Unit 2

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

TRANSFORMER

WHAT IS A TRANSFORMER?
A transformer is a device used in the power transmission of electric energy. The
transmission current is AC. It is commonly used to increase or decrease the supply
voltage without a change in the frequency of AC between circuits. The
transformer works on basic principles of electromagnetic induction and mutual
induction.

A Transformer is a static electrical machine which transfers AC electrical power

from one circuit to the other circuit at the constant frequency, but the voltage
level can be altered that means voltage can be increased or decreased according
to the requirement.

NECESSITY OF A TRANSFORMER

If (V2 > V1) the voltage is raised on the output side and is known as Step-
up transformer

If (V2 < V1) the voltage level is lowered on the output side and is known
as Step down transformer.
TRANSFORMER TYPES
Transformers are used in various fields like
 power generation grid,
 distribution sector,
 transmission and electric energy consumption.

There are various types of transformers which are classified based on the
following factors;
 Working voltage range.
 The medium used in the core.
 Winding arrangement.
 Installation location.

BASED ON VOLTAGE LEVELS

Commonly used transformer type, depending upon voltage they are classified as:
 Step-up Transformer: They are used between the power generator and the
power grid. The secondary output voltage is higher than the input voltage.
 Step down Transformer: These transformers are used to convert high
voltage primary supply to low voltage secondary output.

Based on the Medium of Core Used

In a transformer, we will find different types of cores that are used.
 Air core Transformer: The flux linkage between primary and secondary
winding is through the air. The coil or windings wound on the non-magnetic
strip.
 Iron core Transformer: Windings are wound on multiple iron plates stacked
together, which provides a perfect linkage path to generate flux.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A TRANSFORMER

  The transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction and mutual induction.

 There are usually two coils, primary coil and secondary coil on the
transformer core.

 The core laminations are joined in the form of strips. The two coils have
high mutual inductance.

 When an alternating current pass through the primary coil, forms a varying
magnetic flux as per faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction

 and this change in magnetic flux induces an emf (electromotive force) in

the secondary coil which is linked to the core having a primary coil.This is
mutual induction.

APPLICATIONS OF TRANSFORMER
  transformer transmits electrical energy through wires over long distances.
 Transformers with multiple secondary’s are used in radio and TV receivers 
which require several different voltages.
 Transformers are used as voltage regulators.

Insulation tester
 It is an electronic device which is used to identify and measure current
leakage and damaged or faulty insulation,

 which can lead to arc faults,

 blown circuits
 and risk of electrical shock and fire.

 Insulation testers use a High voltage Current, Low Voltage Current, DC

charge to measure the resistance within wires and motor Windings

AC THEORY
DEFINITION OF ALTERNATING CURRENT

 The current which changes its directions periodically, such type of current is
called alternating current.

 Their magnitude and polarity also change along with the time.

 In such types of current, the free electrons (electric charge) moved in the
forward as well as in the backwards direction.
  The frequency of the alternating current is 50 to 60 Hz depends on the
country.

 The alternating current is easily converted from the high value to low value
and vice versa with the help of the transformer.

 Thus, it is mainly used for transmission and distribution.

DEFINITION OF DIRECT CURRENT

 When the electric charge inside the conductor flows in one direction, then
such type of current is called direct current.

 The magnitude of the direct current always remains constant and the
frequency of the current is zero.

 It is used in cell phones, electric vehicles, welding, electronic equipment,

etc.
  The graphical representation of the DC current is shown in the figure
below.

ALTERNATING CURRENT VS DIRECT CURRENT (AC VS DC)

 The major difference between the AC and DC is the direction of flow of
electric energy which is also the cause of their different characteristics.

 In DC, Electrons flow steadily in a single direction or forward, while in AC,

electrons alternate their direction of flow in periodic intervals.

 This also leads to alternation in the voltage level as it switches from positive
to negative.

AC CIRCUIT

 The circuit that is excited using alternating source is called an AC Circuit. 
  The alternating current (AC) is used for domestic and industrial purposes

 In an AC circuit, the value of the magnitude and the direction of current and
voltages is not constant, it changes at a regular interval .

 it travels as a sinusoidal wave completing one cycle as half positive and half
negative cycle

 In DC Circuit, the opposition to the flow of current is the only resistance of

the circuit

 whereas ,in the AC circuit, the opposition to the flow of current is because
of

1. resistance (R),
2. Inductive Reactance (XL=2πfL)
3. capacitive reactance (XC = 1/2 πfC)
of the circuit.

ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT IN AN AC CIRCUIT

 The voltage that changes its polarity and magnitude at regular interval of
time is called an alternating voltage.
 Similarly, the direction of the current is changed and the magnitude of
current changes with time it is called alternating current.

 When an alternating voltage source is connected across a load resistance

as shown in the figure below, the current through it flows in one direction
and then in the opposite direction when the polarity is reversed.
There are various types of AC circuit such as
AC
circuit

containing only resistance (R),

AC circuit containing only capacitance (C),
AC
circuit

containing only inductance (L),

the combination of RL Circuit,
AC circuit containing resistance and capacitance (RC),
AC circuit containing inductance and capacitance (LC)
and resistance inductance and capacitance (RLC) AC circuit.
 The various terms which are frequently used in an AC circuit are as follows
 Amplitude
The maximum positive or negative value attained by an alternating quantity in
one complete cycle is called Amplitude or peak value or maximum value.
The amplitude of voltage and current is represented by Em or Vm and
Im respectively.

 Cycle
When one set of positive and negative values is completed by an alternating
quantity or it goes through 360 degrees electrical, it is said to have one complete
Cycle.
 Frequency
The number of cycles made per second by an alternating quantity is called
frequency. It is measured in cycle per second (c/s) or hertz (Hz) and is denoted by
(f).
 Time Period
The time taken in seconds by a voltage or a current to complete one cycle is called
Time Period. It is denoted by (T).

PEAK VALUE
 The maximum value attained by an alternating quantity during one cycle is
called its Peak value.
 It is also known as the maximum value or amplitude or crest value.
  The sinusoidal alternating quantity obtains its peak value at 90 degrees as
shown in the figure below.

 The peak values of alternating voltage and current is represented by E m and

Im respectively.

R.M.S Value
Definition: That steady current which, when flows through a resistor of known
resistance for a given period of time And produces the same amount of heat of
than as a result the quantity of heat is produced by the alternating current when
flows through the same resistor for the same period of time , is called R.M.S or
effective value of the alternating current.

In other words, the R.M.S value is defined as the square root of means of squares
of instantaneous values.

What is Hysteresis?
Hysteresis occurs in a system that involves a magnetic field. Hysteresis is the
common property of ferromagnetic substances. Generally, when the
magnetization of ferromagnetic materials lags behind the magnetic field this
effect can be described as the hysteresis effect.
Definition: The meaning of hysteresis is”lagging”.  
Hysteresis is characterized as a lag of magnetization intensity (B) behind the magn
etic field  intens
ity (H). 
 All ferromagnetic materials exhibit the phenomena of hysteresis.
There are two types of hysteresis;
 Rate-dependent hysteresis
 rate-independent hysteresis

Hysteresis Loop
The hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the intensity of
magnetization and the magnetizing field.

 The intensity of the magnetism (B)  is increased when the magnetic field (H)
is increased from 0 (zero
 With increasing the magnetic field there is an increase in the value of
magnetism and finally reaches point A which is called saturation point
where B is constant.
  With a decrease in the value of the magnetic field, there is a decrease in
the value of magnetism.
•Where substance or material retains some amount of magnetism is
called retentivity.
 When there is a decrease/increase in the magnetic field towards the
negative side, magnetism also decreases/increases.
 At point C the substance is completely demagnetized. The force required
to remove the retentivity of the material is known as Coercivity (C).
 Due to the forward and opposite direction process, the cycle is complete
and this cycle is called the hysteresis loop.
MAGNETIC ELEMENTS OF EARTH
The elements are:

1-Magnetic declination (q)

2-Magnetic inclination (d)

3-Horizontal component (BH)

Magnetic declination:
The small angle between magnetic axis and geographic axis at a place is defined as
magnetic declination.it is represented by θ.
Magnetic Inclination:
Magnetic dip, dip angle, or magnetic inclination is the angle made with the
horizontal by the compass needle of a vertically held compass.

This angle varies at different points on the Earth's surface.

Positive values of inclination indicate that the magnetic field of the Earth is pointing
downward, into the Earth, at the point of measurement.

(1)At equator the magnetic field is parallel to the horizon so there will be zero angle
of dip.

(2) At poles the magnetic field is almost vertical, here the dip will me maximum.

Horizontal component :
It is the component of earth’s magnetic field along the horizontal direction.
So the angle of dip is the angle between earth’s magnetic field i.e. B and the
horizontal component i.e. BH.
Isoclinic lines:
A line on a map connecting points of equal dips in the earth's
magnetic field.

Isogonic lines:

The lines traced on the surface of the globe, or upon a chart, connecting
places at which the deviation of the magnetic needle from the
meridian or true north is the same.

Solenoid
 The solenoid is a coil of wire that acts like an
electromagnet when a flow of electricity passes through
it.
 A solenoid wire is wrapped around a metalic core.

 Speaker and microphones both contain solenoids.

 Since solenoid has immeasurable length, when current
flows through it, the magnetic field is equal along this
element.
 A solenoid allows even a very small electrical
components to do a tremendous amount of work.
 One can calculate the magnetic field using a simple
mathematical formula

B = μoIN / L or. B = μonI

Where,

N = number of turns in the solenoid

n = number of turns per unit area

I = current in the coil

 L = length of the coi

 Please note that the magnetic field in the coil is

proportional to the applied current and number of
turns per unit length.
 Types of Solenoids
 AC- Laminated Solenoid.

 DC- C Frame Solenoid.

 DC- D Frame Solenoid.

 Linear Solenoid.
  Rotary Solenoid.

Solenoid

 Advantages of Solenoids
The advantages of the solenoid are
 high flow capability,
 reliability
 and low power consumption

 Disadvantages of Solenoids
Common solenoid problems include:
 plungers that are stuck either in or out,
 attached valves that are frozen in place,
 bad internal coil windings,
 and excessive noise during operation

 Application of Solenoid
  The main use of solenoid is as a switch for
power.

 They are used in inductors, valves, antennas,

etc.

 Its application is in varied fields like medical,

industrial use, locking systems, automotive, etc.

 They are used in computer printers.

Toroid
 A toroid is a coil of insulated or enameled wire wound on a
donut-shaped form made of powdered iron.
 Toroid

 A toroid is an endless solenoid in the form of a ring.

 The magnetic field inside a toroid is given as,

B = (μoNI / 2πr)

Where

I = current flowing through the solenoid.

Let r be the average radius of the toroid

and n be the number of turns per unit length

and N = 2πrn = (average) perimeter of the toroid × number of turns

per unit length.

On comparing the two results: for a solenoid and toroid. Equations

(1) and (3) will give, we get B = μ0 n I, i.e., the result for the
solenoid.
Applications

Multiple applications use toroids.

 Used in toroidal transformers

 Inducers
 Amplifiers
 Inverters
 Telecommunication systems
 Music instruments
 Medical devices

Advantages

 High Flux Density”

 Low Mechanical Hum
 Low Magnetic Field
 Small in Size
 Low Off Load Loss

Disadvantages

 more expensive construction,

 limitations on multi-phase systems,
 and higher inrush current