns, however,
this applies only to long-wavelength colors; in ultraviolet light, the upper part
of the visual field seems to have a more important role (83).
Flies remember the position of stimuli in the visual field and are able to dis-
tinguish two identical patterns displaced by 9◦ in space (26). Such displacement
experiments reveal that position information is a prerequisite for recognition of
a learned pattern. Thus, stimuli learned at one height relative to the én face axis
of the flower would not be distinguished at a new height. Clearly, the restriction
of the approach direction resulting from vertically presented bilateral symmetry
contributes to position invariance and, thus, to efficient recognition of flower
patterns. Visual fixation and scanning behavior would also greatly contribute
to recognition. Indeed, before landing on a vertically presented pattern, honey-
bees fix it visually by adjusting all six degrees of locomotor freedom (roll, pitch,
and yaw as well as forward-backward, sideways, and upward-downward move-
ments) relative to the landing point (132) and scan it on suspended flight (70).
Thus, we postulate that manipulation of the landing of hymenopteran pol-
linators (and possibly other groups) will be enhanced in flowers with vertical
advertising surfaces if the more complicated color pattern (e.g. nectar guides)
as well as the dissected parts of the flower corolla (e.g. labellum or lobes) are
concentrated at the lower part of the flower. Different patterns in the upper and
lower halves of the flower will result in medial zygomorphic symmetry patterns.
The position of the flower relative to an approaching visitor is critical in this hy-
pothesis. It seems significant that, in contrast to radially symmetrical flowers,
zygomorphic flowers are primarily vertical in én face orientation and tend to
have less variable orientation both within and between plants (84, 97, 99, 112).
Such a spatial orientation results in a restriction of the approach flight of the
bee and thus facilitates the matching strategy.
It would be interesting to compare the visual complexity of the upper and
lower halves of zygomorphic flowers pollinated by bees and by birds, which
presumably do not have this visual field bias. However, ornithophilous flowers
with hovering and nonhovering pollinators should be considered separately
because flowers pollinated by hovering birds may have a reduced lower margin
for other reasons (see the dangerous lower margin hypothesis below).
358 NEAL ET AL
Idaho (94). Harper (47) suggested that zygomorphy is more common among
rare species (but see comments under the pollen position hypothesis below).
in Free’s experiments was not controlled, their choices may have reflected the
information they learned in their encounters with flowers in the field and not an
innate preference.
Nevertheless, it has been repeatedly suggested that pollinators “spontaneous-
ly” prefer symmetrical flowers and/or models (35, 69, 86, 88). The critical prob-
lem in testing these so-called spontaneous preferences is control of the previous
experience of the animals. Most researchers tested these preferences without
attention to this aspect. Insects, particularly honeybees, were usually trained to
collect sucrose solution at a site that was not associated with any particular stim-
ulus and then, at the same site, were presented with various stimuli that were,
in principle, novel to them. The choices made may have reflected their previous
experience with flower stimuli in the field rather than true spontaneous prefer-
ences. Only tests with naive pollinators [e.g. bumblebees (78), honeybees (41),
butterflies (109), hawkmoths (61)] can provide evidence on innate preferences
for particular stimuli.
Bees trained to discriminate bilaterally symmetric from nonsymmetric pat-
terns learn the task and transfer it appropriately to novel stimuli, thus demon-
strating a capacity to detect and generalize symmetry versus asymmetry (39),
showing that bees use symmetry as an independent feature in pattern percep-
tion. Horridge (59) confirmed that bees can be trained to distinguish the axis of
bilateral symmetry of a set of different patterns. Bees trained to select symmetri-
cal patterns performed better than bees trained to select asymmetrical patterns
(39). This result may reflect an innate predisposition to respond to stimuli
that are biologically relevant (41, 82) and has important consequences in the
field of pollination: If potential pollinators particularly beneficial to the plant
(e.g. having high levels of constancy, pollen transfer efficiency, outcross pollen
deposition) have an innate preference for zygomorphic forms, there should be
strong selection for this morphology (but see 54).
Møller (86) suggested that impairing symmetry of a bilaterally symmetric
flower (e.g. by cutting parts of flower petals) reduces the visitation rate of
pollinators such as bumblebees and, thus, that bumblebees perform assortative
pollination on the basis of symmetry as a flower feature. However, care must be
exercised in interpreting experiments that damage a flower because the visitors
may be responding to confounding factors such as changes in flower size,
chemical signature, or optical properties that result from damaging the flower.
Much more needs to be learned about the innate preferences of all pollinator
groups as well as their relative qualities as pollinators.
360 NEAL ET AL
lower than for the radial group (one-tailed t-test: t = 1.73, d.f. = 17, p = 0.051).
These results, limited as they are, suggest that the level of fluctuating asymme-
try may be lower, in general, for species with bilaterally symmetrical flowers
than for species with radially symmetrical flowers. The data are somewhat
preliminary, but they do suggest that further investigation is warranted.
362 NEAL ET AL
that not all individuals of a species may acquire the ability to extract rewards
from some complex flowers (e.g. bumblebees on Aconitum napellus).
Although this hypothesis applies generally to all taxonomic groups (71, 74),
most research has focused on the learning ability of the bees (e.g. 27, 64, 67).
Within the superfamily Apoidae, bees are often classified into two groups based
on their behavioral sophistication or learning ability. Several different sets of
contrasting terms have been used to distinguish between the groups (e.g. so-
phisticated, advanced, higher, specialist, social, and literate contrasted with
less advanced, primitive, lower, generalist, unskilled, solitary, and illiterate). In
addition, the terms generalist and specialist are sometimes used to describe diet
breadth rather than neuronal properties of the bees (67). More sophisticated
bees are said to be found on more complex flowers. The argument some-
times becomes circular because the bees are often classified by the flowers they
visit, rather than by experimental tests of learning ability. Within the “higher”
Apoidae (i.e. the Family Apidae and possibly Anthophoridae), Dukas & Real
(27) claimed that social Bombus (Family Apidae) have better learning capacities
than solitary Xylocopa (Family Anthophoridae) concerning flower reward, but
we are not aware of any experimental evidence showing that “higher” Apoidae
have better learning ability and/or better memory capabilities than “lower”
Apoidae. Their study also raises the problem of the control of the rewarded
trials for studies of learning abilities. If learning rates are to be characterized,
a complete record of the rewarded and nonrewarded trials must be kept. The
latter are critical for learning because they constitute extinction trials in which
a bee learns that a given signal is not associated with reward. Usually, they are
ignored, as in the study of Dukas & Real (27), but revisiting a just-depleted
flower is as important as getting a reward from it.
Few data exist regarding other pollinator groups and their ability to obtain
rewards from flowers of different “complexity.” Lewis (77) determined dis-
covery time (i.e. time from landing on a flower to finding nectar) in successive
visits for the cabbage butterfly, Pieris rapae, on a variety of flowers varying in
“complexity” as assessed by the human eye. Lewis concluded that it is difficult
to determine “precisely how flower features influence learning time. The re-
sults do, however, suggest that flower morphology does influence learning time,
with human judgements of morphological complexity having some predictive
value” (77, p. 232). Despite this, it is clear that én face knowledge of floral
morphology will not permit specific prediction about the relative difficulty that
different pollinators will have in obtaining access to various flowers (65, 77).
More data of this type need to be collected across a wide range of pollinators
and flower types, quantifying complexity rigorously.
The complexity–neuronal/behavioral sophistication hypothesis also sug-
gests that bilaterally symmetrical flowers require higher sensory perception in
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pollinators than radially symmetrical flowers and “other less complicated flow-
ers,” which would be expected to be associated with pollinators having less
sensory development. Much of the evidence for this part of the hypothesis has
been indirect or speculative.
A mechanism based on matching with neuronal filters has been proposed for
the perception of symmetry (58, 69). Neuronal detectors that are specialized in
detection of radial, circular (i.e. patterns of concentric rings), or spiral motion
have been shown in humans (90), and it was proposed that bees (and other pol-
linators) use similar detectors to categorize radial and circular patterns on the
basis of symmetry, without attention to other local cues. In the same way, sim-
ilar neuronal detectors for bilaterally symmetric patterns have been proposed
to exist in bees and other pollinators (39). Alternatively, it has been postulated
that symmetry might be detected by the interactive combination of a radial filter
(58, 69) and an average-orientation filter (59) such as those found in dragonflies
(92) and in honeybees (137). After being passed through a radial filter, many
bilaterally symmetrical patterns are left with some preferred orientation, which
would reveal the axis of symmetry. There is no evidence for deciding between
the two possibilities. Regarding radial versus bilateral symmetry detection,
there is no evidence to suggest that one class of detector should be considered
perceptually more sophisticated than another. Moreover, that classes of detec-
tors operate with different types of symmetry is not necessarily correlated with
differences in learning ability.
364 NEAL ET AL
an energetic cost whereby time spent learning to handle the complex new form
reduces the rate of reward intake compared to flowers with which the pollinator
has experience (52, 66). The argument has also been made that cost of constancy
and fully learning to handle a complex flower ultimately results in a higher return
(22) as well as reduces competition from less constant pollinators or individu-
als (64). However, Laverty (66) found for bumblebees that the cost in time of
switching was small and not likely to account for constancy. Another possible
cost of learning to handle additional flowers might be interference with the ef-
ficiency on, or even elimination of, the ability to handle flowers already learned
(76, 125, 126). There is some support for interference in several pollinator taxa
(76, 77, 91), but interpretation of these results is difficult because many of the
early studies lack appropriate controls for the motivation and experience of the
animals tested. However, in a series of studies on bumblebees Laverty and his
group have found no evidence of a complete elimination of an already learned
skill, even as long as 24 h after learning to handle a new flower (37, 66, 67, 135).
Activity Patterns of the Pollinators
NATURAL POSITION HYPOTHESIS Sprengel (110) observed that the natural po-
sition of insects in flight is upright. Similarly, although an inverted position
is possible when walking or standing, it is usually avoided because it requires
more effort. As a result of this “natural position,” all horizontal or downward
inclining flowers would be approached from only one direction. Sprengel sug-
gested that, therefore, the anthers and stigma would be placed in the position
most “suitable” for the natural position of the pollinators (i.e. irregular anthers
and stigma(s) would result in better contact with the pollinator). Under the
influence of gravity, changes in the orientation of a flower sometimes result in
irregularity of stamens and style (e.g. Epilobium angustifolium) (129).
INFLORESCENCE TYPE–FLOWER ORIENTATION HYPOTHESIS According to this
hypothesis, actinomorphic flowers arranged in vertical racemes or spikes, es-
pecially those with tightly clustered flowers, would provide poor landing plat-
forms (110, 112, 113). Therefore, in species visited by pollinators that land
on the flower (as opposed to those that only hover, e.g. hummingbirds and
hawkmoths), the lower lip of the flower is expanded to provide a platform.
Sprengel (110) also suggested that, because pollinators will approach and con-
tact the flower from one direction, the lower lip may be enlarged for attraction,
in addition to its function as a landing platform.
POLLEN POSITION HYPOTHESIS This hypothesis suggests that in bilaterally
symmetrical flowers, the visitor is restricted to certain directions in its ap-
proach to and its movement on and/or within the flower. This is in contrast to
radially symmetric flowers in which the visitor may approach the flower from
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October 16, 1998 18:59 Annual Reviews AR067-13
any direction (33, 47, 74). The restricted approach results in increased preci-
sion of pollen placement on, and stigma contact with, the pollinator’s body
(2, 51, 64, 80). The increased precision thus results in a higher proportion of
pollen reaching the stigma. Bowers (4) proposed a similar process for evolution
of enantiomorphy.
In an unusual application of this hypothesis, Harper (47) suggested that “floral
zygomorphy confers a reproductive advantage to rare plants” as a result of the
enhanced pollination efficiency (47, p. 135). He found over-representation of
bilaterally symmetry in the rare flowers of five floras (one each in California and
Colorado, and three in Utah), but only in one of these was the association signif-
icant. Therefore, his statement that there is a “universal over-representation of
bilaterally symmetrical flowers among the rare taxa of all floras” needs further
validation, especially in light of modern concepts concerning the definition of
“rarity” in plants (101, p. 134).
Leppik (74) hypothesized that bilateral symmetry (i.e. medial zygomorphy)
would make pollination be more efficient and also speculated (without giving
a reason) that cross-pollination would thereby be more effective. Increased
outcrossing has also been proposed as the driving force behind enantiomorphy
(28, 29, 93), However, Fenster (34) suggested that enantiomorphy might actu-
ally increase selfing through geitonogamous visits to both morphs on the same
plant. Fenster (34) found a small increase in the outcrossing rate of artificially
non-enantiomorphous compared to enantiomorphous plants, and concluded that
enantiomorphy is not a mechanism to promote outcrossing. Robertson (106,
p. 344) hypothesized that “flower features that promote approach from all di-
rections will lead to higher (pollen) carryover.” Thus, in direct contrast to
various versions of the pollen position hypothesis, actinomorphy should be the
symmetry type that promotes outcrossing.
366 NEAL ET AL
The pollen position and reward wastage hypotheses are difficult to separate.
Both are thought to promote more efficient pollination (i.e. greater reproductive
return from investment in pollen and reward). Although these arguments sound
logical, experimental evidence is scarce and most of the aspects need validation,
especially in comparison to actinomorphic flowers. Does bilateral symmetry
result in more efficient pollination? For example, what proportion of pollen
is actually deposited on stigmas in actinomorphic versus medial zygomorphic
flowers? Does the proportion differ for generalist and specialist pollinators?
meet the energetically higher costs of hovering, birds would have to visit more
flowers (53). Hovering would also accelerate the rate at which flowers could
be visited (50). Both of these effects would tend to increase outcrossing rates.
FEEDING ANTHER–POLLEN COLLECTION HYPOTHESIS Faegri & van der Pijl (33)
mentioned in passing that zygomorphy may be induced in families dominated
by radially symmetrical flowers. This is thought to result from the tendency
for feeding anthers to cluster in one part of the flower. Faegri & van der Pijl
(33) implied that the manipulations required to remove pollen from feeding
anthers (e.g. squeezing or vibrating anthers) may be the ultimate cause of the
zygomorphy, but gave no specific selective forces. Dulberger (28) suggested
that enantiomorphy may reduce the possibility of damage to the stigma dur-
ing the vigorous manipulation required during buzz-pollination. Furthermore,
separation of stigma and anthers in enantiomorphy may reduce the possibility
of self-pollination resulting from the cloud of dry pollen released as the vector
[usually a bee (6)] vibrates the anthers. Fenster (34) compared enantiomorphy to
heterostyly and suggested that both may function to facilitate pollen collection
and dispersal by reducing interference between male and female organs (128).
368 NEAL ET AL
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
During the preparation of this review, PRN was supported by a fellowship
from the Council of Higher Education of Israel and by grants from the
Saloma Foundation; PRN and AD were generously supported by the Henk and
Dorothy Schussheim Fund for Ecological Research on Mt. Carmel, Israel; MG
was supported by the Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung and the International
Foundation for Science. We thank S Armbrutster, P Bernhardt, RI Bertin,
L Chittka, R Cruden, P Endress, D Firmage, PG Kevan, TM Laverty, G LeBuhn,
S Potts, C Schlichting, and S Vogel for discussions and/or for comments and
criticisms on early drafts of the manuscript.
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