Innovation in English Language Teaching

Innovation in English Language Teaching
‘This v o l u m c brings to the fore divcrsc, f u n d a m c n t a l issucs a b o u t thc processes a n d

politics of c u r r i c u l u m c h a n g e and i m p r o v e m e n t , new t e c h n o l o g i e s , a n d concepts of
language use, c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d i n s t r u c t i o n vital to g u i d i n g the organization a n d
practiccs of teaching English internationally.’ Alister Cumming, Ontario lnstitritqfbr Studies
in Education, Ilniversiq, $Toronto
Teaching English Language Worldwide

A sclcction o f r e a d e r s ’ commmts o n the series:
‘This thrcc-part series offkrs a map to ELT research and practice . . . it represents the best
that EI.T, as an Anglo-Saxon institution, has dcvclopctl over thc last thirty years for the teaching
of English around the \vorld . . . Readers will f n d in this scrics the Who’s Who guide t o this
dynamic antl expanding community.’ Claire Kramsch, Unitwsiy !/‘Cul!/brnia, Berkele)., CulIfbrnia
‘Experienced knglish language instructors sccking to tlecpen their kno\vlctlgc ant1 abilities
will find this series forms a coherent basis to d lop their understanding of current trcntls,
sociocultural diversity, and topical interests in teaching English as a second or foreign language
around the \vorld. All thrcc \olumcs pro\ idc ample flexibility for discussion, interpretation,
antl adaptation in local scttings.’ ,41ister Ctirnrning, Ontario Institute for S t t i d i e s in Educarion,
Universiy ?ffToronto
‘This scrics pro\ ides a collection of essential readings \vhich will not onl! pro\ itlc the
TEFI./TESOL student anti tcachcr \\ ith access to the most up-to-tlatc thinking and approaches
to the subject but mill give any person interested in the suhjcct an over\ ic\z of the phenomenon
of thc usc antl usage of English in the modern nurltl. Perhaps morc importantly, this series
\vi11 be crucial to thosc studcnts \z ho do not h a w available t o them articles that providc both
a \vide spectrum of information antl the neccssary analytical tools to investigate the language
turthcr.’Josepb,l. E’olej;Soiitbeu. iu Jlinirters oftducation Orpnisution, Regionul Lungiiule Centre,
Singapore
‘The strong rcprcscntation o f the seminal Anglo- Australian tlc\clopmcnt o f the European
functional tradition in the study of languagc antl language education makes this a rclrcshingl!
bracing scrics, \z hich should hc \vitlcl! used in tcachcr education tor English languagc
teaching.’ Liicin Reid, / n y t i r r i t e f E d u c u t i o n , IJniversiy of/.ondon
‘In a principled antl accessible manner, thcsc thrcc 1 olumcs living together major bvritings o n
essential topics in the stud? o f English languagc tcaching. They provide broatl coverage of
current thinking and debate o n major issucs, providing an in\ aluable resource for the
contcmporarq postgraduate student.’ Guy Cook, llnii crsit?, of Reading
Teaching English Language Worldwide
Companion volumes
The companion volumes in this series are:
Analysing English Language i n a Global Context, edited by Anne Burns and Caroline Coffin
English Language Teaching in its Social Contextedited by Christopher N. Candlin and Neil
Mercer
These three readers are part of a scheme of study jointly developed by Macquarie University,
Sydney, Australia, and the open University, United I<ingdom. A t the Open University, the
three readers are part of a single course, Teaching English to Speakers o f Other Languages
Worldwide, which forms part of the Open University M A in Education (Applied Linguistics)
and Advanced Diploma in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages. At Macquarie
University, the three readers' are each attached t o single study units, which form part of the
Postgraduate Diploma and Master of Applied Linguistics programmes.
The Open University M A in Education is now established as the most popular postgraduate
degree for U I< education professionals, with over 3,500 students registering each year.
From 2001 i t will also be available worldwide. The M A in Education is designed particularly
for those with experience in teaching, educational administration or allied fields. The M A
is a modular degree and students are free t o select, from a range of options, the programme
that best fits in with their interests and professional goals. The M A in Education programme
provides great flexibility. Students study at their own pace and in their own time. They
receive specially prepared study materials, and are supported by a personal tutor.
(Successful completion of the M A in Education (Applied Linguistics) entitles students t o
apply for entry t o the Open University Doctorate in Education (Ed.D.) programme.)
The Professional Development in Education prospectus contains further information and
application forms. To find out more about the Open University and request your copy please
write t o the Course Reservations and Sales Centre, The Open University, PO Box 724,
Walton Hall, Milton I<eynes M1<7 bZW, or e-mail ces-gen@open.ac.uk, or telephone
+44 ( 0 ) 01908 653231 or visit the website www.open.ac.ul<. For more information on the
M A in Education (Applied Linguistics), visit www.open.ac.uk/applied-linguistics.
Macquarie University introduced distance versions of its influential on-campus degrees in
1 9 9 4 and now has students in over thirty countries. Both the Postgraduate Diploma
and the Master's are offered in three versions: Applied Linguistics, Applied Linguistics
(TESOL) and Applied Linguistics (Literacy). Credits are freely transferable between the
Diploma and the Master's and between the three versions, and students may change between
distance and on-campus modes or mix modes i f desired. Students study at their own pace,
with specially developed materials and with support and feedback provided directly from
lecturers in the Linguistics Department through e-mail, web, fax, phone and post. A special-
ised library service is provided through the Resources Centre of the National Centre for
English Language Teaching and Research (NCELTR). External doctoral programmes are
also available.
Information about the Macquarie programmes and application forms are available on
www.ling.mq.edu.au or by writing t o the Linguistics Postgraduate Office, Macquarie
University, NSW 2109, Australia tel.: + 6 1 2 9850 9243; fax + 6 1 2 9850 9352; e-mail:
lingdl@ling.mq.edu.au).
I n n o v a t i o n i n E n g l i s h Language Teaching
Innovation i n English Language Teaching provides both theoretical perspectives and

practical tools for analysing, developing and evaluating English language teaching curricula.
It presents English language teaching in a variety of specific institutional, geographic and
cultural contexts.
This Reader focuses particularly on curriculum change in context. The articles - which
include both classic and specially commissioned pieces - have been selected and edited to
highlight the debates, discussions and current issues from different parts of the English-
spealcing and English-using world.
Academics and teachers from around the world examine the role and influence not just of
language teachers and students, but of parents, teacher-trainers, the local community, the
press, politicians, and all who have an interest in what goes on in the language classroom.
Issues are illustrated and discussed in different contexts, including: teaching migrants in
English speaking countries; teaching large classes in developing countries; teaching English
for academic purposes; using information technology in the classroom.
Articles by: Michael P. Breen; I<imberley Brown; Christopher N. Candlin; David R. Carless;
Ronald Carter; Guy Cook; Susan Feez; Kevin Germaine; /<athieen Graves; David R. Hall;
Ann Hewings; Martin Hewings; Adrian Holliday; Gary M. Jones; Clarice Lamb; Joan
Lesikin; Defeng Li; Numa Markee; Michael McCarthy; David Nunan; Pauline Rea-Dickins;
Zakia Sarwar; William Savage; Simon Sergeant; Graeme Storer
David R. Hall is Head of the Department of Linguistics at Macquarie University, Sydney,

Australia. Ann Hewings is a lecturer in the Centre for Language and Communications at
the Open University, U I<.
Innovation in English
Language Teaching
A Readev
Edited by
David R. Hall and Ann Hewings
Theopen MACQUARI E
University UNIVERSITY - SYDNEY
London and New York

in association with Macquarie University
and The Open University
FOV my parents, Ron and Anne Hall
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada

by Routledge
29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 1 0 0 0 1
Routledge is an imprint o f the Taylor & Francis Group
0 2001 Compilation, original and editorial material Macquarie University and The Open
University; individual articles 0their authors
Typeset in Perpetua and Bell Gothic by I<eystroke, Jacaranda Lodge, Wolverhampton

Printed and bound in Great Britain by TJ International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or

utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording,
or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission
in writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Innovation in English language teaching : a reader I edited by David Hall and
Ann Hewings.
p. cm. - (Teaching English language worldwide)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. English language-Study and teaching- Foreign speakers. I.Hall, David, 1947-
11. Hewings, Ann. 111. Series.
PE1128.A2 I 5 4 2000
428'.007 -dc21 00-059194
ISBN 0-415-24123-5 (hbk)

ISBN 0-415-24124-3 (pbk)
Contents
List o f illustrations X
Acknowledgements xii
D a v i d R. H a l l a n d A n n H e w i n g s
INTRODUCTION 1
P A R T ONE
Directions i n c u r r i c u l u m change
Michael P. Breen and Christopher N. Candlin

1 T H E E S S E N T I A L S OF A C O M M U N I C A T I V E C U R R I C U L U M
IN LANGUAGE TEACHING 9
David Nunan and Clarice Lamb

2 MANAGING T H E LEARNING PROCESS 27
Michael Lewis
3 LEXlS I N THE SYLLABUS 46
Michael McCarthy and Ronald Carter

4 DESIGNING THE DISCOURSE SYLLABUS 55
Guy Cook
5 T H E USES OF C O M P U T E R I Z E D L A N G U A G E CORPORA
A R E P L Y TO R O N A L D C A R T E R 64
Ann Hewings and M a r t i n Hewings

6 APPROACHES TO T H E S T U D Y OF DISCIPLINARY VARIATION
IN ACADEMIC WRITING: I M P L I C A T I O N S FOR S Y L L A B U S
DESIGN 71
Viii CONTENTS
PART TWO
Political and institutional constraints i n curriculum
development
Ronald Carter
7 POLITICS AND I<NOWLEDGE ABOUT LANGUAGE:
THE LINC PROJECT 87
Gary M. Jones
8 BILINGUAL EDUCATION AND SYLLABUS DESIGN:
TOWARDS A WORI<ABLE B L U E P R I N T 99
I<irnberley B r o w n
9 WORLD ENGLISHES I N TESOL PROGRAMS: AN INFUSION
M O D E L OF C U R R I C U L A R I N N O V A T I O N 108
Nurna M a r k e e
10 T H E D I F F U S I O N OF I N N O V A T I O N I N L A N G U A G E T E A C H I N G 118
Zakia Sarwar
11 A D A P T I N G I N D I V I D U A L I Z A T I O N T E C H N I Q U E S FOR
LARGE CLASSES 127
W i l l i a m Savage a n d Graerne Stover

12 AN EMERGENT LANGUAGE PROGRAM FRAMEWORK:
ACTIVELY INVOLVING LEARNERS I N NEEDS ANALYSIS 137
Defeng L
13 TEACHERS PERCEIVED DIFFICULTIES I N INTRODUCING
T H E C O M M I N I C A T I V E A P P R O A C H I N S O U T H I<OREA 149
PART THREE
Planning and implementing curriculum change
Adrian Holliday
14 ACHIEVING CULTURAL CONTINUITY IN CURRICULUM
I NNOVATION 169
I<athleen Graves
15 A F R A M E W O R I < OF COURSE D E V E L O P M E N T P R O C E S S E S 178
David Nunan
16 ACTION RESEARCH I N LANGUAGE EDUCATION 197
CONTENTS ix
Susan Feez
17 CURRICULUM EVOLUTION I N THE AUSTRALIAN
ADULT MIGRANT ENGLISH PROGRAM 208
David R. H a l l
18 MATERIALS PRODUCTION: THEORY AND PRACTICE 229
Simon Sergeant
19 CALL INNOVATION I N THE ELT CURRICULUM 240
P A R T FOUR
E v a l u a t i n g c u r r i c u l u m change
P a u l i n e R e a - D i c k i n s a n d I<evin G e r m a i n e
20 P U R P O S E S FOR E V A L U A T I O N 253
David R. Carless
2 1 A C A S E S T U D Y OF C U R R I C U L U M I M P L E M E N T A T I O N I N
H O N G IKONG 263
Joan Lesikin
22 DETERMINING SOCIAL PROMINENCE: A METHODOLOGY
FOR U N C O V E R I N G G E N D E R B I A S I N E S L T E X T B O O I < S 275
Index 284
Illustrations
Figures
1.1 The curriculum 10

2.1 Three phases or perspectives on the curriculum process 37
2.2 Three alternative ways of grouping learners 41
2.3 Planning grid for general English course 44
8.1 BICS and CALP 101
10.1 An S-shaped diffusion curve 122
11.1 Individualization in large classes 131
11.2 Worlcsheet 1: radio news 132
11.3 Worksheet 2: self-created cloze 133
12.1 The initial language program framework 139
12.2 The revised language program framework 147
14.1 Cultural continuity 170
14.2 Professionally constructed image of ‘the learner’ 171
14.3 Professionally constructed image of ‘the stakeholder’ 172
14.4 ‘Us’- ‘them’ configuration 175
15.1 The completed syllabus grid 187
16.1 Reflective practice model of professional education/development 198
17.1 Certificates in Spolcen and Written English: curriculum structure 217
17.2 Outcomes fov Certificate I in Spolcen and Written English 218
17.3 Competency 13: Can write a short recount 219
17.4 Methodology t o support learners working towards CSW E outcomes 223
18.1 Worksheet 1: student A only 234
18.2 Worksheet 2: student B only 235
19.1 Perceived program use 244
Tables
2.1 Learner roles in a learner-centered curriculum 28

2.2 Learner-centeredness in the experiential content domain 30
2.3 Learner-centeredness in the learning process domain 30
ILLUSTRATIONS xi
2.4 Changing views on the nature of language and learning 31

2.5 Curriculum decision-making in high-structure and low-structure
contexts 34
2.6 I<ey curriculum questions, procedures, and areas 36
2.7 Approaches t o needs analysis 39
2.8 Types of information required in a learner-centered system 40
2.9 Communication and learning-how-to-learn goals 43
6.1 A classification system for the grammatical subject 78
6.2 Average distribution of GSs in different disciplines and sub-disciplines 79
8.1 Compulsory and examinable subjects in Brunei primary and
secondary schools 100
8.2 An alternative distribution of subjects in the Bruneian education system 106
9.1 Journals publishing articles on World Englishes topics 114
12.1 Interacting 142
12.2 Language use 143
12.3 Writing and reading 143
12.4 M etacogn itive 144
13.1 Reported difficulties in implementing CLT 153
15.1 Framework components 179
16.1 The action research cycle: an ESL example 199
16.2 The action research cycle: a foreign language example 200
16.3 Questions for establishing the reliability and validity of a study 201
16.4 The inservice programme in outline 203
16.5 How has your teaching changed? 205
21.1 Excerpt from a lesson transcript 268
22.1 Participant roles of nouns and pronouns 278
22.2 Grammar in Use: frequency of gender-specific nouns and pronouns
as theme and rheme in ‘unmarked’ clauses 279
22.3 Grammar in Use: frequency of gender-specific nouns and pronouns
as theme and last stressed element in ‘unmarked’ clauses 279
22.4 Grammar in Use: frequency of participant roles of gender-specific
nouns and pronouns in ‘unmarked’ clauses 280
Ac I<now Ie d ge me nt s
The editors and publishers would like to thank thc following for permission to use copyright
material:
Kimberley Brown and Blackwcll Pulilishers Ltd for ‘World Englishes inTESOL programs:
an infusion model of curricular innovation’ in World Englishes, Vol. 12: 1 , 1993.
Michael P. Brccn and Christopher N. Cantllin for ‘The essentials of a communicative
curriculum in language teaching’ in Applied Linguistics, 1980. Reprintctl by permission
of Oxford University l’ress.
David Carless for ‘A case study of curriculum implementation in Hong Kong’. Reprinted
from System,Vol. 26, 1998, with pcrmission from Elsevier Science.
Ronald Carter antl Michael McCarthp for matcrial from Language as Discourse: Perspectives for
Language Teaching ( Longman Group U K Limited 1990.) Rcprintcd by pcrmission o f
I’earson Education Limited.
Ronald Carter and Taylor & Francis Iiooks Ltd f‘or ‘Politics and knowledge about language’
in fnvestigating English Discourse, 1997.
Guy Cook for ‘The uses ofrcality: a reply to Ronald Cartcr’ in ELT,/ourna/,Vol. 52, No. 1 ,
1998. Reprintctl by permission o f EI.Tlourna1 and Oxford University Prcss.
Kevin Germaine and Pauline Rca-Dickins for ‘Purposes for cvaluation’ . Rcproducetl by
permission of Oxford Univcrsity Press from Erulriution by Pauline Kca-Dickins and Kevin
Germainc (Oxford University I’ress 1992 .)
Kathleen Graves and Cambridge Univcrsity 13 . for ‘A framework of course development
processes’ in K . Graves (cd.) Ecichers us Course Developers, 1996.
David Hall antl SEAMEO Regional Language Centre for ‘Material production: theory and
practice’ in A.C. Hidalgo, D. Hall antl G.M. Jacohs (e&) Getting Started: Materialr Writers
on Materials Writing, 1995.
Adrian Holliday for ‘Achieving cultural continuity in curriculum innovation’ in C. Kennedy
(cd.) Innovation and Best Practice (l’carson Education Limited 1999). Reprinted by
permission of Pcarson Education Limited.
Gary M. Jones and Multilingual Matters for ‘Bilingual education and syllabus design: towards
a workable lilucprint’ in journal of’Multilingual and Multiculttiral Devclopment,Vol. 17: 2 4 ,
1996.
Joan Lesikin antl College ESL for ‘Dctermining social prominen a methodology for
uncovering gcndcr bias in ESL textbooks’ in Colle‘qe ESL,Vol.8, No. 1, 1998.
A C I< N 0 W L E D G E M ENTS x i ii
Michael Lewis and LanguageTeaching Publications (LTP) for ‘Lcxis in the syllabus’ in The
Lexical Approach:The State of E1.T and a Way Forward, 1993.
Dcfeng Li and TESOL for ‘It’s always more difficult than you plan and imagine: teachers’
perceived difficulties in introducing the communicative approach in South Korea’ in
TESOL Quarterly,Vol. 3 2 , No. 4, 1998.
Numa Markee and Cambridge University Press for ‘The diffusion model of innovation in
language teaching’ in Annual Review $Applied /.inguistics, 1 3, 1993.
David Nunan for ‘Action research in language education’ in J. Edge and K. Richards (eds)
Teachers Develop Teacher Research Papers on Classroom Research and Teacher Derdopment, 1993.
Reprinted by permission of Macmillan Press Ltd. Includes table: ‘Types of information
required in a lcarner-ccntered system’ from G. Krindley Needsilnalysis and Objective Setting
in the Adult Mi‘qrant Program, 1984, reproduced hy permission of NSW Adult Migrant
Education Scrvice. Includes material from table: ‘Three altcrnative ways of grouping
learners’ from E S L Curriculum Guidelines, South Australian Education Department, 1 990,
reproduced by permission of The Department of Education, Training and Employment
(SA). Includes material from table: ‘Three alternative ways of grouping learners’ from K .
Willing, Learning S v l e s In Adult Migrant Education, 1998, reproduced by permission of
N CE LTR .
David Nunan, Clarice Lamb, and Cambridge University Prrss for material from The Se!fl
Directed Teacher: Managing the Learning Process, 1996.
William Savage and Graeme Storer for ‘An emergent language program framework: actively
involving learners in needs analysis’ reprinted from $stem, Vol. 20, No. 2 , 1992 with
permission from Elsevier Science.
Simon Sergeant for ‘CALL innovation in the ELT curriculum’ in C. Kennedy, 1’. Lloylc and
C. Goh (cds) Exploring Change in English Language Teaching, 1999. Kcprinted 11: pcrmission
of Macmillan Press Ltd.
Zakia Shanvar and English Teaching Forum for ‘Adapting intlividualisation techniques for
’ in English Teaching Forum, April 1 99 1 .
While the publishers and editors have made every effort to contact authors and copyright
holders of lvorks reprinted in Innovation in English / , a n p a g e Euching, this has not been possil,lc
in every case. They would \celcomc correspondence from individuals or companics thcy
have bccn unable to trace.
Wc \vould likc to thank thc authors who contributed thcir chapters, as kvell as colleagues
within and outsidcThe Open University and Macquaric University \Tho gave advice on the
contents. Special thanks are due to the following people for thcir assistance in the production
of this book:
Helen Boyce (course manager)

Freda Barnfield, Pam Burns and Libby 13rill (course secretaries)
Liz Freeman (Copublishing)
Nanette Ileynolds, Frances Wilson and the staff of the Rc-source Centrc of the National
Centre for English Language Teaching and Research, Macquarie University.
Critical readers
Professor Vijay K. Rhatia (L)ept of English, City University, I long Kong)
Gcoff Thompson (Applied English Language Studies Unit, 12iverpool University, UK)
Professor Leo van Lier (Educational Linguistics, University of Montcrey, USA)
x iv A C I< N 0 W L E D G E M E N T S
External assessor
Professor Ronald Carter (Dept of English Studies, Nottingham Unil ersity, UK)
Developmental testers
Ilona C7iraky (Italy)
Eladyr Maria Norhcrto da Sil\a ( B r a d )
Chitrita Mukcrjee (Australia)
Doricn GonLales (UK)
Patricia Williams (Denmark)
We ha\-e reproduced all original papers and chapters as faithfully as we have been alde to,
givcn the inevitable restrictions of space and the nccd to produce a cohcrcnt and readablc
collection for rcaders worldwide. W h r r e wc have had to shorten original material
substantially, these chapters arc markcd as adapted. Ellipses within square brackets indicate
where text has bcen omitted from thc original. Individual refcrcncing styles have been
retained as in the original texts.
Introduction
D a v i d R . H a l l and A n n Hewings
H E N M A C Q U A R I E U N I V E R S l T Y I N S Y D N E Y , Australia, and The

Open University in the UK decided to collaborate on the tlevelopment of new
curriculum materials for study at Masters level, the partnership brought together the
considerable experience and expertise of the two universities in open antl distance learn-
ing, applicd linguistics and language cducation.The collection of essays in this book antl the
two companion volumes is a result of that collaboration. While the edited collections have
been designed as one part of an overall study programme, they stand alone as extensive yct
focused collections of essays which address key contemporary issues in English language
teaching antl applicd linguistics.
A major concern in editing these three volumes has been thc desire to prrscnt English
language teaching (ELI‘) in a variety of specific institutional, geographical and cultural
contexts. Hence, as far as possible across the three volumes, lve have attemptcd to highlight
debate, discussion and illustration of current issues from diffcrcnt parts of the English-
speaking and English-using world, including those where English i s not learnt as a first
language. In doing this we recognise that English language teaching comprises a global
community of teachers antl lcarncrs in a range of social contexts.
The chapters in this volume address issues relating to curriculum change in context,
and all three terms in this noun phrase are important. The cssays deal with the tliffcrc-nt
ways in which actual classroom practices change, whether at an individual o r a system 1
Rccognising that languagc teaching docs not take place in a ncutral o r value-free
environment, they look at the choices that have to be made ivithin institutional o r cultural
constraints when designing curricula and evaluating their success. They examinc the role
and influence of all the stakeholders ~ h might o have an intcrcst in what goes on in the
language classroom: not just language teachers and students, but parents, teacher-trainers,
the local community, the press, politicians, antl s o on.
The titles of all four parts of the volume contain the word ‘curriculum’.Thc different
usages in the literaturc of words such as ‘curriculum’, ‘syllabus’ and ‘programmc’ (or
‘program’) arc cvidence that prrcise definitions of these terms are hard to pin down. In
some cases the words are differentiated Tvhilc in others they are used almost interchangcahly,
and you will notice diffcrcnt meanings attached to thc tcrminology by different authors in
this volume. Here, wc intend the tcrm ‘language curriculum’ in its widest sense, covering
all the issues rclating to the planning, implemcntation and evaluation of a scrics o f languagc-
learning events conceived as a coherent whole n i t h a specified purpose.
The first part, ‘Directions in curriculum change’, raises somc issues underlying
2 DAVID R. HALL AND ANN HEWINGS
curriculum design by examining the theoretical underpinnings of a number of reccnt

approaches. This docs not attempt, of course, to cover all the different ways of specifying a
curriculum, antl is not meant to be a historical survey (but see the Feez article in part 3 for
a contextualiscd account of the tlevelopmcnt of language teaching practices).’l’hc assumption
underlying our choice of essays for part 1 is the view which few people in language
curriculum design ~ o u l dnow argue Lvith that content and classroom practice must be
considered togethcr: a curriculum is not simply a list of items t o be taught.Thc first chapter
liy Breen and Candlin, covering work done at Lancastcr Univu-sity on communicative
language teaching ( C I S ) , \vas extremely influential in bringing this \-iew into language
teaching, although the focus o n the process of learning rather than just the product is
consistent with a much older tradition in gencral education.
CLT is not a nionolithic packaged set of procedures, tlespitc frequent talk in the
literature of the ‘communicative method’. All of the authors of essays in part 1 ~ . o u l d no
doubt place themselves in the communicative tradition. Where CUT has heen introduced
or encouraged or atlvocatctl in specific contexts around the xvorld it has often been in thc
form of a package, introduced t o p - h v n as a grcat antl rc+ietl ncw idea rather than arising
from and de\+ictl within the classroom antl the needs and problcms of particular teachers
antl learners. As the name of CLT has hccn invoked as a justification for a process of change
taking place in speci tic geographical, cultural and temporal contexts, some of its under-
lying principles and practices have lieen contested o r reinterpreted, as \vi11 be seen in later
chapters in this volume. Its influence is such, howwer, that anyone putting forward an
alternative paradigm has to detinc it in relation to CLI’.
The essays by Nunan antl Lamb a n d by I.c\vis both place themselves in the com-
municativc tradition by cmphasising the ccntralitv o f the learner and the learning pro
The first explores task-based learning. Although the \vord ‘task’ is overused in many
published textbooks to the extent that it is often little more than a synonjm for ‘exercise’,
and although it i s certainly possible to tlcvisc, context- and c.omnlunic.ation-frcc ‘tasks’ in
this sense, the proponents of‘a task-based syllabus have something more specific in mind.
Thcy take tasks to be the interactive lcarning procedures through which learners both in
and out o f the classroom learn to understand each other antl to make thcmselves
understood, so gaining conlitlencc antl cxpcricncc in using the target language.l’hc links to
Lewis’s proposal to replace thc traditional Prescnt~Practisc~Protlucc teaching procedurc
with Ohserve-Ilypothcsisc~Expcrimentarc clear. l‘hc observing, hypothesising and
experimenting are all being undertaken by the learner in actually using the target language.
The emphasis is on the learner, antl the teacher’s role changes from ‘presenter’to something
more like ‘collaborator’ or ‘facilitator’.
I h c n (1 984: 5 3) claims for CLT that its ‘grcatcr concern lvith capacity for com-
munication rather than repertoire of communication, with the acti\ ity of learning a language
itself, and with a focus upon means rather than prctlctcrminctl objectives, all indicate
priority of process ovcr content’. We cmphasisc that this docs not say ‘process to the
exclusion o f content’, although some have seen CLT as a methodology that rejects the
teaching of formal aspects of the language altogcthcr.Thcrc are parallels here with argumcnts
that have been used about \vholc-w ord teaching of rcading as opposed to phonics-hased
methods, antl about process writing as opposed to the teaching of scntcnce-grammar,
spelling and punctuation.Thc differing roles assigned to process, product, content and form
still constitute a major sitc of struggle hvithin language curriculum tievclopment.
This struggle untlerlics much of’ the argument between the Cook essay and that by
McCarthy and Carter. McCarthy antl Carter argue that the curriculum must take account
of variation and of context, and this means that learners’ interaction with texts must take
INTRODUCTION 3
account of the ‘dynamism inherent in linguistic contexts’. The understanding of the

dynamism of language and contextual variation is reinforced in McCarthy and Carter’s own
work on language corpora, large collections of actual texts stored on computer and
accessible for quantifiable linguistic analysis. To an extent, then, thcy may he seen as
advocating teaching programmes based o n quantitative data, an argument that dates hack
many ycars (see, for example, West’s General Servicc List of English Words, liascd on kvord
counts, and first published in 1936). Cook argues that language teaching should not br a
slave to language description, that thc processes of learning antl traching are not coincident
with the records of language behaviour evidenced through corpora. The argumcnt comcs
back, as many times before in the history of language pedagogy, to the role played liy formal
language description in helping teachers to teach and learners to learn.
N o linguist \voulcl dispute the ubiquity and importance of language variation over time,
space, context, purpose, etc. The essay by Hewings and Hc\vings, which ends part 1 antl
provides a link with the first chapter of part 2 , dcals with the variation in language use
betwccn academic disciplines. Particularly when applied to the teaching of English for
Specific Purposes, this is an area which is attracting growing attention, \vith increasing Ic\-cls
of research being undertaken around thc world (see, lor example, the essays in Candlin and
FIvlantl, 19YY).The capacity of computers to store large and spccialised corpora of languagt,
as it is actually used is, whatcvcr we may think of the Cook argumcnt, beginning to
rcvolutionisc the way we see language. Where corpora are sufficiently spccialised, they
underline differences in lexical patterns, word meanings, grammatical pattcrns and tcxtual
cohesion in a way that ivas possible only in a limited and largely intuition-based way beforc
the corpus databases ivere created. This development has already hatl an influence on tieltls
such as lexicography, forensic linguistics, English for academic purposes and curriculum
antl syllabus design. The approaches takcn by Hewings and Hclvings and by McCarthy and
Carter are illustrative of these last two. Further dcvelopmcnts in thcsc areas may scrve to
inform and/or challcnge both learners and teachers in the futurc.
The incorporation of variation into language curricula is not, at present, a midesprcatl
practice, and the essay h y Cartcr which opens part 2 gives some indication of why it is not.
In fact, all of the essays in part 2 deal in one way or another with the political and institutional
constraints in curriculum development. Language, as an intimate component of individual
and national identity, is a particularly emotional issur, and cui-riculum developers tamper
with ‘the hvay things have always been donc around herc’ at their o\vn risk. Cartcr \vas brantlcd
in some sections of the press as a revolutionary traitor to the nation for his emphasis on
knowletlge about language and how it functions. Even at a local bel, teachers working b y
thcmsclves in individual classrooms and taking ivhat seem like innocent decisions ahout the
day’s activities can easily tind themselves the subject of parents’ or the school principal’s ire.
All but one of thc seven chapters in part 2 deal \vith attcmpts to change curricula in
spccific contcxts.The cxccption is the cssay by Markce, which prcsents a framchvork for thc
introduction of innovations. As might hc expected from an examination of Markee’s
categorics and criteria, none of the projects reported could be judged uncquivocallq. as a
failure or a success. He dcals with issues such as: A t \vhat point can an innovation be judgctl
as satisfactor?? What is the critical mass which determines whether an innovation has been
adopted by the population for which it was intcndrd? Each of the other essays in this section
could lie examined in thc light of Markee’s criteria and follo\vetl up to see what has happened
in the period since the first publication of the essay. Have the innovations discusscd by Carter,
Jones, Brown, Sarwar, Savage and Storer, and Li actually hatl any lasting effect? Iiave, for
example, Carter’s ideas set o u t in the IJNC project influenced British tcachers’ views on
language? Has the mix of Malay and English in thc Brunei school system actually liccn
4 DAVID R. H A L L AND ANN HEWINGS
modified following the publication o f Jones’s essay? Has Kimberley Brown managed to
persuade American libraries to stock more world-English titles? Has Zakia Sarwar convinced
her colleagues to introduce similar methods in their classes, or transferred what she was
doing to the mainstream, official curriculum? Have the needs analysis procedures of Savagc
and Storer been extended to other contexts? And have Defeng Li’s Korean teachers adapted,
adopted or rejectcd a communicative approach? These would be interesting questions
to follow up, and sometimes they can lie pursued through publications in journals (see, for
example, Storer and Savage, 1999, for furthrr extensions of their own work) and
incrcasingly through internet discussion lists.
Part 3 examines both the planning and the implementation of curriculum change. Many
curriculum dcvelopment tcxtbooks treat these two aspects separately, but it is clear that
the processes involved are circular rather than linear, and that both need to involve or at
least take into consideration all of the stakeholders. This part, then, continucs the theme of
curriculum development in its social and institutional context.
All the essays in this part examine the ways in which change is brought about.They also
raise the question of whether change is always desirable, particularly in cases where
successful models from one context arc imported into new contexts. This is currently a
much-disputed point in language teaching in rclation to the recent insistence in some circles
on learner autonomy as a necessary condition for successful language learning.Thc chapters
Iiy Sarwar and Savagc antl Storer in part 2 hoth deal with the introduction o f autonomous
approaches. In the first essay in part 3, however, Holliday presents a rather differcnt and
provocative view of learner~centrcdness.For Holliday, ‘learner-centredncss’ has become
a short-hand way of referring not to individuals but to thc skills antl compctencics we can
equip thcm with and thc evaluative mechanisms that can lie used to test how effective wc
as teachers have bcxn.This teachcr-centred interprctation of learner-centredness is a highly
contentious position, with those advocating learner-ccntredncss strongly disputing this
understanding oftheir approach (see, for cxamplc, Savagc, 1997). Clcarly, thcrc arr complex
antl sometimes contradictory arguments involved here, with both sides claiming to hold the
moral high ground.Thc relationships lxtwccn different stakeholtlers between donors and
~
recipients, policy-makers antl practitioners, native and non-native speakers, teachers and
learners, insiders antl outsiders, cxpcrts antl novicrs arc dclicatc antl involve many more
issues than how to tcach language, as \vc see again antl again in these essays. While Holliday
assumes a top-clown model (Lvhich he attacks), the chapters by Graves and liy Nunan 110th
look at ways in which innovation can be instigatctl by the teachcr o r by teachers and others
working togethcr. Feez givcs cxamplrs of this collalxxative approach when she describes
in some detail the \vays in irhich curriculum change has taken place within a large systcm.
Although systcmic innovation necessarily in\ olvcs some form of imposition, it will be seen
that through consultation and Lrorkshops, teachers at all levcls have been involvctl in thc
various reformulations o f the curriculum. Hall tlc ribes four tliffercnt curriculum-
development projects antl examines thrm in thc light of their capacity for helping the
learners to learn. Hall’s introduction of the irnportancc of defining what you are trying to
do in tlcvcloping curricular innovations leads on to the final chapter in this part, in which
Sergeant analyses the various uses made of computcrs in the language classroom and the
motivations attachetl to those uses. He makes a va1ual)le distinction between ‘change’
brought about by computer-assisted language learning (CALL), which he sees as a superficial
addition to the curriculum, antl ‘innovation’ using CALL, which is embedded in the
curriculum and encourages new ways of teaching and lrarning. This separation of superficial
versus embeddcd, change versus innovation is applicablc to all areas of the curriculum, not
just CALL.
INTRODUCTION 5
Part 4 focuscs on evaluating curriculum change, placing this as an integral component

of the planning and implementation cycle. While evaluation is an essential element
underpinning all the essays in the volumc, this section looks in some detail at different kinds
of evaluative processes. Rea-Dickins and Germainc, in answer to the question of why we
might need to evaluate at all, provide an overview of the different purposes for which
evaluation is conducted. The kind of evaluation exemplified in the Carlcss essay is one of a
growing number of research projects using qualitative methods. His case-study approach,
involving what is sometimes called a ‘thick’ description, turns a microscope on onc specific
cvent in one specific context. As a rcsearch methodology, it may not yet havc the academic
cachet of quantitative and controllcd research methods, and may not he able to uphold
claims to generalisability in the same way as quantitative methods do, but it can rcveal much
more about why ideas that seem fine in theory work rather differently, if at all, in real life.
In the longer term, as more and more small-scale context-cmtieddcd research projects are
reported, it may tie that these stories will constitute the most \-aluablc resource for the
teacher and curriculum dewloper.
The final chapter, by Lcsikin, provides a framework for evaluating and analysing
language-teaching materials. Using the tools of systemic-functional grammatical analysis
shc uncovers systematic gender bias in a published textbook. Lesikin’s procedures are \-cry
much in thc tradition of critical discourse analysis, and it is clear that they could be uspd in
contexts other than that outlined here.
The essays in this collection are designed as a source of thought-provoking ideas for all
students of language teaching, language teachers, teacher-trainers, curriculum d e d o p e r s
and educational administrators. They exemplify a range of work b y academics with wide
experience in different parts of the world and b y teachers who are still very close to the
chalk-face. They make the link between theory and the actual circumstances in which
language learning takes place or fails to take place. This volumc is not a handbook, and has
no predetermined answers to the problem of finding appropriate ways of putting together
language curricula s o that lcarners can learn. Instcad, it provides a series of conccptual
frameworks within which such a quest can be undertaken.
References
Breen, M. P. 1984. ‘Proccss syllabuses for the language classroom’, in C. Brumfit (ed.) General
English Syllabus Design: Crirriculum and Syllabus Design-for the General English Classroom, ELT
Documents I 18. Oxford: British Council and Pcrgamon Press.
Candlin, C. N. and Hyland, K . (eds) 1999. Writing: E m ,Procecses, and Practices. Harlow:
1,ongman.
Savage, W. 1997. ‘Language and development’, In B. Kenny and W. Savagc (cds) Language and
Development. Harlow: Longman, 283-325.
Storer, G. and Savage, W. 1999. ‘Extending an emergent frarnc\vork to other contexts’, System,
27. 3: 421-5.
PART ONE
Directions in curriculum
change
Chapter 1
Michael P. Breen and

Christopher N. Candlin
T H E E S S E N T I A L S OF A C O M M U N I C A T I V E
CURRICULUM I N LANGUAGE TEACHING
Introduction
A T A T I M E W H E N T H E R E I S A R E C O G N I S E D N E E D inlanguagcteaching
to give adequate attention to language use as well as language form, various ‘notional-
functional’ or so-called ‘communicative approaches’ to language teaching are lxing
advocatcd. In this context, the present paper is offered as a sct of proposals in an effort to
dcfine the nature of communicative language tcaching.
Any teaching curriculum is designed in answer to three interrelated questions: What is
to be Icarned? How is the learning to be undertaken antl achieved? To what cxtent is the
former appropriate and the latter effective?A communicative curriculum will place language
teaching within the framework of this relationship between some specified purposcs, the
methodology which will be the means towards the achievcment of those purposcs, antl
thc evaluation procedurcs \vhich will assess the appropriatencss o f the initial purpo
and the ell’cctiveness of the methodology.
This chapter presents the potential charactcristics of communicative languagc teaching
in terms of such a curriculum framework. I t also proposes a set of principles on \vhich
particular curriculum designs can be based for implemcntation in particular situations
and circumstances. Figure 1 . 1 summarises the main areas with w.hich this chapter \vi11 dcal.
In discussing the purposes of language teaching, we will consider ( 1 ) communication as a
general purpow, (2) thc underlying demands on the learner that such a purposc may imply,
and (3) thc initial contributions which learners may bring to the curriculum. In discussing
the potential methodology of a communicative curriculum, \ye \vi11 consider (4) thc proccss
of teaching and learning, ( 5 ) thc roles of teacher and learncrs, antl (6) thc role of content
within the teaching antl karning. Finally (7) we \rill discuss the placc of evaluation of learner
progress and cvaluation of the curriculum itself from a communicativc point of view. ’
Inevitably, any statement almut the components of the curriculum runs thc risk of
pi-csenting in linear form a framettsork which is, in fact, char-actcrised hy intcrtlependcnce
and overlap among the components. In taking purposes, methodology, antl evaluation in
turn, therefore, wc ask readcrs to bcar in mind the actual interdependence between them.
What follows is a consitleration of those minimal requirements on communicative
language learning and teaching which, in our view, must now he taken into account in
curriculum design and implcmcntation.
10 M I C H A E L P. B R E E N A N D C H R I S T O P H E R
THE CURRICULUM
1 Communication The classroom

\ / process
Teacher / learnei' roles
\ 6 Role of content
I \
7 Of learner Of curriculum
Figtire I . 1 Thc c.urriculum
1 What is the purpose of the curriculum?

The communicative curriculum tlcfincs languagc lcarning as lcarning how to communicate
as a membcr of a particular socio-cultural group.Thc social convcntions governing languagc
form and hehaviour within the group arc, therefore, central to the process o f languagc
learning. In any communicative evcnt, intlivitlual participants bring with them prior
knowledge o f meaning and prior knowledge of how such meaning can be realiscd through
the conventions of language form antl Iichaviour. Since communication is primarily intcr-
personal, these conventions arc subject to variation \vhilc they are being uscd. In cxploring
shared knowledge, participants \ f i l l he modifying that knowlctlgr. They typically exploit a
tcnsion between the conventions that are cstahlishcd and the opportunity to modify these
conventions for their particular communicative purposes. Communicating is not merely a
mattcr of folloning conventions hut also of negotiating through and ahout thc convcntions
thcmselvcs. It is a convention-creating as well as a convention-follo\ving activity.
In communication, speakers and hcarcrs (and writers antl readers) are most often
engaged in the work of sharing meanings \vhich arc 110th dcpendcnt on the conventions of
interpersonal hehaviour antl created b y such Iiehaviour. Similarly, thc itleas o r concepts
which are communicated about contain differcnt potential meanings, and such potential
meanings are expressed through antl tlerivctl from the formal system of text during the
process of communication .To understand the conventions which underlie communication,
therefore, we not only have to understand a system of ideas or concepts and a system of
interpersonal bchaviour, we have to understand how thcse itlcas and this interpersonal
bchaviour can be realiscd in languagc in connectcd texts. Mastering this unity ofideational,
~
interpersonal and textual knowledge allows us to participate in a crcative mcaning-making

process and to express o r interprct the potential meanings within spoken or written text
(Hallitlay, 1973).
There is an additional characteristic of this unificd system o f knowletlgc. The social o r
interpersonal nature of communication guarantees that it is permeated liy personal and
socio-cultural attitudes, values and emotions.These different ufects will determine what we
choose to communicate about and how we communicate. The convcntions governing ideas
o r concepts, interpersonal hehaviour, and their realisation in texts all scrve and create
attitudes, judgements and feelings. Just as communication cannot be affectively neutral,
A COMMUNICATIVE CURRICULUM 11
learning to communicate implies that the learner will come to terms with the ne\v learning
to the extent that his own affects will be engaged. A t that point, thc learner’s affccts become
further involved in a process of negotiation with those affects which are embodied within
the communicative performance of the target community. So, affective involvement is both
the driving-force for learning, and also the motivation behind much everyday com-
munication and the inspiration for the recreation of the conventions which govern such
communication.
Communication in everyday life synthcsises ideational, interpersonal, and textual
knowledge - and thc affects which are part of such knowledge. I3ut it is also related to and
intcgrated with other forms of human lxhaviour. In learning how to communicate in a new
language, the learner is not confronted by a task which is easily separable from his other
psychological and social experiences. The sharing and negotiating of potential meanings in
a new language implies the use and refinement of perceptions, concepts and affects.
Furthermore, learning the conventions governing communication within a new social group
involves the refincrnent and use of the social roles and the social identity cxpectcd b y
that group of its members. Thus, learning to communicate is a socialisation process. [. . .]
Therefore, it makes sense for the teacher to see the overall purpose of language teaching as
the development of the learner’s communicative knowlcdge in the context of personal and
social de\ ~1op ment.
7c
2 What underlies the ultimate demands on the learner?

A language teaching curriculum, from a communicative point of view, will specify its
purposes in terms of a particular target repertoire (Gumperz, 1964). Different curricula
will hopefully select their own particular repertoires from a pool of communicative
pcrformance on the basis of a sociolinguistic analysis of thc target situation. This does not
imply that any one curriculum will 11cnecessarily entirely distinctive in the target reprrtoire
to which it is devotcd. A t the surface there will be inevitable overlap among different
repertoires. However, underlying any selected target repertoire there will be an implicit
target competcnce. It is this target competence which we may define as the capacity for
actual use of the language in thc target situation. So, in specifying the purposes of the
curriculum, a rcquiremcnt for thc communicative approach would be to make an initial
distinction between the target repertoire ultimately demanded of the learner and the target
competence which will undcrlie and generate such a repertoire.
How can tve characterisc this target competence? We have already proposed that
learning to communicate involves acquiring a knowledge of the conventions which govern
communicative pcrformance. In addition, we have proposed that such communicative
knowledge can lie seen as a unified system ofideational, interpersonal, and textual know-
ledge, which incorporates a range of affccts.
We have also suggested that communication and learning how to communicate involve
the participants in the sharing and negotiating of meanings and conventions. Such sharing
and negotiating implies the existence of particular communicative abilities as an esscntial
part of competence. Therefore, we may identify within competence both the knowledge
systems and the abilities which call upon and act upon that knowledge. These abilities can
be distinguished within competence more precisely. In order to sharc meaning, the
individual participant needs to be able to interpret the meanings of others and to express
his own meanings. However, such interpretation and expression will most often take place
in the context of interpersonal and personal negotiation. The ability to negotiate operates
between participants in communication and within the mind of the individual participant
12 M I C H A E L P. B R E E N A N D CHRISTOPHER N. C A N D L I N
- the latter negotiation is perhaps more conscious during new learning. More obviously,
participants in communication negotiatc hvith one another. Rut, in endeavouring to interpret
and express with a new language, thc learner will himself negotiate lictwecn the com-
municative competence he already possesses and that which underlies the new learning.’
Wc suggest, thcreforc, that the communicative ahilitics of interpretation, expression,
antl ncgotiation arc the essential or ‘primary’ahilitics within any target competence, I t is also
likely that these three ahilitics continually interrclatc with one another during communicative
performance and that they are complex in naturc.l’hey will involve psychological processes
for the handling of rich and variablc (lata thc attcmtion and memory processes, for cxample
~~
- antl they may contain within them a rangc of sccontlary abilities such as ‘coding’, ‘code
substituting’ and ‘style-shifting’ (Ret-nstcin, 1971, I Iymes, 1971, LAov, 1970).

The use of these communicative abilitics i s manifested in communicative performance
through a set of skills. Speaking, listening, reading antl lvriting skills can lie sccn to scrve
and depend upon the untlerlying abilities o f interpretation, expression antl negotiation. In
this \vay \ve arc suggesting that the skills i-cprcscnt o r realise underlying communicative
abilities. The skills arc the meeting point lict\vccn underlying communicative competence
and ot)serval)le communicati1.e pcrformancc; they arc the means through which k n o d e d g c
and ahilitics are translated into pcrfoi-mancc, and vice vcrsa.
In sclecting any target repertoire, thcrefoi-c, a communicative curriculum also
distinguishes antl specifics the target compctcncc o n \vhich the performance of such a
rcpertoire depends and through which it is achic\.ctl.This specification would indicate the
ideational, interpersonal and tcxtual conventions ~ and the affective aspccts of such
conventions ~ as a related antl underlying tcm of knoLvlcdgc which i s shared and
developed within the target community. The specification ~ v o u l dalso indicate the demands
upon the lcarncr’s communicative aliilitics of intcrprctation, cxprcssion, and negotiation
similarly underlying communicative performance in the target community and the range
of skills which manifest these abilities. Such a specification \zould account for what thc
learner nerds to know, antl how thc lcarncr needs to bc alilc to use such knowledge. Thc
ultimatc demands on the learner in terms of some specific target repertoire will, in our
vie\v, derive from antl depend upon this underlying competence of communicative
kno\vledgc antl communicative abilities.
3 What are the learner’s initial contributions?

[. . .] A communicativc specification o f purposes supports the principle that the roots of
our ohjecti\-cs can already be discovered in our learners however liencath the surface
~
of the actual targct repcrtoii-c these roots may lie. We need to try to rccognisc what the
learner knoivs and can do in communicative performance with the first language and not
assumc that thc Icarncr’s ignorance of the target rcpcrtoii-c implies that the learner is a naive
communicator or someone who evaluates communication in only a superficial \lay.
This principle, which scems to rcquirc us to credit thc kat-ner with a highly relevant
initial competcncc, of communicative kno\vletlgc antl aliilitics, has often been overlooked
or only partially applied in language teaching. In the past, it has seemed easier to somchon.
separate the learner from the knonletlgc to I x lcarnctl to ‘oljcctily ’ thc targct language
as something completely unfamiliar to the learner. This olijrctification o f the language in
relation to the learner has perhaps been encouraged hy a narrow definition of what the
object of learning actually is, antl by an incomplete view of what the learner has to offer.
Wc have tended to see the target only in terms of ‘linguistic competence’ o r tcxtual
knowledge, and we have limited such knowledge to the level of syntax without reference
to structure above the sentence. Thus, ideational and interpersonal knowledge, which
continuallv interact with textual knowledge and from which textual knowledge evolves,
have tended to be overlooked or neutralised. We have often seen the learner primarily in
terms of the first language, and we have often assigned to it ‘interference’ value alone ~
again taking a narrow textual knowledge as our criterion. More recently, due to
tlevclopmcnts within sociolinguistics, we haw recognised the significance of ‘ sociolinguistic
competence’ and also of the ‘functional’ aspect of language. However, a partial antl
knowledge-based view of learner competence seems to remain with us and the lcarncr’s
communicative abilities underlying the initial repertoire still need to bc more thoroughly
exploited. Rather than just allowing the use of the first language in the classroom, we should
perhaps be more conccrned with activating that which underlies thc initial repertoire of
the learner, and to evoke and engage what we mav describe as the lcarncr’s ongoing or process
compctencc.j Once we define the object of learning as communication, then \ve arc enahled
to perceive the learncr in a new light. His initial textual knowlcdge is placed in its proper
perspective - it is merely the tip of the iceberg. Language teaching need no longer be
primarily conccrned with ‘linguistic competence’. We can begin mith the assumption that
text is the surface realisation o f communicative knowledge antl abilities antl that text is used
and created and learned on the basis of thcm.7’he communicative curriculum seeks to
~
facilitate even guarantee the involvement of the learner’s communicative knowledge

~ ~
and abilities from the outset rather than overlook them for the sake of some apparent
‘fluency’ \vith text. I. . .] Ho er, lcarners not only contribute prior kno\vledge antl
abilities, they also have expectations about the le ing o f a language. What the curriculum
seeks to achicve in terms o f any specified purp must be balanced by what the learner
personally expects of the curriculum. Perhaps the current interest in teaching language for
‘special purposes’ may eventually reveal the challenge to curriculum designers: that all
learners regard themselves as learning a language for some special purpose.
We can identify several types of learner expectations and these may, of course, influencc
one another. We can ask: What is the learner’s own vicw of the nature of language?What is
the learner’s view of learning a languagr? (Thc answers to these questions ma)- lie in the
learner’s previous formal education, and how he reacted to that experience.) We can also
distinguish between, first, ho\v the learner defines his o\.cn language learning ncrds;
secondly, what is likely to interest the learner both within the target reprrtoire antl thc
learning process; and, third, \\,hat the learner’s moti\rations are for learning the target
rcpertoire. All these initial expectations arc disti ti need to be discovered in somc \vay
so that areas ofpotential match antl mismatch be learncr expectations antl the selected
target repertoire antl its underlying competence can be best anticipated.
Two important problems nrctl to be identified h c r r in accounting for learncr
expectations. Thesc expectations are inwitably various antl more significant1)-- thc)- are
~
subject to change over time. So, the curriculum will need to accommotlatc and allow for a
heterogeneity of lcarner expectations. It will also ncetl to allow for changes in different
learncrs’ perceptions of their needs, in ivhat interests different learncrs, and in the
motivations of differrnt learners. In this way, curriculum purposes should account for initial
cxpectations of lcarners and anticipate changes in expectations during the learning teaching
process. Such an account and such anticipation may appear to be an impracticable dream
when confronted with the variety and fluctuation in the real expectations of learners. That
we should try to account for and anticipate these is a further motivation for a communicative
curriculum, and more particularly for a communicatjvr methodology (scc sections 4ff).
~
However, there is a second important aspect of learner cxpectations: expectations can tie
educated. For this to happen, learners need to be enabled to express their own expectations;
14 M I C H A E L P. BREEN AND CHRISTOPHER N. C A N D L I N
to explore them and the sourccs from which they derive. They also need to be enabled to
interpret the expectations which the specific purposes of the curriculum make upon them
as learners. They need to interpret at the start of the learning- teaching process and
~
throughout this process what the target repertoire and its underlying competence demands
~ ~
of them. Howcver vague a learner’s initial interpretation may be, he is not going to learn
anything unless he has an idea of what he is trying to achievc. Therefore, a process of
negotiation between the learner’s contributions including expectations and the target
~ ~~
repertoirc, and the means b? which thesc two are brought together, is likely to bc
characteristic of a communicative methodology. Curriculum purposes inform and guide
methodology, and an account of learner cxpcctations within purposes can enable
methodology to involve these subjective contributions of the learner and, thereby, call upon
thc genuine intersubjective rcsponsibility of that learner.
4 How are the curriculum purposes to be achieved?
4. I Methodology as a communicative process

Language learning within a communicative curriculum is most appropriately seen as
communicative interaction involving all the participants in the learning and including the
various material resourccs on which the learning is cxercised.Therefore, language learning
may be seen as a process which grows out of the interaction lietween learners, teachers,
texts and activities.
This communicative interaction is likely to engage the abilities within the learner’s
developing competence in an arena of cooperative negotiation, joint interpretation, and the
sharing of rxprcssion. The communicative classroom can serve as a forum characterised liy
the activation of these abilities upon the learners’ new and developing knowledge. This
activation will depend on the provision of a rangc of differcnt text-types in different media
~ spoken, written, visual and audio-visual which the participants can make use of to
~
develop their competencc through a variety of activities and tasks. The presence of a range
of text-types acknowledgcs that the use of communicative abilities is not restricted to any
one medium of communication.The earlier distinction we saw between underlying abilities
and the set of skills which serve and depend on such abilities enables us to perceive that the
learner may exploit any selected skill o r combination of skills to develop and refine his
interpretation, expression and negotiation. Thr learner need not be restricted to thc
particular skills performance laid down by the target repertoire. Because communicative
abilities permeate each of the skills, they can be scen to underlie speaking, hearing, reading
and writing and to be independent of any prcscribcd selcction o r combination of these
skills. Similarly, just as no single communicative ability can really develop independently
of thc other abilities, so the developmcnt of any single skill may well drpend on the appro-
priate development of the other skills. In other words, a refinement of intcrprctation will
contribute to the refinement of expression, and vice-versa; just as a refinement of the skill
of reading, for example, will contribute to the refinement of the skill of speaking and vice-
versa.
Classroom procedures and activities can involve participants in 130th communicating
and metacommunicating. We have rcferrcd to the characteristics of communicating in
section 1 of this paper. By metacommunicating we imply the learner’s activity in analysing,
monitoring and evaluating those knowledge systems implicit within the various text-types
confronting him during learning. Such metacommunication occurs within the com-
municative performance of thc classroom as a sociolinguistic activity in its own right.
Through this ongoing communication and metacommunication, learners not only become
participants in the procedures and activities, they may also become critically sensitised to
the potential and richness of the unified system of knowledge, affects and abilities upon
which their communication depends. [. . .] In particular, the involvement of all the
participants in a process of communicating through texts and activities, and meta-
communicating about texts, is likely to exploit the productive rclationship hetwcen using
the language and learning the language.
4.2 Methodology as a diflerentiated process

The emphasis given in the previous section to the interactive nature of the communicative
curriculum suggests, in turn, the need for a communicative curriculum to be differentiated.
A communicative curriculum begins with the principle that we should differentiate within
purposes between the target repertoire and the communicative knowledge and abilitics
which underlie it. A second principle is that the learner’s process competence needs to
be differentiated from the target competence, and that different learners may exploit
different process competenccs as the means towards some particular target. These kinds of
distinctions involve differentiation at the curriculum level bctwecn purposes and the
methodology adopted to achieve such purposes.
Within mcthodology, differentiation is a principle which can be applied t o the
participants in the learning, the activities they attempt, the text-types with which they
choose to work, and the ways they use their abilities. It is worth considering differentiation
within these areas in more detail:
(a) Learners’ contributions
Individual learners bring individual contributions to the language learning process in terms
of their initial competence, their various expectations about language learning, and their
changing needs, interests and motivations prior to and throughout the language learning
process. Wc can recognisc that, even in the achievement of some common target conipc-
tcnre, diffcrent lcarners through their changing process competcnce may well adopt
different mcans in attempting to achieve such competence.
(b) Routes
The emphasis within a communicative curriculum on the communicative process of

language learning, with the consequent emphasis on cooperative learner activities, offers a
natural means for differentiation, Different learners need the opportunity of following
different routcs to the accomplishment of some individual or common group objective .
Such variation in choice of route typically involves selection among alternative skills o r
combinations of skills, and hence the choice of alternative media. The variation may be
motivated by the need to work at a different pace from other learners, or by the desire to
pursue alternative content. This sclection among routcs can itself be open t o joint
interpretation, the sharing of expression and cooperative negotiation.
(c) Media
In order to allow for differences in personal interest and ease of access, or to permit the
search for alternative perspectives on the content, learners should be offered the possibility
of working with one or more of a range of media. We mean by this that learners would be
16 M I C H A E L P. B R E E N A N D C H R I S T O P H E R N . C A N D L I N
expected to act upon text-types in the appropriatr medium: written texts would be read,
spoken ones listened to, visual ones seen. Just as communication is governed I>yconventions,
so we can see that the different media represent and obey conventions specific to themselves.
Learning dialogue by reatling, for cxample, may neutralise the authentic conventions of
spoken discourse, and bve may tie asking thc learner to hccomc involved in using and
applying knowledge in a distorted \vay.
Whatever the route chosen o r the media antl tcxt-types selected for communicative
learning, different learners will have differentiated ways of making use of the abilities xvithin
their communicative compctence, antl \vi11 therefore adopt different learning strategies.
Such heterogeneity is often secn as problematic for the teacher, but a communicative
methodology would take advantage of this differentiation among learning strategies, rather
than insisting that all learners exploit the samc kinds of strategy.
Thcse four illustrations of the principle of tliffercntiation within a communicative
methodology imply morc than merely offering t o individual lcarncrs opportunities For
differential communication and learning, or acknowledging differences between pcrfor-
mancc repertoires antl the developing compctcnces underlying them. Differentiation
demands and authcnticates communication in the classroom. The various perspectives
offered by alternative media, the accomplishment o f shared objectives through a variety
of routcs, and the opportunities for exploiting different learning strategics, all facilitate
the conditions for authentic communication among the participants in the learning.
Differentiation also enahlcs the lcarner to authenticate his own learning and thcreby become
involved in genuine communication as a means to\vartls it. Further, if ~ v confront
e learners
kvith texts and text-types lvhich are also authentic, this obliges us to allow for different
interpretations antl differences in holv learners will themselves negotiate with texts.
4.3 Methodology exploits the communicative potential of the

learning-teaching context
We are easily tcmptcd to cxcuse the classroom as an artificial or synthetic language learning
context as distinct lrom somc natural o r authentic environment, The communicative
~
curriculum sceks to exploit the classroom in terms of \vhat it can realistically offer as a
resource for learning. This would not necessarily mean changing o r disguising the classroom
in the hope that it will momentarily servc as sonic kind of ‘communicativc situation’
resembling situations in the outside \vorltl. The classroom itself is a unique social
environmcnt with its own human activities and its own conventions governing thesc
acti\itics. I t is an environment where a particular social-p hological and cultural reality
is constructcd. This uniqueness antl this rcality implies a communicativc potential to be
exploited, rather than constraints lvhich haw to be overcome or compensated for.
Experimcntation Lvithin the prior constraints of any communicativc situation is, as w c have
seen, typical of the nature of communication itself, and thc prior constraints of classroom
communication need he n o exception.
We can make a distinction betwren the different contributions offered to learning by,
on the one hand, the ‘formal’ language learning contexts ofthc classroom and, on the other,
the ‘informal’ learning which takes place at any time, anywhere. The classroom can be
charactcrised by the kinds of learning which are best generated in a group context, while
‘informal’ lcarning undrrtaken beyond the classroom is often an individual commitment,
espccially in the contcxt of foreign language learning. Thus the ‘formal’ context is one where
the interpersonal relationships of the classroom group have their own potential contribution
to make to the overall task. Within the communicativc curriculum, thc classroom i and the
proccdurcs and activities it allows can serve as the focal point of the learningteaching
~
process. In adopting a methodology characterised by learning and teaching as a com-

municative and differentiated process, the classroom no longer needs to bc seen as a pale
representation of somc outside communicative reality. It can become the meeting-place for
realistically motivated communication-as-learning, communication about learning, and
metacommunication. It can he a forum where knowledge may be jointly offered and sought,
rcflectcd upon, and acted upon. The classroom can also crucially serve as the source o f
feedback on, and refinement of, the individual learner’s own process competcnce. And it
can serve as a springboard for the learner’s ‘pcrsonal curriculum’ lvhich may be undertaken
and developed ‘informally’outsidc the classroom. As a coparticipant in the classroom group,
the learner’s own progress can lie both monitored and potentially sustained by himself on
the basis of others’ feedback and by others within some shared undertaking.
To cnsurc that the special and differing contributions offered by both ‘formal’ and
‘informal’ contexts of learning can be fully exploited, a communicative mcthodology
has to try to relate the two.The classroom can deal with and explore phenomena which are
significant in the cxpericnced ‘outsitlc world’ of the lcarner, and it can hccomc an
observatory of communication as everyday human behaviour. As well as looking outwards,
the classroom has a rcflcxivc role as a laboratory where observations can ticcome thc mcans
for the discovery of new knowledgc and the tlevclopmcnt of abilities.
A communicative methodology \vi11 therefore exploit the classroom as a resource lvith
its own communicative potential. The classroom is only one resource in languagc teaching,
but it is also the meeting-place of all other resources learners, teachers, and texts. Each
~
of these has sufficiently hctcrogcncous characteristics to makc classroom -based negotiation

a necessary undertaking. 1. . .] The authenticity of the classroom lies in its dual rolc o f
ohscrvatory and laboratory during a communicative learning-teaching process.
5 What are the roles of the teacher and the learners within a
communicative methodology?
5 . 1 The teacher
Within a communicative methotlology thc teacher has two main roles. The tirst I-ole is to
facilitate the communicative process between all participants in the classroom, and l i c t u w n
these participants and the various activities and texts. The second role is to act as an
interdependent participant within the learning-teaching groups. This latter role is closely
related to the objective of thc first role and it arises from it. Thcsc roles imply a set of
secondary roles for the teacher: first, as an organiser ofresources and as a resource himself.
Second, as a guide within the classroom procedures and activities. In this role the teacher
endeavours to make clear to the Icarnei-s what they need to do in order to achirvc somc
specific activity or task, if they indicate that such guidance is necessary. This guidance rolc
is ongoing and largely unpredictable, so the tcacher needs to share it with other learners.
Related to this, the teacher and other learners can offcr and seck feedback at appropriate
~
moments in learning-teaching activities. In guiding and monitoring the teacher needs to be

a ‘seer of potential’ with the aim of facilitating and shaping individual anti group knowledge
and exploitation of abilities during learning. In this way the teacher will he concentrating
on the process compctcnces of the learners.
18 M I C H A E L P. B R E E N A N D C H R I S T O P H E R N. C A N D L I N
A third rolc for the teacher is that of researcher and lcarner - with much to contribute
in terms of appropriate knowledge and abilities, actual and observed experience of the
nature of learning, and organisational capahilitics. As a participant-observer, thc teacher
has the opportunity to ‘stcp back’ and monitor the communicative pro
tcaching.
As an interdrpcndent participant in thc process, the teacher needs to actively share the
responsibility for learning and teaching with the 1carncrs.This sharing can provide the basis
for joint negotiation which itself releases thc teacher to become a co-participant. Perceiving
thc learners as having important contributions to make in terms of initial comprtence
and a rangc of various and changing expcctations can enable thc teacher to continually
seek potential antl exploit it. A requirement on the teacher must he that he distinguish
between learning and t h c performancc of Irhat is being learned. The tcachcr must assume
that the performance within any target rcpertoire is separablc from thc means to the
achievement of that rcpertoirc. Also, he must assume that learners are capablc of arriving
at a particular objective through tlivcrsc routes. The teacher nccds to recognise learning as
an interpersonal undertaking over which no single person can have full control, and that
there will be differences between ongoing learning processes.The teacher has to accept that
different learners learn different things in different bvays at different times, and he needs to
bc patiently awarc that somc learners, for cxamplc, \vi11 enter periods when it s w m s that
little or n o progress is being made and that, sometimes, learning is typified by silent
refkction.
5.2 The learner

Regardless ofthe curriculum in lvhich they \vork and rcgartllcss of whether o r not they are
being taught, all learners o f a language arc confronted by the task of discovcring how t o learn
the language. All lcarncrs \vi11 start with differing cxpcctations about the actual learning,
but each individual learner will be required to adapt and continually readapt in the process
of relating himself to what is being learned. The knowledge will be redefined as the learner
uncovcrs it, and, in constructing and reconstructing his own curriculum, the learner may
discover that earlier strategies in the use of his abilities need to be replaced h y other
strategies. Thus, all learners in thcir own w y s have to adopt the role of negotiation
~
bet>vecn thcmselvcs, thcir learning process, and the gradually revealed object of learning.
A communicative methodology is charactcrised b y making this ncgotiative role - this
learning how to learn a public as well as a private undertaking. Within the context of the
~
classroom group, this role is shared and, thereby, made interpersonal. If we recognise that
any knowledge which we ourselws h a w mastered is always shared knowledge and that we
always seck confirmation that \vc ‘know’ something b y communicating with other people,
\re have to conclude that knowledge of anything and thc learning of anything is an inter-
personal matter. Also, if we recognisc that real knowledge is always set in a context and this
context is both psychological and social what is known will always be contcxtualised with
~
other knowlcdge in our minds antl will always carry with it elements of the social context
in which it was experienced then we also have to conclude that a significant part of our
~
learning is, in fact, socially constructed. These justifications for a genuinely interpersonal
methodology are quite independent of the nature of what is to bc learned. If the object of
learning is itself communication, then the motivation to enable the learner to adopt an
interpersonal means to that learning is doubly justified. Quite simply, in order to learn to
communicate within a selected target repertoire, the learner must be encouraged to
communicate to communicate about the learning process, and to communicate about the
~
changing object of learning on the basis of accepting that ‘learning ho\v to learn’ is a problem
shared, and solved, h); othcr learners.
Within a cornmunicativc methodology, the rolc of learner as negotiator between the
~~
self, the learning proccss, and the object oflcarning emerges from and interacts with the
~
role of joint negotiator mithin the group and within the classroom procedures antl activities
which the group undcrtakes.l’hc implication for the learner is that he should contribute as
much as he gains, and thereby learn in an interdependent way. The learner can achieve
interdependence by recognising responsibility for his own learning and by sharing that
responsibility with other learners and the teacher. This commitment can be initiated anti
supportcd by a milieu in which the learncr’s own contributions - interprctations, exprcs-
sions, and cfforts t o negotiate are recognisrd as valid and valuable. Such a context \vould
~
he typified by the acceptancc of ongoing success andfuilure as necessary prcrcquisites to\vards

some ultimate achievement, where it is assumed that lcarners inevitably bring with thcm
‘mixed abilities’ antl that such a ‘mixture’ is, in fact, positively useful to the group as a whole.
Commitment to communication on the learner’s part need not he regarded as something
unattainable or threatening even for the ‘beginning’ learner because he is expected to
~ ~
rely on and develop that which is familiar: his own proccss competence and experience o f
communication.
As an intcrdcpendent participant in a cooperative milieu where the lcarner’s
contributions arc valued and used, the individual learner is potentially reLvardct1 by having
his own subjectivc expectations antl decisions informed and guided by others. In a context
where different contributions and differential learning are positively encouraged, the learner
is allowed to dcpend on othcr learners and on the tcacher kvhen the need ariscs, and also
enablctl to be independent at appropriate moments of the learning. He can feel free to
exploit independent strategies in order to learn, to maintain and dcvclop personal affective
motivations for learning, and to decide on different routes and mcans which liecome
available during learning. The paradox here, of course, is that genuine independence arises
only to the extent that it is intcrdcpendently granted anti interdependently a
Learning seen as totally a personal and subjective matter is seeing learning in a vacuum;
indeed w-c may wonder whether such learning is ever possible.
Lcarners also have an important monitoring role in addition to the degrec of monitoring
which they may apply subjectivcly to their own learning. The learner can be a provider of
feedback to others concerning his own interpretation of the specific purposcs of‘ the
curriculum, and the appropriateness of methodology to his own learning experiences and
achievemcnts. In expression antl negotiation, the learner adopts the dual role of being, first,
a potential teacher for other learners and, second, an informant to the teacher concerning
his own learning progress. In this latter role, the learner can offer the teacher and other
learners a source for new directions in the learning-teaching process of thc group.
Essentiall?, a communicative methodology would allow both the teacher and thc learner to
bc interdependent participants in a communicative proccss of learning and teaching.
6 What is the role of content within a communicative

methodology?
Language teaching curricula have often been traditionally defined by their content. Such
content has itself been dcrivetl from a target repertoire in tcrms of somr sclccted invcntories
of items analysed prior to thc commenccment of the teaching-learning proccss and often
acting as predeterminants of it. Similarly, sets of formal items takcn from an analytic
grammar of the language, or sets of ‘functions’taken from some list of semantic categories,
20 M I C H A E L P. B R E E N AND CHRISTOPHER N. C A N D L I N
have been linked to themes antl topics tlccmctl in advance to lie appropriate to the
expectations of the particular learners.
Communicative curricula, on the other hand, do n o t look exclusively to a selectcd
target repertoire as a specifier of curriculum content, for a number of reasons. First, the
emphasis o n the process of Iiringing ccrtain basic abilitics to bear on the dynamic
conventions of communication prccludcs any specification of content in terms of a static
invcntory of language items grammatical or ‘functional’ to be learned in some prescribed
~
way. Sccond, the central concern for the development and refincmcnt of underlying
compctcncc as a basis for a sclcctcd target repertoire requires a distinction bctwccn that
target and an)’ content which could be used as a potential means towards it. Third, the
importance of the curriculum as a means tor the activation and refincmcnt of the process
competcnccs of different learners IiresupIioses differentiation, ongoing change, antl only
short-term prcdictability in \\.hat may lie appropriatc contcnt.
The communicative curriculum \vould place contcnt within methodology and provide
it with the role of servant to the Icarning-tcaching process. Thus, content would not
necessarily be prescrihcd by purposes but selected and organisctl within the communicative
and differentiated prucess by learners and teachers as participants in that process.Therefore,
the learner would usc the content 01’ the curriculum as the ‘carrier’ of his process
competence and as the provider of opportunities lor communicativc cxpcricnces through
\vhich personal routes may lie sclcctcd antl explored as a means to the ultimate target
competence.
From this concern with mcans rather than ends mith the process of learning-teaching
rather than with the product the communicative curriculum will adopt critcria for the
~
selection and organisation 01’ content which will be suliject to, and defined by,
communicative learning and teaching. ’l’hc content o f any curriculum can lie selected and
organised on the basis of some adolited criteria, and th criteria will influence five basic
aspects of thc content: its focus, its scqucncc, its subdivision (or hrcakdo\vn), its continuity,
and its direction (or routing). What arc the critcria for the selection and organisation of
content within the communicative curriculum?
(a) Focus
Content within communicative mcthotlology is likely to focus upon knowledge both ~
cognitive and affective \vhich is personally significant to the Icarncr. Such knowledge
~
n-ould 1)c placcd in an interpersonal context hvhich can motivate personal and joint
negotiation through the provision of authcntic and ~irolilcm-posingtcxts. If content is to bc
sensitive to thc process of learning antl to the interpersonal concerns of the group, it needs
to reflect and support the integration of language hvith other forms of human experience
and hehaviour.
(/I, Scy1rence
If \vc accept that the communicative process requires that \vc deal with dynamic and creativc
convcntions, \vc cannot assume that any stcii-by-stcp or cumulativc sequcnce of content
\vi11 ncccssarily be appropriatc. In learning, the various antl changing routes of the lcarncrs
crucially affect any orticring of content, so that scqucncing derives from the state f r h e learners
rather than from the implicit ‘logic’ of the content itsclf. I t may be naive to assume that
what may he ‘simple’ for any one learner is likely to be ‘simplc’ for all learners. Sequencing
in communicative content is therefore likely to be a cyclic process where learners are
continuall? developing related lrameworks or aggregations of knowledge and ability use,
rather than accumulating separalde blocks of ‘static’ knowledge or a sequence of ordcrctl

skills.Thus, content hccomcs something \vhich lcarncrs move into antl out from, antl to
which they return in a process o f finer analysis and rcfincd synthesis. Curriculum dcsigntm
cannot, thcrcforc, predict \z ith any certainty thr ‘levels’ of contcnt on which learner5 \vi11
tlecitlc to cvolve their own sequencing in learning. [. . .]
(c) Suhtlrvision
Traditionally content has been subdividetl into scrialisrd categories o f structurrs or

‘functions’. A communicative view of content precludes this fragmentation and argucs for
subdivision in terms of whole frameworks hvhercin there is interaction Iictwern all the
various componcnts of the knowlcdge system ideational, interpersonal antl textual and
~ ~
all the abilitics involved in using such kno\vlcdge. Content would he subdivided or broken
down in terms of activities and tasks to he undertaken, whcrcin both knowledge and abilities
would lir engaged in the learners’ communication and mctacommunication. ‘l‘he various
activities antl tasks would be related liy sharing a holistic ‘core’ of knowledge and abilities.
So, we \vould not be concerned with ‘units’ o f contcnt, hut with ‘units’ of activity \vhich
gencratc communication and metacommunication.
((1) Cont in u I
Thc need to providc continuity for the learner has, in the past, bccn liased upon contcnt.
Within a communicative methodology, continuity can he identified within at least four areas.
First, continuity can reside in the activities and the tasks within cach activity; antl from one
activity to another and from one task to another. Second, continuity potentially resides
within communicativc acts during the learning and teaching: either at the ‘macro’ level in
terms of the \\.hole lesson and its ‘micro’ sequenccs of negotiation, or lvithin the structure
of discourse in terms o f t h c ‘macro’ communicati\-c act with its ohvn coherent scqucncv o f
uttcrances.Thirt1, continuity is provided through the ideational system. At thc ‘macro’ level
the learner may have access to continuity of theme, VI hilc at the ‘micro’ level the learner
can have access to conceptual or notional continuity Ideational continuity is rcalised through
a rcfincment of tcxtual kno\vlcdgc the rcfincment of a concept, for example, can imply
~
a rcfinernent of its linguistic cxprcssion, and vice-versa. Fourth, antl finally, continuity can
reside bvithin a skills repertoirc or a cycle of skill-use during an activity. I;or examplc, thcre
could he a progression from reading t o notr-taking to speaking for the achic\cment of a
particular activity. A communicativc mcthotlology would exploit cach of these areas of
continuity as clusters of potential continuitics, rather than cxploit any one alone. All can l x
inherent in a single activity.‘I‘hcsr kinds of continuity offcr two important advantagcs.‘I‘hcy
can servc the full proccss competcnccs of Iearncrs k n o ~ v l t ~ l gsystems
c antl abilities antl
~
they can allo\v for differentiation. Learners need to bc cnaliletl to scck and achic\-c their
own continuity and, thcrcfore, the criteria for their onm progress. In thc process of
accomplishing some immediate activity, lcarners will impose their o\vn personal and
interpersonal order and continuity upon that acti\ it?, the communication lzhich the activity
generates, the interpersonal, ideational and textual data which they act upon, antl on thc
skills they nccd to use in thc activity’s achievemcnt. As a result, the progrcssivc refinemcnt
of the learner’s om n pro compctcnce can provide an overall lcurning continuity. Once
the tcacher can acccpt that cach of thew areas provides potential continuity for different
to he a problem if different learners pursue scvcral routcs or progress at
different rates.
(e) Direction
Traditionally, learners have been expected to follow the direction implicit in some
prescribed content. Typically an emphasis o n content led the learner from the beginning,
through the middle, to the end. From \\.hat has been indicated so far, a communicative
methodology would not cxxploit contrnt as somc’ lire-drtcrminctl route with specific entry
and exit points. In a communicative methodology, content ceases to become some external
control over learning-teaching proerdurw. Choosing directions becomes a part of the
curriculum itself, and involvcs negotiation bct\vccn lcarncrs and learners, learners and
teachers, and learners and text. Who or what directs content becomes a justification for
communication about the selection and organisation of content with methodology, and
about the various routes to he adoptctll>y thc learners through any agreed content. Content
can be predicted within methodology only to the extent that it serves the communicative
learning process of thc participants in the group. It might \vcll be that the teacher, in
negotiation with learners, will ~ i r o p o s cthe adoption of aspects of the target rcpcrtoirc as
appropriate content. Ilo\vcvcr, the teacher \vould recognisc that thc ccntral objective of
developing underlying communicative knowledge antl atiilities can lic achi
range of alternative content, not nccesrarib. including aspects of the target repertoire. Such
*carrier’content can tic as tli\crsc as the different routes learners may take towards a
common target: perhaps contcnt can bc more various antl morc varialile. Also, the teacher
\voultl remain frer to build upon the contriliutions of learners their initial competences
and expectations and exploit thc inevitably different \vays in which learners may attain
the ultimate target. [. . . ]
7 How is the curriculum process to be evaluated?
Thc communicativc curriculum insists that c,valuation is a highly significant part of

communicativc intcraction itscll. Wc judge ‘grammaticalit?’ , ‘appropriatcncss’, ‘intel-
ligibility’ , and ‘cohcrrncc’in communicative performance o n the basis of shared, negotiated,
antl changing convcntions. Evaluation ivithin the curriculum can exploit this ‘judging’
clement of everyclay communicative hchaviour in the asscssmcnt of learners’ communication
antl mctacommunication.‘I‘hc highlj evaluative aspect of communication can be atloptcd as
thc evaluation proccdurc of thc curriculum. If so, the csscntially intcrsuhjectivc nature of
evaluation can be seen as a strong point rather than, possilily, a Lveakncss.
How might lve evaluate lcarncr progrc Evaluation of oncsclf, cvaluation of others,
and evaluation of self‘ b y others is intersuhjcctivc. In this xvay, evaluation need not be
regarded as external to the purposcs of the curriculum or external to the actual process of
learning and teaching. In rccognising that relative su or failure in the sharing of meaning,
or in the achievement of somc particular task, is most often an intcrsubjccti\-c matter, the
communicative curriculum ~ v o u l drely on shared and negotiated evaluation. Criteria for
eventual succcss in some particular task could lie initially ncg
~ ~ ctl, achirvemcnt of
the task could be rclatctl to thcsc agreed criteria, antl degrees o f su 1 or failure could he
themselves further negotiated o n thc tiasis of the original criteria. Evaluatiyr criteria,
therefore, \vould be rstahlishcd antl applied in a thrcc-stage process: (i) What might ‘success’
mean? (ii) Is the learner’s perhrmancc of the task succcssful! (iii) If so, hom succcssful is
it? Each stage \vould lit, a matter for communication. Instcad of the teacher hcing obliged
to teach toxvards somc cxtcrnally imposed criteria manifested most often by some external
~
examination or stantlartlisetl test he can exploit the interpretation of these external or

~
standardiscd criteria as part of the joint negotiation within the classroom. The group’s
discovery of the critcria inherent in such cnd-of-course or summativc assessment \loultl lie
one means for the establishment of the group’s own negotiatcd criteria and, crucially, for
the sharing of responsibilities during the learning-teaching process.
In a communicative curriculum we are dealing with an intcrdcpcntlencc of the
curriculum components of purposes, methodology, antl evaluation. It follolvs that any
evaluation within the curriculum also involves an evaluation of the curriculum itself. Any
joint negotiation among the various participants within the curriculum may obviously deal
with the initial purposes and ongoing methodology which have been adopted. Indeed,
communicative evaluation may wcll lcad to adaptation of initial purposes, of methodology,
antl of the agreed criteria of c\-aluation themselves. Evaluation within and of the curriculum
can lie a pokverful and guiding force. Judgements are a crucial part of kno\vlcdgc, Icarning,
and any educational process. 1 3 applying
~ judgements to the curriculum itself, evaluation by
the uscrs ofthat curriculum can be brought into the classroom in an immediate and practical
sense. Once within the classroom, evaluation can be made to scrvc as a basis for new
. of teaching and learning.
nicative use of evaluation will lcad towards an emphasis on firmurive
or ongoing evaluation, rather than summativc or cntl-of-course e\duation Ivhich may
be based on some prcscribetl criteria. That is, it can shape antl guide learning and guide
decisions within t h r curriculum process. Any shared antl negotiatcd cvaluation within the
classroom will generate potentially formative feedback for and Iwtween learners antl
between lcarncrs and the teacher. Formative evaluation may not only indicate the relative
successes and failures of both learner and curriculum, it can also indicate new and different
directions in which both can m o \ e and dcvclop. [. . .]
This placing of evaluation within the communicative process as a formative activity in
itself docs not necessarily invalitlatc thc place of summativc cvaluation. Summativc
evaluation becomes valuable if it can reveal the learners’ relative achi ment o l a particular
target repcrtoirc. I Iowever, we have already proposed that any target repertoire needs to
be seen as the tip of an iceberg. Therefore, an essential requircmcnt on any summativc
evaluation \rould be that it can adcquately account for the learner’s progress in the
refinement of a particular underlying competence the communicative knowledge antl
~
aliilities which provide the capociy for the use of a target repertoire. Summativc evaluation,
in other words, needs to be sensitive to differential competences which may undcrlie some
common target. As such, summative evaluation within a communicative curriculum ncctls
to focus on the assessment of the learner’s developing communicative knowlcdgc and
aliilities as well as on his actual pcrformance \\ ithin the target rcpertoire. [. . . I
Therefore, the essential characteristics of evaluation within a communicative curriculum
Lvould be that such evaluation is itself incorporated within the communicatily process of
teaching and learning, that it serves the dual role of evaluating lcarncr progress and the
ongoing curriculum, and that it is likely to hc formative in the achievement ofthis dual role.
8 Achieving communicative language teaching

We cmphasised at the outset of this paper that any curriculum framework for language
teaching and learning nccrssarily in\ olvcs designers, materials writers, teachers and learnci-s
in a process of relating the three components of purpose’,mcthodology and evaluation. Even
so, we need to ackno\vlcdgc that any curriculum including a communicati\c curriculum
~~
~ cannot strictly be designed as a whole from the start. We can only deduce and propose
thc principles on which a varicty of communicative curricula may bc based. Any curriculum
is a personal and social arcna. A communicative curriculum in particular, with its emphasis
24 M I C H A E L P. B R E E N A N D CHRISTOPHER N. C A N D L I N
on the learning and teaching o f communication, highlights a communicative process

whereby the intcrrclating curriculum components arc themselves open to negotiation and
change.
From this it follows that the communicative curriculum no more than any other -
can ncvcr bc one uniquelp itlcntifialde language teaching curriculum. In a real sense thcrc
can lie no such thing as an ideal antl uniquclp applicablc language teaching curriculum since
any realisation of the curriculum must rctlcct a realistic analysis o f t h e actual situation within
which the language teaching will take place. 'lh cope cvith this requirement of appro-
priateness to situation, thc communicative curriculum has to be proposcd as a flcxihlc and
practical set of hasic principles 1% hich underlie a \vholc range o f potential communicative
curricula. It i s this set of principles which \vc have tried t o present in this paper, in the
knowledge that such proposals need to Iic translated into action in thc classroom in ortlcr
to test their obvn valitlity.This is, after all, the only means by which curriculum theory and
practice can develop. Even though thc curriculum dcsigncr may h a w takcn account of the
actual language teaching situation, hc has t o rccognise that from tlcsign to implementation
is itsclf a communicative p r o c . J. M . Stephens (1 967) idcntificd this process when he
said:
The curricular rcforms emanating from the conference room \vi11 be cffcctive only
insofar as they become incorporated into the concerns that the teacher is led to
express. Any statcmcnts or decisions coming from thc curriculum committee will not
lie transportctl intact into the li o f pupils. Such statements must work through a
complex chain o f interactions. 'l'he original statements of the committee will act as
stimuli for one set of pcoplc such as sulijcct-matter super\-isors.Thcse pcoplc, in turn,
\vi11 react to the stimuli, possililp mcrclp mirroring \vhat they rcceive, more likely,
incorporating much of themselves into thc reaction. Their reactions will then act as
stimuli for a second s c t o f p ~ o p l c\z ho cvill also rcact in their mz-n way. After a number
of such intermctliary transactions somconc, thc tcachcr, will apply some stimuli to
the pupil himself.
(pp. 12-1 3)
While Stephens, in talking about stimuli, docs not cmphasisc transactions as a t\vo-\vay
process, he clcarlp implies that the translation from principlcs through design to
implementation is most oftcn a proc ' ofi-cintcrprctation of the curriculum, and a process
of negotiation lietcvccn the curriculum antl its users. If adopted lcithin the design and
implementation procedure, the conditions or minimal rcquircmcnts on any communicative
curriculum must take account o f those situational constraints which arc unchangeable.
However, such minimal requirements should also serve as the gcncral criteria against which
any situational constraints \vi11 lie tcstctl in order to assess lvhcthcr or not the constraint is
genuincly immutal)lc o r lvhcthcr it may I>covt~rconit~.
If a curriculum Inscd upon the principles \vhich \vc havc examined here is not
implementalilc \Tithin a particular situation, then it tnay lie that a gcnuincly communicative
curriculum is simply not ialdc. It may Iic the c a w that curriculum dc-signers antl teachers
in such a situation nccd t o consider lvhcthcr thc achicv,mcnt of language learning as
communicution is appropi-iate.
Communicative curricula ncctl through timc and according to situation to lie open -
and suhjcct t o ongoing developments in theory, research, antl practical classroom

experience. Communicative curricula arc essentially the means of capturing variability.
Variability \vi11 exist in selected purposes, methods, and evaluation procedures, hut
variability must also be seen as i n h r r r n t in human communication and in the ways it is

variously achieved 11y different learners antl teachers. T h c classroom its social-
~
hological reality, its proccdurcs and activities is potentially a communicative cnviron-

m c n t whcrc the effort to pull together such variability is undcrtakcn.Thc learning-teaching
process in the classroom is the meeting-point o f all curriculum components anti it is t h r
place \z here their coherence is continually tested. T h e learning-teaching process in the
classroom is also thc catalyst for thc dcvclopmcnt and rcfincmcnt of thosc minimal
rcquircmcnts which will underlie future curricula.
Notes
‘Curriculum’ can he distinguished from ‘ayllabus’ in that a syllabus is typically a
specification of the content of’ the teaching anti learning antl the organisation antl
sequencing of the content. Content and its organisation is subsumed n ithin a curriculum
as part of methotlolog! (Section 6 of this paper). A syllabus is thcrcforc only part of thc
overall curriculum M ithin which it operates. For interesting discussions of curriculum
theory antl ticsign scc, inter ulio, I a v t o n , 1973; Stenhouse, 1975; Colby et ul., 1975.
This ncgotiativc interaction u itliin the learner hctwccn prior kno\vlctigc and the ncn-
learning has Iwcn a conccrn \vi hology for many years. See, [or rxamplc, Piagct
(1 95 3), Bruner ( 1 9 7 3), and Nc
’l‘his ‘process competcncc’ is changing antl de\ eloping communicatil c
kno\vletigc and abilities as learner moves from initial compctcncc ton.ards the target
competence. It is partly I- alcd through a series of ‘Interlanguagcs’ (Sclinkcr, 1972,
Taronc, 1977, Corder, 1978).
References
Bernstein, B., 1971. Clciss, Codes unci Control, Volume 1 : Theoretical Stutlies tori-urds u Sociolo<qj o/
I a n p i p . I ondon: Routledge anti Kcgan Paul.
Bruncr, J. S., 1973. B y o n d the Infirmution Given. London: Gcorgc Allen 8r Unwin.
Rruner, J. S., Olvcr, R. antl Grccnticld, P., 1966. Sttidies i n Cognitire Growth. NcwYork: John
Wile) & Sons.
Corder, S. 1’. , 1978. ‘Error anal! , intcrlanguagc and second language acquisition’ in Kinsclla,
V. (ctl.) Lunguugc Eochiiig und I~ingtii.sticx:Sun.5vt. Cam1)ritigc University Prcss.
Golby, M., Grccnwald, J. and West, R . (etls.) 1975. Curriculum Design. I ondon: Croom I Iclrn
in association Tvith the Open University Prcss.
Gumpcrz, J. J., 1964. ‘Linguistic and social interaction in tux) communities’ in Gumpcrr, J. J.
and Hymes, 1). ( c d s . ) .Imericcin ’4nfhropologist 6 6 (6 ii): 1964.
IIalliday, M . A. K., 1973. ‘The functional basis of language’ in Bcrnstcin, 13. (cd.) Cluss, CoJc,
ant1 Control, Volumr. 2: ,4ppIieci Studies iowurds u Sociology ~fI.ancqriacqe.I .ondon: Routletlgc
and Kegan Paul.
I Iymcs, I)., 1971. ‘ O n coniniunicativc competence’ in l’ridc, J. and Holmes, J. (ctls.)
Sociohngiii.stic~.Harmontls\vorth: Penguin Books, 1 972.
Labov, W., 1970. ‘The study o f language in its social context’. Srridium ( h e r u l e 23, 1970.
Lawton, D., 197 3. Social Change, Etlucutionul Theory anti Curriculum Pluming. London: Uniwrsit?
o f London Prcss.
Neisser, U.,1976. Cognition untl Reuli5r. San Fran o:W. H.Freeman & Co.
Piagct, J . , 195 3. The Origins of’lntelligence in the Child. I ondon: Routledge antl Kcgan Paul.
Srlinkcr, L., 1 972. ‘Interlanguage’. IRA[ 1 0: 3, 1 972.
Stenhouse, L., 1975. An Introduction to Curriculum Re.senrrh c7nd Development . I.ontlon:
Heinemann.
Stephens, J. M., 1967. The Process ?f Schooling: A P.y.chological Examination. New York: Holt,
Rinehart &Winston.
Tarone, E., 1977. ‘Conscious communication stratcgics in inter-language: a progress rcport’ .
Paper prescntcd at the 1 1 t h T t S O L Convention, Miami, F1. 1977.
Chapter 2
David Nunan and Clarice Lamb
M A N A G I N G T H E L E A R N I N G PROCESS
“I dunno,” Jimmy said, “I forget what I was taught. I onl) remember what I’ie learnt.”
(Patrick W hitc)
You are g l e n the experiences 4ou need to understand thc norld.

(Paulo Coelho)
Introduction
T H E D E C I S I O N S T H A T T E A C H E R S A R E R E Q U I R E D tomakc duringthc
instructional proccss are all driven by the nature of the program, the goals o f
instruction, and the necds of the individual learners. I t is therefore critical for us to considcr
thcsc issues before turning to thc management of the learning proccss in the classroom.
[. ‘ .I
In this chapter we cover the following issucs and concepts:
Setting the conreit and cle_f;ningterm.s key terms defined arc “learnci--ccntci-c-dnC‘ss,”
“cxperiential learning,” “humanism,” “learning-centeredness,” “communicative
language tcaching,” “high-structure and low-structure teaching”
C u r r i c u l u m processes the scope of curriculum development and the importancc of
curriculum development for the managcmcnt of learning
Needs analysis definition and examples of needs analysis
Setting goals and objectives from learner needs to learning goals, illustration of goals antl
objectives, how clcarly stated goals and objectives provide a sound basis for managing
thc lcarning process
Setting the context and defining terms

I. . .I
Learner-centeredness
The concept of learner-crnteredness has been invoked with increasing frequency in rcccnt
years. What docs thc tcrm mean? Likc many widely used terms, it probably means rather
different things to different people (Nunan antl Brindley 1986). For us, lcarner-centcrcd
classrooms are those in which learners are actively involved in their o\vn learning processcs.
28 DAVID NUNAN AND CLARICE LAMB
The extent t o mhich it 15 possil~lcor tlcsiratilc tor learners t o lie in\ol\cd in their omn
lcarning nil1olniouslq \ a r ) trom context to context (and, intlccd, from Icarncr to learner).
If learners are t o lcarn anJthing at all, ho\zc\cr, ultimatel! thcy ha\e to do the learning for
themsel\ es Thus it 15 a truism to sa! that the> \hould I,c in\ ol\ et1 in their OM n learning. In
an ideal learning-centcrcd contcxt, not on14 \\ill deciwms about M hat to lcarn antl hov to
learn be made n i t h reference to the lcarnci s, Init the learner5 themsel\cs will be i n i o h e d
in the decision-making pi-oc t a c h clcmcnt i n the curriculum proce5s will inbolkc the
learner, a s l a l i l c 2 1 .;ho\zs
Tuhlc 2. l Learner roles in a learner-ccntcrctl curriculum
Curriculum ctagc Role qflecirnei
Planning I earners arc consultcd o n \\.hat thcy Lvaiit to

learn antl ho\v thcy want t o go a h o u t learning.
of ncctls analysis facilitates
this process. Lcarncrs arc in\olvctl in setting,
monitoring, antl modifying the goals and
objccti\ cs of the programs being dcsignctl for
thcm.
Implementation I cai-ncrs' language skills tl

Icarncrs actively using ant1 reflecting on the
language insitlc and outsitlc the classroom. They
are also involved in modifying antl crcating their
o\vn Icarning tasks and language data.
Asscs\mcnt antl c\aluation Lcarncrs monitor ant1 a.

The! arc also activclv involvrtl in the evaluation
antl modification o f tcaching and Icarning during
thc course and aftcr it has hccn completed.
Thc philosophy of Icarner-ccntcreclncss has strong links \vith experiential Icarning,

humanistic psychology and task-liasrtl language tcaching. Thcsc links arc evident in the
following quotes:
[A Icarnci--centered] curriculum \vi11 contain similar clcmcnts to thosc contained in

traditional curriculum tlcvclopment, that is, planning (including needs analysis, goal
and objective setting), implementation (including methodology antl materials
dcvclopment) antl evaluation (see for cxamplc Hunkins 1980). However, the key
differrncc lietween learner-ccntrctl antl traditional curriculum tlcvclopment is that,
in the formcr, the curriculum is a collaborativc cf'fort between tcachcrs and learncrs,
since learners arc closcly involved in the decision-making process regarding the
content of the curriculum antl how it is taught. This change in oricntation has major
practical implications for the entire curriculum pro ',since a negotiated curriculum
cannot be introduced antl managed in the same \ray as one which is prescribed hy the
teacher o r tcaching institutions. In particular, it places the liurden for all aspects of
curriculum de\ elopmcnt on thc teacher.
(Nunan 1988: 2)
MANAGING T H E LEARNING PROCESS 29
The proponents of humanistic education have broadened our concept of lcarning by

emphasizing that meaningful learning has to he self-initiated. Even if the stimulus
comcs from outsidc, the sense of discovery, ho\vever, and the motivation which that
\,rings has to come from inside drivrn hy the basic human dcsirc for self-realization,
well-bcing and growth. . . . [I]. terms of personal and interpersonal compctcncc the
-oriented classroom revolves around issues of risk and urity, cooperation
and competition, self-dircct~dnessand other-directedness; antl meaningful and
meaningless activities. We ha\,e also tried to make clear that “teachers \vho claim it is
not their job to takc these phenomena into account may miss out on some ofthc most
essential ingredients in the management of successful learning” (Undcrhill 1989,
12. 252).
(Lcgutkc andThomas 1991 : 269)
Wt. can scc from these extracts that learnei--centeredncss is stronglj rooted in traditions
dcri\cd from general education Our \ iem is that language pc(lagog> nerd\ to drav on its
general educational roots for sustenancc, 1%hich it has not not al\z a) s done. In fact, some
language programs seem to ha\ e suffcrcd an “educational 1) pass ”
Learning-centeredness
Tahlc 2 1 , M hich scts out the role of the learner in relation to curriculum planning,
implementation and elaluation, represents the ideal As tcac hers and course dcsigncrs, me
h a c heen in relatncly fc\z situations in \\ hich leal ncrs trom an cad! stage in the learning
process h a c been able to make criticall? infoi-mcd decision\ about \z hat to lcai n and ho\\
to lcarn In our experience, learners nccd to be s\ sternaticall) taught the skills ncetletl to
implement a learner (cntcrcd approach to petlagog) In other words, language programs
should ha\e t\\ in goals language content goals antl learning piocc\s goals \uch a program
\\e \zould charactcri7c as being “learning centered ” UJ tcmaticall) educating learners
about \\hat it means to lie a learner, Icarncrs reach a point \\here the) are ahlc to inakc
informed ticcision, aliout 1% hat thri n a n t to lcarn and ho\z thc! mant to lcarn It is at thi,
point that a truly learner-ccmtcrcd curriculum can lie implemented Lcai ning c c n t c i c h e s s
I \ thus designed t o lead to learner-centerednrss
The pre\ ious discussion undci lines the fact that learner ccntci cdncss is not an all-or-
nothing process Rather it is a continuum trom rclati\cl) lcss to relatnel! more learner
centered Nunan ( 1 99511) has captured this continuum in the tollow ing tables, which shobz
that learner ccntcrctlness can be implementcd at a numlicr o f different lc\cls The tables
also illustrate some ot the practical steps that can he taken in implementing a lcai nci
oriented approach to in\truction
Table 2 . 2 relates to the experiential contcnt domain It demonstrates that, all other
things licing equal, a classroom in \z hich learners are made am arc of thc pedagogical goals
and content of instruction is morc lcarncr-centered than one in \z hich goals antl content
arc left implicit We \\auld argue that all learners should, in thc hrst instancc, IIC alerted to
goalr and content In collecting data for this book me nere surprised at hom tntrequcntl)
this step happened Ho\ze\er, wc \zould go furthcr, and arguc that it is just a first step along
a path that, gi\en the appropriate context and types of lcarncrs, could takc the lcarnei 5
through a gradual learning process in mhich the) made selections trom a range of
altcrnatii es, modihed and adapted goals and content, created their 0x2 n goals and selected
their own cxpericntial content area, antl finall! mo\ cd be>ond the classroom itself (kor
practical descriptions antl illustrations of thew processes, see Nunan 19951) ) Ho\z far one
chooscs to movc along the continuurn d e p e n d s o n onc’s learners and the c o n t e x t and
environment of the instructional process.
Table 2.3 shoxvs how t h e continuum can apply t o the learning process domain. O n c e
again, we see that l e a r n e r - c c n t c r c d n w s is n o t an all-or-nothing process, b u t can lic
implemented in a series of gradual steps.
Tuble 2.2 Learner-ccntcredncss in the experiential content domain
Level Leurner act ion Glo,r
1 Abvarcncss 1.carnc.n arc matlc aware of the pdagogical goals antl

content of the course.
2 In\ olvcmcnt Lcarncrs arc involved in sclccting thcir o\vn goals and
ol>jcctivcsfrom a range of altcrnati\-cs on offcr.
3 Inter\ cntion Lcarncrs arc in\ olvctl in modifying and adapting the
qoals and content of the learning program.
4 Crcation Lcarncrs crcatc thcir o\vn goals ancl ohjcctivcs.
5 Transccntlcncc I.carncrs go I x y o n d thc classroom and make links

t)ct\\ccn the contcnt of the classroom antl thc \vorld
bcvond thc classroom,
Tuble 2.3 Lcarncr~ccntcrcdncssin the lcarninc process domain
I.cve1 Lecirner action Gl0s.s
1 A\varcncss L,carncrs itlcntify stratcg! implications 01’ pcdagogical

tasks antl idcntil) thcir o\vn prctcrrctl learning
s t j Ics/stratcgics.
2 Involvcnicnt Lcarncrs makc choices among a range o f options.
3 Intervention Lcarncrs niodif) /adapt tasks
4 Crcation Lcarncrs crcatc thcir own tasks
5 Transccndcncc Lcarncrs \>cconieteachers antl rescarchcrs
Communicative language teaching

C o m m u n i c a t i w language teaching cmcrgcd from a numlicr of disparatc sources. D u r i n g
t h c 1970s and 1980s applied linguists antl languagc e d u c a t o r s began to re-evaluate
pedagogical practice in the light of changrtl views o n the nature o f language and learning,
and t h e role of teachers and l c a r n e r s in thc light o f these changing vicws. The contrast
lietween what for want o f h e t t c r t e r m s we have called “traditionalism,” and communicative
language teaching (CLT), is shown in Tablc 2.4 in relation to a numlicr of key variables
within the curriculum. The table prcscnts contrasts in relation t o theories of language and
learning, and in relation t o objectives, syllabus, classroom activities and the roles of learners,
teachers antl materials. The vicws illustrated represent points on a c o n t i n u u m , rather than
cxclusive categories, and m o s t teachcrs \vi11 m o w back and forth along t h e continuum in
response to t h e n e r d s of the students and thc overall contcxt in which they arc teaching.
The t r u t h is that language is, a t one and t h e same t i m e , h o t h a system of rule-govcrnetl
structurcs and a system for the expression of meaning. Learning is a m a t t e r o f habit
formation as \vel1 as a proccss of activation through the deployment of' communicative tasks.
The challenge for t h e teacher, the textbook w r i t e r and the curriculum developer is to shobv
how the rule-governed structures enable t h e language user t o make meanings.
Table 2.3 Changing vic\vs on thc nature of language antl learning: Traditionalism and CLT
Teach I ng Traditionalism Commun ica ti re lung uagc
Theory of language Language is a svstcm of rule- Language is a s! stem for the

govcrnctl structures hierarchically expression of meaning: primar)
arrangctl. function interaction.
~
Thcor! of learning Habit formation; skills arc leal-nctl Acti\ itics inwlving real
more effectively if oral precedes communication; carrying out
\vrittcn; analogy not anal! meaningful tasks antl using
language that is meaningful t o
the Icarncr promote learning.
Ohjectii e\ Control of' thc structures of sound, Olijcctiws \vi11 reflect thc nccds
form and order, master) oicr of the learner; they \z ill include
mhol\ ot the language; goal lunctional skills as \vel1 as
natil c spcakcr master!. linguistics objectives.
Svllahus Gradctl syllabus of phonology, Will includc some or all of the

morphology, antl syntax. follo\ving: structures, functions,
Contrastiw analysis. notions, thcmcs antl tayks.
Ordering \vi11 Iic guided by
lcar tier ne et l s .
Acti] itics Dialogues and drills; repetition Engage learners in

and memorization; pattern communication; in\ol\ c
pi-acticc. proccsscs such as information
sharing, negotiation of meaning
and interaction.
Rolc ol lcarncr Organisms that can he tlircctctl bq Learner as ncgotiator,

skilled training tcchniqucs to interactor, gi\ ing as nell as
produce correct responses. taking.
Rolc of tcac hcr Central antl active; tcachcr- Facilitator of the

dominatctl method. I'ro\ itlcs communication process, ncctl\
mo(lcl; controls tlircction antl analyst, counselor, process
pacc. manager.
Rolc of materials Primarily tcachcr oricntctl. Tapes Primary role of promoting

and visuals; language lab oftcn communicative language use;
used. task based, authcntic matcrials
We do not Ilclievc that many classrooms can h e defined exclusively in t e r m s of a

particular methodology. Whether a classroom is characterized as “traditional” o r
“communicativc” is therefore determined by the relative emphasis and degrcc to which the
views listed in the table underpin \\.hat happens in the classroom rather than on the cxclusiw
adherencc to one set of views to thc exclusion of an); other. Thc difference lies, not in the
rigid adherence to onc particular ap[iroach rather than another, but in the basic orientation.
Somc teachers operatc out of a traditional paradigm, making occasional forays into CL2T,
and for others it is the other \.ray around. In the ESI. and EFIJ classrooms vvc have worked
in and studied in rcccnt !cars, the Ix-cvailing t r c d has hcrn to\vard CLT, although by no
means exclusively so.
High- and low-structure teaching
The insight that communication \vas an intcgratetl process rather than a set o f discrete
learning outcomes created a dilcmma for language cducation. It meant that the destination
(functioning in another language) and thc routc (attcmpting t o learn thc target language)
moved much closer togethcr, antl, in some instances (for examplr, in role plays and
simulations), became indistinguisha1,lc.. The challenge for curriculum devclopcrs, syllahus
designers, materials writers and classroom teachers revolved around decisions associated
w i t h thc movements 1,ctween points on the continua set out in the tables in the preceding
section. Questions such as the follo\ving therefore appeared Ivith increasing frequency
in teacher-training kvorkshops: Ho\v do I integrate “traditional” excrcises, such as drills,
controlled conversations antl the like, Lvith communicative tasks such as discussions, tlebatcs,
role plays, etc.? Ho\v do I manage decision making and the learning pro
classroom sessions devoted to communicative tasks Lvhich, by definition, require m c to hand
over substantial amounts of tlccision-making p v c r antl control t o the Icarners? How can
I equip learners thcmselvcs \vith the skills thcy \vi11 nccd to makc tlccisions \viscly and to
embrace po\vcr cffccti\-ely?
For some individuals the solution la? in wjccting the changing vie\vs along with their
inconvenient pedagogical implications. Others lvcnt t o the oppositc extreme, eschewing
“traditional” solutions to their materials clcvelopmcnt antl language-teaching challenges. In
most contcxts, h o u cr, a more Iialanccd \icw prcvailctl.
For some time after thc rise of CL‘I; thc status of grammar in the curriculum \vas
rather uncertain. Somc linguists maintained that it \vas not ne
grammar, that the abilit? to LISC a second language (“knowing how”) \vould develop
automatically if the learner \vcrc required to focus on meaning in the proccss of using
the language t o communicatc. In rcccnt ?cars, this vicw has come under serious
challenge, and it now seems t o 1~ widely accepted that there is value in classroom
tasks kvhich require lcarncrs t o focus o n form. It is also accepted that grammar is an
essential resource in using languagc communicatively.
(Nunan 1989: 13)
In educational terms, a useful \.ray of viewing this emerging dilemma in language cducation
is in terms of high- antl low-structure tcaching. Iligh-structure tasks arc those in which
teachers have all the p v c r and control. Low-structure tasks are those in which power and
control are devolved t o the students. We have borrowd the terms “high-structure” and “low-
structure” from Biggs and Telfcr (1 987). They suggest that the successful management of
thc, learning process depcntls on teachers knowing kvhere t o locate themselves on the high-
MANAGING THE LEARNING PROCESS 33
to Ion-structure continuum in relation to a given task. In a high-structure task, students

are placed in reactive roles and accorded relatively little choice. In a low-structure context,
students haw many options antl maximum autonomy. EIomww-, ~ v do c not equate high-
structure with non-communicative and Ion-structure with communicativc tasks. In ccrtain
communicative tasks, learners have relatively little freedom of maneuver. Howcvcr, ~ v do c
believe an association exists bctwecn lolv-structure antl CLT and that the incorporation of
communicativc tasks Lvith Ion-structure implications into the classroom increases tht-
complexity of the decision-making process for the teacher.
We \vould argue that the kinds of managerial issues that arise and the sorts of decisions
that teachers arc required to make will be largely driven by the degrcc of structure implied.
This concept is illustrated inTablc 2.5, which provides exemplary questions relating to high-
and loM--structure contexts as these apply to key elemcnts at the levels of curriculum
planning, implemcntation, and evaluation.This schema will be referred to constantly in the
pages that follow, as it is one of the key organizational framcworks underpinning the work
as a whole. It allows us to deal coherently with the following key managerial questions antl
to demonstrate that the answers \.rill vary according to the tlcgrec of structuring called for
by the instructional goals guiding the intcraction at that particular time.
What aspects of tcachcr talk (direct instruction, feedback, instructions, antl questioning
strategies) facilitate or impair cffcctive learning?
What issues nccd to bc taken into consideration in lesson planning and preparation?
How can the tcacher most effectively cxploit resources in the classroom?
What stratcgics cxist for setting u p diffcrcnt modes of classroom interaction, from
teacher-fronted through small group, pair and individual Lvork?
What arc the implications of affective attitudes (e.g., motivation, attitude and aptitude)
for the effective managcmcnt of learning?
What tools, tcchniques, and strategies cxist for the ongoing monitoring and evaluation
of classroom interaction and acquisition?
(All of these questions can be explored through thc investigative procedures suggested
in Nunan 1990, 1992).
The curriculum in outline

Implicit in the foregoing discussion i s thc fact that classroom dccision-making antl the effective
management of thc learning process cannot be made without rcfcrcncc to the larger context
within which instruction takcs place. The context and cnvironmcnt of the learning pro
including the curriculum plans that should tlri\ e the pedagogical action, arc criticall!
important hcrc. In other \vortls, classroom dccisions cannot be made \vithout rcfcrcncc to
structures operating outsidc of the classroom, at the level of the curriculum.
Language curriculum development has been greatly influenced by changing vi
the naturc of teaching and learning.’l’hesc changing viclvs are reflected in the objectives and
content of language programs, as well as acti\ities, materials, and tcachcr/lcarner roles.
The influence of these diffcrcnt viovs was made clear in the Table 2.4, which contrasted
traditionalism n i t h CLT.
As hve can sec from Table 2.5, communicative language teaching has had a major
influence on languagc curriculum dcvclopment. First, curriculum tlcvclopmcnt has hccomc
much morc complcx. Whereas txvcnty or thirty years ago, thc point of tlcparturc for
curriculum development trntlrd to be restricted to the identification of the Icarncr’s currrnt
lcvcl of proficiency, \z ith thc dcvelopmcnt of communicativc language tcaching and thc
insight that curricula should reflect learners’ communicative ncetls antl learning prcfcrcnccs,
Table 2. J Curriculum decision-making in high-structure and lo\\ -structure contexts
Curricular elements High-structure contexts Lowstructiire contexts
.It the planning ctage

Course dc5ign What docs the institution tell nic to teach? Ho\v do I tlesign/adapt my o\vn content/
What arc the managerial decisions entailed in thc goalsltasks?
teacher’s manual?
Nectls analysis Ho\v can I identify the learning prcfci-cnccs of m y Ho\\ can I i n \ o l \ c my learners in identifying and
students? articulating thcir o\vn needs?
Collegial H o ~ vcan I coopcratc \\-ith collcagucs in Course What opportunitics exist hi- team teaching?
planning?
Ho\\ can 1 get the most out of staff meetings?
Holy can staff meetings contributc t o cffccti\ c
planning?
Resources HOMd o I manage ujc o f act text? Hmv do I niotlifq/adapt the t e x t ?

Ho\v do I crcatc my olvn resources?
Holy do I design split information tasks that \vi11 be
cffcctirc in mv context?
A t the implementation rtagc

Talk/interaction What arc cffectiw strategies for direct instruction? W h a t questioning strategies facilitate learner
contributions t o low-structure tasks?
Hoiv do I give feedback on high-structure tasks? How do I give feedback in lo\\--structurc tasks?
W h a t types of teacher questions maximize student
output?
Learner language H ~ do
M I correct learner errors? Hon- can I provide language models in small group
role plays in xvhich the principal focus is on the
exchange o f meanings?
Learner attitude Hoxv do I deal \r-ith group conflicts?

Hmv do I deal with student resistance to learner
initiated tasks?
Group configuration Hoxv do I organize controlled practice? Ho\v do I set up small group learning?
Ho\v do I managc teacher-fronted instruction What strategies exist for setting communicatix-e
effectively ? tasks in Lvhich students Lvork independently?
A r the eraluation stage

Learner assessment What techniques \vi11 help m e t o asscss the How can I help my learners de\-clop effective
achic\cment of my learners? tcchniqucs for sclf-assessmcnt?
Sclf-cvaluation of the learning process
Formal e\ aluation Ho\\ can l e a r n e n be in\olxcd in proxidlng input to

the e\ aluation procc$s?
much more information about and by learncrs came to be incorporated into the curriculum
process. Thc other major modification occurred with the emergence of the communicative
task as a central building block within the curriculum. Instead of being designed to teach a
particular lexical, phonological or morphosyntactic point, tasks were designed to reflect
learners’ communicative necds. I ,anguage focus cxerciscs \vere developed as a second-order
activity.
In summary, we can say that curriculum dcvclopmcnt represents a delicate juggling act
involving the incorporation of information about the learner, about the language, and about
the learning process. Language content questions include what are we tcaching, why are
we teaching it, antl when ~ ’ arc e teaching it. Learning process qucstions, which are
methodological in character, include how are \vc arranging the learning environment.
Among other things, when we focus on the lcarner, we must ask how well the learner has
done and how well the curriculum has done in serving the necds of the learner.
Wc can relate thcsc key qucstions to each other in terms of the central curricular
elements of syllabus design, which has to do Lvith thc selection, sequencing and grading of
content; methodology, which is concerned with task selection and sequencing; and
assessment and evaluation, which are concerned with determining how well students have
done, as well as evaluating how well the instructional process has met curricular goals.These
relationships are set out schematically inTahlc 2.6.
Table 2. h Kc! curriculum questions, p r o w d u r c s , and arcas
Question., ProceJirrcs ,lrcus
Contcnt
What? Sclccting 1
Why? Justifying
When? Grading
I’roccsscs
EIO\V?
When?
tnacting
Sequencing
1 Methotlolog!
Outconics
Ho\v \vcll? Asscssing Asscssmcnt
How cffccti\c? E\ aluating k\ aluation
O n e vicw of “curriculum” has it that curriculum processes have to do with thc

dc\-clopment of tactical plans for action. In this vicw, “curriculum” is taken to refcr to
statements about what should happen in the teaching and lcarning situation. According to
this vie\v, the curriculum specialist’s task ends when the ink is dry on the various documents
that have been produced to guide teaching and learning. Wc believe that this vicw is simplistic
and nai‘vc, that while “curriculum” includes the planning process, it also includes the
processes of implementation antl evaluation .These three phasc-s are captured in Figure 2.1 .
The final point we wish to makc is that the language curriculum should concern itself,
not only bvith language content goals, but also with learning pro goals. Learners should
be focused o n the processes through which lcarning takes place as well as on thc target
language they arc learning. It is our contention that learners cvho h a w developed skills in
identifying their own preferred learning skills and strategies \vi11 be more effective language
learners.
Phase I: Planning (initial nccds analysis, goals antl (hjcctives, contcmt, antl process)
Phase 11: Implcmrntation (ongoing ncrtls analysis, monitoring, action I-cscarch)
Phase 111: E\ aluation (assessmcnt, self-asscssmrnt, program cvaluation)
h p r c 2. I Thrcc phascc or pcrspccti\cs on the curriculum process
Curriculum goals I anguage content For example, to tle\rlop the

abilit! to olitain goods and
scr\ ices in the target
language
Lcarning process For cxamplc, to d e l elop

skills in learning hov to
lcarn
Task
Aim To familiarize you \z ith some ofthc key tasks conccrncd n i t h cui-riculum dcwlopment
and to provide an opportunity for you to relatc thcsc to your on-n tcaching situation.
Procctlurc
1. The following list contains somc of the tasks that need to be carried out in the course
of dcsigning and implcmcnting a curriculum. Study the activitics and decide kvhich
of them, in relation to a context Ivith which you arc familiar, should be carried out
by a teacher, a curriculum specialist, a counsclor, a director of studics, ctc. Write these
down in thc spaces provided.
2. Sclcct those areas for xvhich thc teacher has primary responsibility. What arc somc of
the decisions that need to be made? Exprcss these as questions.
Data
Intel-\ iem students ~~
Conduct needs anal!iis ~
Assign studcnts to class g r o u p ~
Carry out diagnostic test ~
Arress studcnts’ current le\el of English ~
Ihagnosc indn idual learning difhcultics -~
Identify indn itlual lcarning \t!lei

Sclcct and grade linguistic contcnt (grammar, 1 ocabular!, functions, notion\)
~~
Select cxpcriential content (topics, thcmcs, situations, settings, etc.) _ _
Sct out course goals

Write performance objecti\cs __
Select, adapt or develop lcarning tasks and material\ ~
Monitor student progrcss ~

A s e s s learning outcomes ~ ~ ~ _________ ~ ~ ___________
ELaluatc language program(s) ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
In some teaching contexts, teachers will lie rcsponsiblc for all these tasks. In others, they
will have little control. Some of the questions r a i d by teachers in rclation to interviews,
needs analysis, and assigning students to groups include the follo\ying:
~
Student intervicu,s Should these he carried out I d o r c , during, or after the course has
begun? Should the learners he forced to respond in the target language? HOWdo I get
information from lo\v-proticiency learners \vhen I don’t spcak their language?
~
A‘eeds ana@s What techniqucs exist for doing nccds analysis? How can the resulting
information be used for writing course goals and ohjcctivrs?What if my learners have
conflicting needs?
~
dssigning students t o groups What criteria, other than proficiency level, can be used to
assign students to groups? Is it possible to have diffcrent configurations at different
times during thc- teaching day?
Needs analysis
In the course of designing a teaching program from scratch o r modifying an existing one,
it is generally tlesirahlc to collect and interpret (lata about the learners and the institutional
context in which they learn.l’his information may Ile collected formally or informally before
the course and once the course has begun. A variety of different t y c s of information can
be collectctl. Such information might include biographical information about the learners,
data on the types of communicative tasks that learners might want or nccd to carry out in
the target language, information on the ways in tvhich the learners prcfcr to learn, and so
on. A \vide range of information can hc collected through nccds analysis procedures of
various kinds, as will be seen in the sample instruments provided in this section. In the initial
planning stages, the extent to which Icarners’ subjcctive nccds can be canvassed dcpends
on the range and extent of lcarncrs’ previous cxpcricnccs. (It \vould l ~ cunrealistic, for
example, to ask learners lvhcthcr they like to learn through rolc play and simulations ifthcy
have never expericnccd such activities.)
In attempting to obtain information from learners, as well as allout learners, additional
limitations and constraints will apply \vith young Icarncrs, or with lowproficiency learners
if the teacher docs not speak the learners’ first language and docs not have the benefit of
bilingual assistants or other first language resources.
Rrintllcy (1 989) suggests that there arc basically thrcc different approaches to nccds
analysis. He calls thrse the language proficiency orientation, the psychological/humanistic
orientation and the specific purposc orientation. The thrcc approaches arc differentiated
according to their educational rationale, the type of information collected, the method of
e s \vhich the data arc collcctetl.The salient characteristics
data collection and the l ~ u r ~ i o sfor
o f t h c three approaches are set out inTable 2.7.
In learner-oriented contexts, the types of information requircd and the purposes to
which thc information \vi11 b e put will vary somewhat from programs tlevelopctl without
reference to the learners themselves, and those for which any preliminary analysis will be
largely restricted to thc needs of the institution or thc educational system that the
curriculum is intended to serve. Within a second, rather than foreign, language context,
Rrindlcy suggests types of information and purposes that are important (scc*Ial~le 2.8).
Table 2.7 Approaches to needs analysis
Lungnage proficicnc). orientation P.y chological /humanistic orientation Spec$c purpose orientation
Educational rationale
Learners Icarn morc txffectivcly Lcarners learn more effectively Learners Icarn morc cffecti\ el\ if
if gi-oupcd according to ifini-ol\cci in the learning content is relevant to their
proficiency. procchs. specific arcas of nrrd/intcrcst.
7jy of information
Language proficitmcy/languagc Attitude$, moti\ ation, lrarning Information o n nativc speakcr
tlifficul tics Ttratcgy pretcrcnccu use of language in learners’ target
communication situation
Method ?f collection
Standardized forms/tcsts Stantlartlizetl forms I anguagc analysis
Obscr\ ation Observation, inter\ icws and Surveys of learners’ pattcrns o f
survcys language use
Purpose
S o lcarncrs can be placed in So Icarncrs’ individual S o that lcarncrs \vi11 be prescntctl
groups of homogeneous characteristics as learncrs can bc ivith language data rclcyant to
language proficiency @\,endue consideration thrir communication goals
So tcaclicrs can plan language So Icarncrs can bc hclpd to So motivation will I)c cnhanccd
content relevant to lcarncrs’ 1,ccomr sclf-dirccting b y bring I)?relativeness of language
proficirncy I c ~ c l involved in decision making content
about their learning
Source: After Rrindlry 1989: 67 69. Used b y pc.rmission
A major purpose for- conducting needs analyses is to categorize and group lcarners.
This grouping process facilitates the specification of content and learning procedures that
arc consonant with some aspect of the learner data that has been gathered. Figure 2 . 2
excmplifics some ways in which data can be used for grouping purposes.
Setting goals and objectives
In the contcnt domain, needs analysis provides a basis for setting goals and objectives. Goal
and objective setting arc important tasks in most educational contexts, because they pro\ ide
a rationale for selecting and integrating pedagogical tasks, as well providing a point of
reference for thc decision-making process. Goals arc broad statements that provide gcncral
signposts for course development. Thc following sample goals have hcen extracted from a
variety of second and foreign language programs. They are expressed in the 1)roadest possible
terms.
To dcvelop sufficient oral and written skills to obtain promotion from unskilled \vorker
to site superyisor
To establish and maintain social relationships through exchanging information, itleas,
opinions, attitudcs, feelings, and plans
Tuhle 2.8 T! pes of information required in a Icarncr-centered yystcm
Lcarncrs’ lift, goals So that tcachcrs have a Iiasis on \vhich to tlctcrminc

o r prcdict Icai-ncrs’ language goals, communicative
nct\\.orks antl social roles
Language goals, communi( ativc net\\ orks So lcai-iicrs ilia) Ilc placrd in a g r o u p basctl o n
antl social rolcs (‘oninion social roles, antl tcachcrs m a y makc
pi-c>lirninarytlccisions alwut coui-cc content
a p p r o p r i a t e t o learners’ social r o l e s
Olljcctivc nccds, patterns of language usc, S o Icai-ncrs can 1)c grouped according t o theii
personal rcsourccs (including time) t i e t d \ a n d /or intcrc-sts
Imguagc. proticicncy antl language clifficultics So Icarnci-s can Iw grouped accoi-ding to thcir
language proficicne\
Sul>jcctivcncctls including learning stratcg! So that tcachcrs ma! adapt learning activities t o
prcl‘crcnccs, atlccti\ c nccds, learning a d \ it! Icarning Ytratcgr prclci-cnccs, indi\ itlual needs
o f learning, attitudc t o \ v x ( l
prcfci-cncrs, p a c ~
correction
Information about I r a r n c r s ’ attainnicnt o f So that t h r tcachcr can m o n i t o r Iicrformancc and

objccti\ cs inotlitj progr,im accordingl!
Inloi-mation almut tlcvclopnicntal p r o u ~ s s c s S o that t c x h c i - s can gear Ianguagc content antl

in second language learning, including tiiatci-ids to learners’ stage o f tlcvclopmcnt
learners’ communicative strategic.;
Sourre: Adapted f r o m Rrintllcy 1984. Used liy pc~riiiission.
~
To tlevclop communicati\ kills in ortlcr t o acquirc, rccnrd and use intwmation from
a variety of aural sourccs
~
‘lh tlcwlop acatlcmic Iistcning skills in order- t o cxtract key information from
university lccturcs
To dcvclop Iiasic communicativc skills in ortlcr to olitain basic goods and services as
a tourist
Morc limited goals, couched in functional terms, can Ilc found in tcaching matcrials of
various sorts. The follo\ving h a w been taken from an intcrmcdiate~lcvcltextbook.
In this book you will:

Make comparisons
Ask for and give advicc
Express obligation
Talk ahout past cxpc,ricnccs
Exprcss opinions aliout cntcrtainmcnt.
(Nunan 1995a)
These goal statements arc very general in nature and can encompass numcrous subsidiary
. Most curriculum tlocumcnts Iiasctl on a goal and olijcctivcs approach contain a
[ Languagc proticicnc,y protilc

1 Students \\ ith oral skills, but \I ith re\\ or no literacy skills in 1-1
2 Students \vho belong in a nc\v arrivals program
3 Studrnts \\ ho rcquirc gcncral support in the mainstrcam
4 Stutlcnts with spccific affrcti\ e , language antl communication ncctla
5 Students \vho arc approximating nativclikc proficirnc!
(Atlaptctl lrom S.A. ESI Guitlrlincs)
11 I earning strategy protile

1 "Concrete" learners 'l'hcsc learners tend to like gamcs, picturcs, films, vitlro, using cassettes,
talking in pairs antl practicing English outside class.
2 ".tna~trcii/"learner.s'l'hcsc Icarnrrs like to study grammar, stucly English hooks, and rratl
ne\\ s p a p u s ; they also likr to study alonc, find their own mistakes, anti \vork on problems
set b y the tcachcr.
3 "Cornrnunicarivc" learners Th tudcnts like t o l e a r n b! bvatching, listening to native
speakers, talking t o fricnds in English a n d Lvatching t sion in h g l i s h , using tnglish out
ot'class in shops, trains, ctc., learning nc\v \vortls hy hcaring them and learning I>)
con\ crsations.
t e d " 'I'h
4 " ; I ~ i t h o r i ~ - o r ~ ~ n/eurner.s learners prclcr the trachcr to explain
likr to h a \ c their o\vn tcxtbo crything in a notebook, t o study grammar, learn
1 ) ~rratling, and lcarn ne\? \vortls
(Atlaptctl from Willing 1988)
111 Ilcarning purpose

1 Ne\\- arrivals
2 English in t h r \vorkplacc
3 English for further study
4 English lbr professional cmplo! nicnt
5 English for access to \ ocational tl-aining and cmploymcnt
Figtire 2.2 Three altcrnati\ e w a v s o f grouping learners
limited number of goals (perhaps five or six) that p r o d c a basis for the development o f
objectives. Formal pcrformancc objectives specify kvhat learncrs should lie able to do as a
result of instruction. Formal objcctivcs should contain a perfbrmancc (which sets out what
learncrs arc to do), conditions (specifying the conditions and circumstances under which
the learners should perform) antl standards (setting out how \vel1 they should pcrloi-m).
The three objcctivcs that follow illustrate the thrcc components o f performance, conditions,
and standards.
~
Working in pairs, learnci s \T ill pro\icle cnough information for their pai-tnrr to drau
their famil! trcc The) \z ill pro1 i t l c cnough information for a thrcc gcncration famil!
trcc to lie d r a n~.
~
Students m ill extract and record estimated minimum antl maximum tcmperatui e4
from a tapcd radio neather forcca5t Thc) must accuratclj record tour of the ~ I X
regions Cwercd by the forecast.

~
While matching a Iidcotaped conxerqation bctneen t\zo natixc speaker5,5tutlcnts v ill
identify the various topics discussed and points at which they are changed. All topics
and change points arc to l x x idcntificd.
The use of an objectives approach has k e n criticized in general education on the grounds
that precise statements of what thr learner should lie able to d o at the end of a course is
somehow undemocratic and neetllr~sslyrestricting on both the student and the teacher.
Others argue that such precise specification greatly facilitates other steps in the design
process. I t forces the designcr to he realistic about what learners can achieve and helps guide
the selection of appropriate materials and classroom activitics. It i s also an essential
prerequisite for devising appropriate forms of learner assessment.
Some years ago, an interesting set of specifications was developed in Australia. Called
the Australian Language Levels (ALL) guidclines, these specifications were intended to be
general enough to help materials writers and teachers nm-king in a range of second and
foreign languages. The ALL guidclines take as their point of departure a number of broad
goals that are refined into specific goals, as shown i n l i b l c 2.9.
You can get some idea from this furthcr example of thc breadth of the goal-setting
exercise. You can also see how numerous subsidiary objectivcs could be formulated from
each of the goal statements. Interestingly, the designers of the ALL guidelines chose to move
directly from goals to the specification of task o r activity types without elaborating detailed
sets of objectives. We also have employed this procedure in some of our work. Although we
do not feel it necessary to dcvrlop formal three-part objectives for everything we wish to
teach our learners, we do believc that a sample set ofohiectivcs can greatly assist in managing
the learning process. They can be particularly useful in the ongoing monitoring and
assessment of the learning process.
The latest manifestations of the goals and objective approach to curriculum devrlop-
mcnt have appcareti in competency statements that attempt to specify what learners should
be able to do a t different levels. The following arc extracts of core competencies designed
for an adult immigrant program. Once again, you can see they arc formulated in terms of
what the learners should be able to do as a result of instruction.
Englishfor Stti(+
1. Can understand the context of further cducation/training in Australia

2. Can utilise a range of learning strategies relevant to further cducationltraining
context\
3. Can Understand an oral prcscntation relevant to further education/training

contexts
4. Can negotiate complex/problematic spoken cxchangcs rclated to further
educational/ training contexts
5. Can participate in group discussions relevant to further cducational/training
contexts
6. Can deliver short oral presentations relevant to further educational /training
contcxts
[. . .I
Vocational English
1. Can understand the context of work in Australia

Table 2 9 Communi( ation and learning ho\\ -to learn coals
Broad goal Spectf;c gods
Communication To be able to use the targrt language to:

By participating in acti) itics organized around ~ establish and maintain relationships and discuss
use o f the targct language, learners will acquire topics of intcrcst (e.g., through exchange of
communication skills in the targct language, in information, ideas, opinions, attitudes, fcclings,
order that they may widen their nct\vorku of experiences, plans)
interpersonal relations, havc direct access to ~
participate in social interaction rclated to
inlorniation and use their language skills for solving a problem, making arrangements,
study, vocational anti lrisurc-based purposes making decisions with others, and transacting
to obtain goods, srrviccs, and public
information
~ obtain information by scarching for spccihc
dctails in a spoken or written trxt and thcn
process and use the information obtained
~ obtain information by listening to or reading a
spoken or Lvrittcn tcxt as a wholc, and thcn
and use the information obtaincd
give information in spoken or written form
(c.g., givr a talk, write an essay or a set 01‘
instructions)
listen to, read or vie\\, and respond personally
to a stimulus (c.g., a story, play film, song,
poem, picture, play)
1.enmin~~hon-to-learn To develop:
Leamcrs \vi11 be able to take a grobving ~ cognitive processing skills (to enahlc them to
responsibility for the management of their own understand values, attitudes and feelings to
learning so that they learn how to Irarn, anti hou Iirocc’ss information, and to think and respond
to lcarn a language crcativcly)
Icarning-ho\\ -to-lcarn skills
~ communication stratcgirs (to enablc them to
sustain communication in thc target languagr)
Source: Atlaptcd from Scarino ct al. 1988.
2. Can utilise a rangc of learning strategies relevant to employment contexts
3. Can understand an oral presentation relevant to workplace contexts

4. Can negotiate complex /problematic spoken exchanges relevant to employment
contexts
5. Can participate in group discussions/mcetings
6. Can participate in casual conversations
1. .I
’
English for community access
1. Can understand the context of wclfarc/community services in Australia

2. Can utiliw a I-angc of learning strategies relevant to the local community context
3. Can understand an oral report relevant to the local community context

4. Can negotiate com~)lcx/l~rol~lcmatic spoken exchanges for personal business and
community purposcs
5. Can participatc in casual con\w-sation
[. ’ .I
(NSW Adult Migrant kducation Scri ice Ilraft Competencies)
Anothcr useful tool is the curriculum-planning qritl. Planning grids such as Figure 2.3
can be used to rclatr goal and olijcctivc statements kvith other curricular elements (such as
grammar, functions, or topics). In Figure 2 . 3 the task or pcrformancc elements from a set
of olijectives are cross-refercncctl ivith scttings.Thc gritl \vas dcvclopcd for a gcnci-al English
speaking course.
Key to settings
1 At work 3 Using public transport 5 On holiday 7 At the market 9 At a dinner party
2 At home 4 In barkoffee shop 6 In a store 8 At school 10 In a government office
h p r c 2 3 Planning gritl tor gcncral Lnglish coui v
Task
Aim To appl> the planning gritl dc\crilictl in this wction to >our own tcaching situation.
Develop a planning grid, similar to thc one in 1;igurc 2 . 3 , to a course of your choosing.
In th15 section \\e haie tried to illustrate a range of \Ea)\ in \\ hich goals and olijcctiics
can be exprcssctl Dcspite tht-ir tlitlercncc\, all of these goal5 antl oblccti\es share somcthlng
in common; the! all describe what learners should lit. able t o do as a result 01 instruction
We l>cIie\e that all language programs should take as their point ot tlrparturc goals antl
objectii CY, ho\z e i (’1- couchcd, that ha\ e been dcrii et1 from an anal
Summary and conclusions

The hasic themc of this chaptcr is that a firm h i s for d‘frctivc classroom decision making
and managemrnt must hr laid c w l l bcfore the teacher sets foot in the classroom. It is
difficult, if n o t impossible, t o sa); whcther many managerial decisions are eithcr good or had
Lvithout refercncc to the ncctls of t h r learners or thc goals and objectives ofthr curriculum.
ions that teachcrs are required to make during the insti-uc
nature of the program, the goals of instruction antl t h
individual learners, i ~ - inclutlc
c a detailed description and discussion of t
procedures in the chaptcr. I. . .]
References
Riggs, 1. and R.Tr1ft.r 1987. The Process o f l e a r n i n g . 2nd ctln. Sydney: Prenticc-1 Iall.
Brindle!; G. 1984. A7eeds .hub,.sis und 0bjcctic.c Setting in [he :tdiilt Illigrunt Llocution frogrum.
Svdncy : NSW Adult Migrant Education Service.
Rrintlley, G. 1989. Ac.se.s.sing .4chie~eincntin u Leurner-Centred Curriculum. Sydney: NCELTR.
Flunkins, F. 1980. Crirriculoin Deielopment: frogrum Improrcmcnt. Columl>us, Ohio: Charlcs
Mrrrill l’ublishing Co.
I q u t k e , M. and H. l’honias 1991. Process und Experience in t h e h n g u u g e Classroom. London:
I nngman ,
Nunan, 1). 1988. The Lcurner Centred Curriculum. Cambridge: Cambridge. Univcr-sity P r e s .
Nunan, D. 1989. Designing 7b.sk.s f i r the Communicative Clussroom. Cainbritlgc: Cambi-itlgr
University Press.
Nunan, 11. 1990. “Action rcscarch in thc language clas.;room.” In J. Richards and I). Nunan
(ctfs.), Second L u n g t i u p Teucher Educarion. Ne\vYork: Cani\)ritlgc Univcrsit) Prcss.
Nunan, 1). 1992. Reseilrch .l)fcthoJs in I a n g t i q e Leurnlng. NcivYork: Cambridge Univcrsity Press.
Nunan, D. 1995a. ;ITL:lS: ~.ctrrn1n,4~C‘entcreti Communication. Boston: Hcinlc 8( Heinlc.
Nunan, I). 199511. Closing the gap I)eti\ccn lcarning antl in\truction. TE5OL Q i u r t c r b , Spring
1995.
Nunan, D. antl G. Brindle!. 1986. “The leal-ncr-ccntretl curricdum in theory antl pi-acticr,”
paper prcscntctl at the AnnualTESOI. Convrntion, Anahrim, April 1986.
Scarino, A , , D. Vale, 1.’ McKay antl J. Clark. 1988. .4tistruliun Lmgiiuge L c i d s Guiclelincs.
Canberra: Curriculum Devclopmcnt Centre.
Untlcrhill, A . 1989. “Pro in humanistic education.” Lnglish Lungiiugc Teuching ]ournul, 43,
250 256.
Whitc, P, 1961. The Tree ?[,bfun. London: Penguin.
Willing, K . 1988. Learning Sr,iiles in .Itloll ,1Iigrunt Etlncution. .4tIclaitle: National Curriculum
Rrsourcc Ccntrc.
Chapter 3
Michael Lewis
LEXIS I N THE SYLLABUS
S Y L L A B U S I N T H I S C H A P T E R is interpreted in what Nunan calls the ‘narrolv’

sense thc content of the teaching programme. Willis, in The Lexical S y l l ~ hobserves
~ ,
that an approach involves both syllabus specitication and methodology, and that syllabus and
mcthotlology arc not discrete options: indeed, syllabus may be specified in terms of goals,
performancc ohjcctiws, or other critcria such as l’rabhu’s procedural syllabus. Here, I am
concerned with the contribution lcxis may make to the specification of content. Historically,
syllabuses wcre structural; the Communicative Approach introduced functions, antl certain
re-ordcrings. The question naturally arises as to kzhat similar changes are called for by the
Lexical Approach. The search for a strictly lcxical syllabus is likelv to be frustrating for
theorist, tcacher and studcnt. Witldo\vson has olxcrved that a strictly lrxical syllabus would
begin Ivith one word texts each complete in itself, proceed to two word tcxts, and so on
to ever more complex tcxts but where, at all timcs, any grammatical complexity was
obligatory as thc language uscr’s meaning became incrcasingly complex, and demanded
additional grammaticalisation. Even if such a syllalius were I)ossihlc to devise, it is difficult
to imagine it being pedagogically acccptablc.
Similarly, thc attempt by Cobuiltl to ticfine a Icxical syllalx~saround the most frequent
words ofthc languagc has not, despite its fascinating theoretical base, met with widespread
acceptancc. Some of the reasons I perceive for this arc discu. ti 11rlow. I cmphasisc that my
own conccrn is to look at thc contribution ivhich lcxical items of different kinds can
make in determining content.
Educational syllabus
Language teaching is part of a \vidcr M hole, the education of individuals. Every learning
cxyeriencc should contributc to thc dcwlopment of maturc individuals. Although
cclucational experiences w i l l differ in the \vay they contributc for every participating
in&\ itlual, effective educational experience should increase curiosity, wonder and awe,
confidence and self-worth. In addition it should increase the individual’s ability
t o concentrate, appreciate, argue a case, tolerate, take responsibility antl
co-operate.
There is in all education a hidtlcn agenda which secks to tlc lop particular intellectual
skills, the most important of lvhich arc inwlvcd in:
1 Itlcntifying problem\.
2 Collecting information, data antl cvidence.
LEXIS IN T H E S Y L L A B U S 47
3 Classifying data, bv recognising similarity antl difference.

4 Ranking, making hierarchies, separating more from less important.
5 Evaluating evidence and argument.
6 Estimating, so that the plausiliility of an answw may bc ci-aluatctl.
7 Taking decisions hasetl on complete or partial data.
~
8 Communicating results effectively.
It will he noted that much traditional language teaching is in direct conflict with some o f
these otijectivcs.The I’-P-P (prcscnt, practise, produce) paradigm, repetition, and controlled
pattern practice arc elements of this kind. A task-hascd methodology, and an O - H - E
(obscrl e , hypothesisc, experiment) paradigm arc in sympathy with the \vitler educational
syllabus.This is important, for nothing which happens in the classroom should conflict \vith
the educational ideals \vhich the ahove summary expresses.
The single most distinctive feature of the Lexical Approach is that it proposes a
fundamentally differcnt attitude to the treatment of text. Firstly, it is suspicious of dc-
contcxtualiscd languagc, recognising the importance of co-text, antl thcreforc preferring
extended text o r discourse. Secondly, it proposes a range of aivarencss-raising actilitics
directing students’ attention to the chunks of which text is compowd. Texts play a rolc in
introducing interesting content, b u t also act as a major linguistic resource from \vhich
students can extract lexical itcms for study, expansion, and recording in appropriate
formats. A basic classroom strategy will he helping students to avoid becoming preoccupied
hv grammar or vocabulary, concentrating instead on different kinds of lcxical item.
Syllahuscs are normally thought of as listing, and perhaps sequencing, course content.
In tact, thrcc factors arc important: inclusions, exclusions and sequencing,
Inclusions, exclusions and sequencing

As all teachers kno\v, courses are invariably too short. Although a case can lie macle for
including any language which is ne\v for the student, a principal role for the syllabus is to
providc- principled ways of including only maximally useful itcms. What is maximally
useful is n o t intrinsic to the languagc, but relatcs to particular courses, antl ei.en particulai-
studcnts. A primarv distinction is lwt\vccn long courscs perhaps over sevcral years in
~
school and short intensive coui-scs intended to hale a high surrender valuv. Too many
coursvs are constructed on the implicit assumption that thcy arc intermcdiatc stages on the
way to full language comprtcncc. Only rarely is this the ca most students \vi11 remain
intermediate and this should influence the language selected for inclusion.
Within the I .cxical Approach:
All lo\\ lexel t o u r w s \ \ i l l gi\c students a large \ocal)ular), eicn if the! are initiall)
unable to grammaticalise it
Pragmaticallj useful lcxlc al item\, partitularl) in\titutionalited uttcrancct, Iorm a
significant component of all coursc5
A halance v 111 he maintaincd bet\\ n (relati\ el! rai e ) I\ ord5 cari jmg considcralilc
incaning, and (rclati\el\ v idc antl frrqucnt) pattern5 1% ith Ion mcaning content
Three principal reasons may he itlcntifietl for excluding material: it is not identified,
not valued, or not prioritised. In the days of structural syllabuses, mastery of structure
was rcgarticd as synonymous with language learning; the consequent emphasis of structure
within syllabuses \vas wholly to lie expected. When the influence of pragmatics \vas felt
48 M I C H A E L L E W I S
in language teaching, functions became a familiar term to teachers. As a result CZbtildyou

l i k e . . .? was re-identified as Ofleering; its re-identitication allowctl it to bc re-valued, and re-
placed, much carlier in courses. Within the Lexical Approach diffcrcnt kinds of lexical item
may lie identified, o r in relation to traditional language teaching, re-identified. Examples
are trcating would as a single \vord lexical item, rather than part o f ‘the conditional’ (see
hclow), o r the recognition of fully institutionalised utterances which may be introduced
and treated as unanalyscd wlmles contributing to, rather than tlcrived from grammatical
competence.
The tension of syllabus v language and learning

Most language syllabuscs still list discrete items; this listing naturally, but misleadingly,
suggests that languagc: may be learned in a similar kvay, by ‘accumulating entities’. Nunan
(1988: 34), i n his comprehensive survey 5jllubu.s Design, remarks that ‘there arc general
arguments against grammatical grading of content, whethcr this grading be based on
traditional critcria or on more reccnt critcria stemming from SLA research’. And he quotes
Widtlowson as observing, as early as 1979:
Inventories of functions antl notions do not necessarily reflect the way languages arc
learncd any more than the inventories of grammatical points and lexical items. This
comment reflects WitldoLvson’s claim that ‘Dividing language into discrete units of
whatever type misrepresents thc naturc. of language as communication’.
The tension bctwecn language as communication antl the supposcd neccssity for tliscrctc
item listing for language sTllahuses is reflected in Willis’ comment (1 990: viii):
An approach \vhich itcrniscs language seems to imply that items can be learned
discretely, and that the language can he built up by an accretion of thew items.
communicative methotlologj i s holistic in that it relics on the ability of learners to
abstract from the language to which thcy arc exposed, in order to rccrcate a picture
of the target languagc.7’hc lexical syllabus attempts to rcconcile thrse contradictions.
It docs itemisc language. It itcmi language minutely, resting on a large body of
research into natural language. O n the basis of this research it makes realistic and
economical statements about lvhat is to be Icarned. But the methodology associated
with the lexical syllabus does not depend on itcmisation.
Wilkins distinguishes lict\vecn synthetic antl analytical syllahuscs, the former being ‘a process
of gradual accumulation of parts until the whole structure of language has hccm built up’,
\vhile in the latter, Nunan ( 1 988: 28) suggests:
Learners arc prcscntrtl ivith chunks of language which may include structures of
varyin dc recs oftlifficulty. A starting point for syllabus design is not the grammatical
J
b .g
system ot the language, liut the communicative purpose for ichich the language is
used.
Prahhu (1 987: 1 ), tlcscrihing his \\ell documented Bangalore Project, tlcscrilio its origins:
A strongly-felt pedagogic intuition that the development of compctcncc in a second

language requires not systcmatisation of language inputs or maximisation of planned
practice, liut rather thc creation of conditions in which learners engage in an effort
to cope with communication.
LEXIS I N THE SYLLABUS 49
Pratihu, Widdowson, Nunan, Willis and indced many others would concur with Nunan’s
judgement that:
Evidence from second language acquisition research suggests that learning docs not
occur in a simple additive fashion.
(1988: 30)
Syllabuses tend to isolate, divide and sub-dividc. The tacit assumption is that macro-skills
are a synthetic assembly of micro-skills; that larger units of discourse are assembled from
words and structurcx. Thesc assumptions arc almost certainly untrue but this raises
pedagogical difficulties. Thc implications are that we should adopt a morc holistic view of
language, and a task-based approach to learning, but, as Willis ( 1 990: 1 29) observes:
A shortcoming oftask-tiascd approaches is that they make it difficult to specify syllabus

content, and as teachers \IT cannot he sure what has lm-n learned in the course of a
given language activity or a given unit.
‘I’here is a fundamental conflict between the teacher’s natural desire to give clearly focuscd
and effective lessons, and the non-linear nature of language and learning. Although therc is
substantial theoretical support for task-based goal-orientated syllabus specification, most
teachers continue to demand much more specific linguistic objectives for cach lesson. While
endorsing and encouraging a mcthodology based on tasks and skills, rathcr than spccifically
linguistic criteria, we can identify explicitly linguistic changw which arc consistent with the
Lexical Approach.
Content specifying lists

One of the most intlucntial attempts to specify contcnt \vas the Threshold Level, which
attempted to dc-vclop in detail the \vork summarised in A’otional Syllabuses. Somewhat
surprisingly, whilst claiming a primary focus on meaning, Wilkins (1 976: 2 1 ) had a rathcr
cavalicr attitude to vocabulary:
Rut it is tlicreforc with the general aspects of mcaning and use that thc categorics
presented here are concerned, though they arc not less significant for being gencral
in character.lhis also explains why no attempt is made in this framework to account
for a lexical contcnt of 1earning.This is probably hettcr approached in terms of subject-
matter and situation. A t the same time, lcxical aspects cannot bc entirely excluded
since grammatical and lexical tleviccs often interact significantly.
To a certain, though limited, cxtcnt the scmantico-grammatical categories themsclvcs

have applications for the lexical content . . . The lexical content of Icarning, therefore,
can be largely derived from an analysis of the typical topics which occur in the language
use of a given group.
( 1 976: 76)
Wilkins’s vicw is, thus, that ho\vrver important vocabulary may be, it has no defining role
to play within syllahus design.
In contrast, Willis (1 990: v), dacloping Sinclair’s ideas, regards vocatiulary, and quite
specifically words, as the key to syllabus specification:
Sinclair advanced a number of arguments in favour of the lcxical syllabus, liut the
underlying argument \vas to do with utility and with the po\vcr of thc most frcqucnt
lvords of English. . . . We tlccitlctl that \vord frequency \vould determine the content
of our course
Instead of specifying an inventory of grammatical structures or a set of functions, each

stagc of thc course \vould bc h i l t round a lexical syllabus.This lvould specify \vords,
then meanings antl thc common phrases in which thcy were used.
(1 990: 15)
It \vi11 bc notcd that, despite the retercncc to ‘phrases in which they occur’ Sinclair and
Willis largely equate the lexical syllalius with a word-based syllabus. Inherent in this
intcrpretation are three problems which manifcst themselves in thc coursc tlescrilied in
Willis’s The Lexical Syllabus:
1. The most frequent ‘\vurds’ are lrcquently items previously regarded as structural and,
ironically, \vords of low semantic contcnt.Thcsc largely delexicalised words are highly
frequent precisely becausc they often have scvcral meanings, antl their pattern profiles
are cxtremcly complex. Mastcry of wortls like t o , with, have is considerably more
difficult than mastcring a voca1)ulary itrm with highcr meaning content: accident, soot,
slump.
2. The word-based syllabus introduced words with Imth their highly frequcnt and much
rarer meanings together. A preoccupation with the word as a unit meant infrequent
meanings of high]! frequent lvords \vcre givcn preferc:nce over highly frequent
meanings of rather lcss frcqucnt words within thc corpus. Some of these rarer
meanings of high frequency words appear as of relatively low utility, and a relatively
high confusion-factor for elcmcntary studcnts.
3. Multi-word lcxical itcms arc untlcr-valucd antl under-cxploitcd.
The Lexical Approach I propose avoids these dangers. It is specifically not a lexical syllabus,
and explicitly recognises word patterns for (relatively) delexical words, collocational power
for (relatively) semantically powerful words, and longer multi-\vord items, particularly
institutionaliscd sentences, as requiring tlifferrnt, and parallel, pedagogical treatment.
The old structural syllabuses specifically restricted vocabulary to the level necessary to
exemplify structural patterns. Ironically, Willis ( 1990: 74) in his word-based approach
explicitly espouses the samc principle: We .set out to achieve the best coverage we could with as
little extraneous lexis as possible (i.e. extraneous to the most frequent 700, 1,500 and 2,500
‘words’ which they selected as the basis for Parts 1 , 2 , 3 of their course). In contrast to their
urge to restrict vocahulary at low levels, I advocate encouraging the learning of a
comparatively large repertoire of high-meaning content nouns, adjectives and vcrbs.
Although the \vords learned will inevitably he in corpus terms comparatively low-frequency,
by definition they carry meaning. Rut words carry more meaning than grammar, and if it is
communicative power which is thc primary objective, increased vocabulary will play a larger
contribution than additional mastery of even the most highly frequent patterns of high
frcquency words.There is an additional, pedagogical advantage. Willis observes that ‘profiles
hccome lcss complex as one moves down the frequency scale’.This means that from a naive,
student point of vicw the words are easier to learn, and any L2 L1 equivalence, which
students almost incvitably make, is more likely to be accurate. ‘Learnability’ and
communicative power arc at least as important in selecting words for inclusion as frequency.
Lexis contributes as a syllabus component in the folloicing lvays:
1 . Certain words deserve lexical rather than grammatical treatment

are typically high frequency, de-lexicalised items. Those items \vhich enter into the
widest range of patterns, and are thus usefully if not maximally generative, arc words which
themselves carry least meaning. De-lcxicalised verbs ~ huve, get, p u t , take, make, do
~
represent an important subcategory. Function words, often thought of as prepositions ~
of, w i t h , j ; ) r , by, are anothcr. The modal auxiliaries, including would, are a third. Most
importantly, would should be dealt with early in a course from a lexical point of view.
I!I/ould was trcatcd in structural courses as ‘the conditional’; functions moved it to an earlier,
but comparatively marginal, non-generative position. It dcscrvcs high priority as a one-
word lcxical item. Interestingly, it is one ofthe items which mcrits fullest discussion in The
Lexical . ~ l l a h u s .
2. Increased attention to the base form of lexical verbs

A preoccupation with grammar and structure has obscured the importance ofthe base form
of the verb in English. Willis comments on courses which ‘spend an inordinate amount of
timc on the verb phrase’, that is, on the structure of the verb, and so-called tense
formation. In fact, the simple present is about eight times as common as the present
continuous in naturally occurring English and is, with thc marginal inconvenicncc of the
third person -s, identical \vith thc base form. The Lexical Approach advocates the nred for
a large rcpcrtoire of verbs in their lmsr or lexical form with increased attention to the highly
frcquent present simplc.
3. De-contextualised teaching of semantically dense items

Communicative power is most rapidly increased by expanding studcnts’ vocalmlarics,
meaning their repertoire of lcxical items, but particularly simple high-contrnt words.
Thcrc is no need for over-elaborate contextualisation in the early stagcs of learning: simplc
identification of signification, although in no sense mastery of the word, is an appropriate
and valuable basis for increased communicative power.
4. Collocations
As soon as the inadequacy o f the grammar/vocabulary dichotomy is rccognised, it heconics
natural for collocation to assume an important syllabus generating role. This applirs
particularly to relatively high content nouns. When these arc introduced, it should he natural
to introduce with them verbs and adjectives which form pow.l-erfu1or relatively fixed
collocations. The statistical evidence of corpus lexicography hcrc clearly reveals the nccessity
of acknowledging both literal and metaphorical meaning. Often it is the lattr-r which is more
frequent.
5. Institutionalised utterances
Traditional grammar exercises usually include a sample sentence which providcs the model
for students to produce ‘similar’ sentences. Modern research into both grammar and
learning suggests that students could usefully be offered a group of sentences for
comprehension and reflection. These would not exemplify ‘the grammar’, hut be
pragmatically identifiablc institutionaliscd utterances which students could both use
immediately to increase communicative power, and as a resource the analysis o f which
would provide a basis for the gradual perception of pattern.
6. Sentence heads
These are very similar to institutionalised utterances. Scntcnce heads can frcqucntly he
identified and provide both an immediate increase in communicative power, and a resource
to aid acquisition. These scntcncc heads frequently lie somc\vhcrc Iwtwccn grammar and
function on a conventional syllabus. ‘Grammar’ in grammar practices frequently tried to
cover all elements o f the paradigm, consciously introducing first, second and third person
subjects, singulars antl plurals; in functional practice a single sentence head C f b u l d p i like
t o . . . requires students to complete thc scntcncc in different \.rays. Introspection or
statistical data, ho\ve\ cr, 110th r e \ d that some combinations of, for example, a particular
modal antl a particular person are much morc frequent than others; compare C o u l d ~ o u
. . . and Coiild she . . .; contrast 1 might . . . and Might 1 . . .?Doyon thinkyou might . . .? and
D o j o t i think 1 might . . .? Paradigms cxcmplify the possible sentences of English; \vcll-
chosen groups of scntcncc heads exemplify the frequent or probable patterns of English.
Functions arc all too often ungcneralisablc, \zhilc scntcncc head groups arc gcncralisablc.
I t is noticeable that the institutionalisctl uttcranccs antl scntcncc heads of spoken English
arc vclry different from those of the \\ rittcn language. McCarthy is only one of many to
suggcst that ‘vocabulary \vork in spoken language requires separate and additional
procedures from vocaliulary teaching using written texts’.
7. Supra-sentential linking
Traditionally this has liccn practised only o n a grammatical level, concerning tags, interested
responses etc. In fact, supra-sentcntial lexical linking is an important cohesive device in
spontaneous conversation, suggesting lexically, rather than structurally, based cxcrciscs
would be morc natural and morc pragmatically c4l’cctivc. McCarthy (1 99 1 : 7 1 ) quotcs data
in which:
People did not typically agree or disagree with phrases such as ‘I agree’ o r ‘I disagree’
(beloved of English course book writers); rather, there seems to lie a preference for
simply using some sort of lexical relation between turns.
This suggestion is borne out in Willis’s work, antl hc goes further, suggesting that much
spontaneous conversation is based on joint production, in which participants contribute
matching, complementary or contradictory lexical items in the devclopmcnt of a single unit
of meaning.
Supra-sentential linking of this kind is central to spoken discourse, but quite different,
and equally important features apply to the crration of cohrrent and cohcsivc written text.
A central requirement of the Lexical Approach is that language material should be text and
tliscoursc, rather than scntcncc hascd. Again Willis agrees, constantly reasserting that ‘only
by drawing attention to occurrences in text’ can learners begin to h i l d up an adcquatc
picture of language in use.
8. Synonyms within the existential paradigm

This is a particular cxamplc of supra-sentential linking. Observations of r e a l data show that
in spontaneous speech the ability to usc altcrnativc language items as value-synonyms,
although they have different signification, is a key fcaturr of fluency. Thcsc value-synonyms
may be both individual words (daffbdils/flower5) or fully grammaticalisctl utterances realising
the same pragmatic function (That has my full support. /ilbsolut+, I’dgo d o n g with that).
9. ‘Synopsising’ words
Traditional grammar taught so-called reported speech. As discussed elsewhere, this category
is wholly untypical of naturally occurring data. Most often, thc speaker reports a whole
event, rather than manipulating the words that were spoken. The ‘reporter’ summarises
or synopsises the whole nt lexically and so rcquircs an adcquatc repertoire of synopsising
verbs.
10. Metaphorical patterning

Metaphor is often perceived as an essentially literary device. Modern philosophical and
linguistic research rcveals that far from k i n g rcstrictcd to literary language, it is intrinsic
to thc nature of language itself. Lakoff and Johnson ( 1 980: 7ff), in a seminal 1vol-k belonging
ntiallv to the field of philosophy, have demonstratctl convincingly that there arc many
concepts which cannot be discussed except in metaphorical language. ‘l’hcy give many
examples but here a single example must suffice: TIME IS M O N EY .
Thcy point out that this i s an English proverb, but more than that, it is impossible to
talk about time without basing the conceptualisation on the metaphor ‘I‘IMI. IS M O N E Y .They
developed the idea as fol1on.s (in slightly abbreviated form):
Time is moncy i s a metaphorical concept. It i s metaphorical since \vc are using our
everyday experiences of money, limited resources and the valuable commodities to
conccptualise timc.This isn’t a necessary way for human beings to conceptualise time;
it is tied to our culture. Thcre are cultures where time is none of these things.
Wc are adopting thc practice of using the most specific mctaphorical conccpts, in this
casc time i s money, to charactcrise the entire sjstcm.
This is an example o f the \Yay in lvhich metaphorical entailments can catcgorise a

cohcrent system of metaphorical concepts and a con-csponding coherent system of
metaphorical expressions for those concepts.
They point out that in English many of the lvords used to descrilie time can also he used to
describe moncy: spend, invest, hudger, profitah!,y. Here are somc o f their examples:
How do y o u spendyour time these duys.;

1 haven’t enough time to sppnre-fir thut.
Is it worthjrour while?
You don’t usegour time proptuhb.
You ore wasting my time.
This p d p t will s m e j ’ o u hours.
Clearly, there i s a pattern here which it is \vorth\z-hilc to draw to thc attention ofstudents.
Many ofthe \vords which arc uscd to talk about m o n c j can also be uscd to talk about timcy.
This i s not fully gencralisahle, but it still constitutes a powerfully generati\ e pattern s~ stem.
The importance of I.akoff and Johnson’s \vork i s difficult to over-emphasisc. It is essential
reading for anyone inttwstetl in how language works.
When the Berlin n d l \vas breached, at first a trickle of peoplc camc through. Latcr, as
the gap was widened, pcop1e.Jloodcd through. There \vas a constant streum of people anxious
to visit friends, or rcstorc family contacts. Oncc the initial excitement wort off, thc,porr. o f
people dried up.
The above passage rcprcsents my own observations of the language used hy the K.B. C.
Nexvs to rcport the destruction of thc Berlin wall. An important metaphor is involvctl:
cro\vtls of people movc like VI atcr. It i s almost impossil)lc to descrilir those events without
resorting to ‘water-\vords’. Rut notice, as Lakoff and Johnson constantly emphasise,
metaphor highlights only at the expcnse of supprcssing. Peoplc in movement may movc like
water, but they are not water, water docs not rc-cstablish family contacts.l’hcrc is a useful
linguistic pattern, but not an identification.
Editors on the Cobuild project were initially surprised at the prcpondcrancc of
metaphorical usage ~ torrents arc morc likely to be of abuse o r French than water.
Lexicographic difficulties arise if metaphorical use is morc frequent than thc litcral, and
~
therefore supposedly core, use should it be placed first in the dictionary?Their editors have
observed, for example, the importance of plant-based metaphor in discussing abstractions
such as government policy: The problem has its roots . . ,;Since the beginning oftheyear, we have
seen a j o w e r i n g . . . .
For language tcaching, thc importancc lics in rccognising:
a That metaphor is a part of everyday language.

b That such metaphorical usage is patterned, often in accessible, gencralisable ways.
Functions and skills

The development of communicative poivcr will be aided by incorporating a well-balanced
range of lexically derived activities in the classroom. These must reflect the different kinds
of lexical item. The change, however, is a mattcr o f emphasis not revolution. Grammar
retains a place, but a reduced onc; lcxis plays an incrcascd role. Language content can,
however, never be wholly scparatcd from othcr elements of syllabus specification. Most
functional syllabuses concentrate on micro- rather than macro-functions and ‘nice’ rather
than ‘nasty’ events. For many students such functions as cxprcrsing irritation, expressing dishelie_f;
distancing the speaker.from the content ~ f w h a ist said, expressing condolence, telling and responding
to jokes may be at least as important as accepting and reJising invitations politely. In a similar
way, a lexical approach suggests that thc skills syllabus needs to be broadened. Two skills
central to the Lexical Approach arc developing the students’ ability to use the dictionary as
a learning resource, rather than reference work, and, most importantly of all, helping
students to identify lexical phrases in tcxt.This rcturns us to the single most powerful
methodological implication, namcly a tliffcrcnt attitude to, and use of, texts.
Bibliography
Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M. MetaphorslVe Lire By. Univ. of Chicago Press 1980
McCarthy, M. Discourse Analy~is~fbr Language Teachers. CUP 1991
Nunan, D. Syllabus Design. OUP 1988
Prabhu, N. S. Second Language Pedagogy. OUP 1987
Widdowson, H . Proper Words in Proper Places. ELT‘ News No. 8. British CouncilVienna July
1989
Wilkins, D. Notional S,vllahuses. OUP 1976
Willis, D. The Lexical Syllabus. Collins Cobuild 1990
Chapter 4
Michael McCarthy and Ronald Carter
DESIGNING THE DISCOURSE SYLLABUS*
1 Introduction
T HE A D E Q U A T E D E S C R I P T I O N OF L A N G U A G E is vital as a precursor of
languagc tcaching syllabuses. A t the macro- and micro-level, from issues of genre down
to individual grammatical and lexical choices, our findings (McCarthy and Carter 1994)
have implications for how we look at the syllabus and, consequently, its content and the
kinds of activities that it generates in the class. This chaptcr concentrates on those
implications in discussing the design of the discourse syllabus.
2 The notion of ‘discourse competence’

Ever since Chomsky (1 965) made the distinction between competence and perfor-
mance, that is what a person knows about his or her language as opposed to what can be
observed from manifestations of actual use, linguists have debated just what ‘competence’
might mean. Chomsky was concerned with the fact that native-speakers have an underlying
knowledge of what constitutes a well-formed scntcncc in their own language, and hc sct
about trying to account for such knowlrdgc. But it was not long before thc notion of
competence was expanded to embrace what a speaker needs to know about how a language
is used in particular situutions for effective and appropriate communication, in other words
communicative competence (see Hymes 1971).
The notion of communicative compctcncc has had a very powcrful influence on
language teaching, both in terms of methodology and the goals set by syllabus planners
which learners are supposcd to achieve. Thus the term communicative syllabus is a
familiar one to most language teachers. Typically, a communicative syllabus will set out a
variety of communicative abilities that thc learner should be able to dcmonstrate at the end
of a prescribed course or period of learning. O n e such English Language syllabus, a pioneer
in its day, recommended that learners should be able to (among other things) makc and
receive telephone calls, handle friendly and social correspondence, makc short notes to
record salient information, ask questions and makc comments for gleaning further
information, and so on.This was the Malaysian (1 976) Communicational Syllabus for Forms
4 and 5 of secondary school (see British Council 1983; 1986). The syllabus was a classic
* Thi\ text ha\ heen atlaptcti

56 M I C H A E L McCARTHY A N D RONALD CARTER
communicative one, \vith no rcal emphasis on rorrcctncss in grammar and vocabulary, and
every cmphasis on the ability to communicate antl achi goals, a balance ofprioritics for
which it came into much criticism in its o\vn country (See Mohidccn 1991). It was criticism
ofthis swing ofthc pcmclulum an.ay fi-om linguistic. (i.c. grammatical and lexical) competence
t o a prcoccupation bvith communicativc. compctcncc alone, not just in Malaysia, hvhich led
applied linguists t o question whrthcr compctcncc could ever lie seen as a monolithic
concept. Might it make morc sense t o think of the lcarnrr developing a set of com-
petences, each one csscntial to using language cffcctivcly, but each one separable in terms
of what could bc dcscribed and prescribed tor the syllalius and lcarning programmc?Thus
grammatical and lexical kno\vlctlgc as one of thc scvcral compctences came to the fore again
as an issue in language teaching. Applied linguists argued that communicativc ability was a
hollow notion without kno\vlctlgc of thc grammatical system that cnablctl actual realizations
of communicative acts (but also vice w r s a ; scc Canalc antl S\vain 1980). Equally, there \vas
a return of interest in the prol)lcm of i-ocahulary building, lvithout Lvhich little rcal
communication hias possible (McCarthy 1984; s ~ also c Carter antl McCarthy 1988: ch. 3
for a survey of these arguments). Linguistic compctencc, it mas argued, was a ne
though not sufficient, condition for communicative ability. From such pressures h
\\.hat most \vould agrcc i s a healthier balancc hctm n the tlcvclopment of competence in
tem antl compctcncc in its use, as exemplified in so-called eclectic
.an and Walter 1984 Cambridge English Course is a good example), and in
what Yaltlcn (1 98 3) calls the proportional syllalius, \vherc the proportions of system-
oriented knowledge and communication-oi-icntctl skills arc increasingly altcrcd in favour
of the latter as the learner progresses from beginner level. The lcxical syllabus (Sinclair and
Rcnouf 1988;Willis 1990), based on a faithlul description of how words arc used, represents
anothcr move in the direction of integrating knowlcdgc o f the system antl knou ledge
o f use.
Rut othcr questions remain for thc guagc tcachcr. If the description of language is
incomplete without a description of the 1 o f discoursc, and if discourse-level constraints
operate simultaneously with Icxico-grammatical ones, then is thcrc something akin t o
a discourse competence that can he tlescrihetl antl articulatcd as a sct of‘goals for the
syllabus t o aspire to? Rcccnt tlcliatcs in syllabus design have tended t o assume that there is.
Those linguists antl applied linguists who have moved a m y from the idea of competence as
a monolithic concept have already addcd to thc basic notion ol’communicativc competence
subdivisions such as socio-linguistic competence and strategic competence. As Canalc (1 98 3)
uses these terms, they ma); I><, hricfly glossed as follo\vs:
Socio-linguistic competence an entity consisting o f two suh-components: socio-cultural

rules of use and rulcs of discoursc. Socio-cultural rulcs arc conccrnctl with appro-
priacy of use with regard t o such features as topic, roles, attitude and register. Kules
of discourse arc conccrnctl bvith features o f cohesion antl coherence.
Strategic competence vcrbal and non-vcrlnl communication stratcgics for solving

problems in communication, whcthcr Icxico-grammatical problems or problems
associated with sociolinguistic appropriateness.
Among the problems facing the language tcachcr who tries t o interpret these notional
divisions and subdivisions arc not least that of whethcr ‘socio-cultural’ concerns can h e
scparatcd from ‘discourse’ and jvhcthcr such notions can cvcr lie vielied as items or entitics
‘to be taught’, if ~ ’ are
e faithful to the view that a svllabus i s indeed a list of things to he
DESIGNING THE DISCOURSE SYLLABUS 57
taught and goals to lie achieved. The first problem, the separation of socio-cultural
features from discourse ones, is cspccially problematic givcn, as ~ v have
c argued clsewhcrc
(McCarth? and Carter 1994), that such things as register antl mode are integral to the
creation ot’tliscourse, not in some \vay ‘parallel’or complementary to it. Wc haw also sought
to demonstrate that isolated lists of spccch acts are insufficient to tlrscribe \\.hat sIieakcrs/
writers do and how they manage interaction over extended language cvcnts. In other Xvords,
\vc see the chaining together of’functions or speech acts as inseparalile from the creating of
largcr pattcrns and gcmres in discourse. By the same token, ~ v esee the realization of
rcgistcrs, attitudinal features and topics as inseparable from cohcrcncc and its manifestations
in surface cohesion. Even more to the point, grammar antl \ ocabulary kno\vledge should
invol\e ho\\. these aspects of linguisticjbrrn create discourse; in other \vords, linguistic
competence cannot be separated from discourse competence.
These views have a direct bearing on the second concern, xvhcther things can he
itemized for teaching and given socio-cultural, strategic or discourse laliels antl thereti?
allotted their rightful place in the syllabus inventory or check-list. How we analyse and
classify language for our syllabus necessarily affects our methodology and Lvhat \ve do in
thc classroom.
3 Analysis and classification

Some notable writers on syllabus design follow the view that the analysis of language into
its various levels antl the classification of fcaturcs within those 1 is a feasihle hasis for
syllabus specifications.Yalden’s (1 98 3) description of syllabus components sccms implicitly
to accept this with a section cntitlcd ‘A further component: discourse structure’ ( 1 983: 78),
and her syllahus chcck-list ( 1 98 3: 169-72) includes the following discourse components:
A Cohesion and rcfcrcncc (basrd large17 on Halliday antl Hasan 1976)

13 Operations on text (for cxamplc extracting salient information, expanding a text)
C Rhetorical organization (textual functions such as generalization, classification, ctc)
1) Overt transactional skills in spoken discourse (for example initiating, introducing
topics, closing, turn-taking) .
Thcse categories certainly represcnt innovativc clcmcnts in syllabus specifications and are
faithful to \vhat discourse analysts have described as above-sentence features. Wc should
note, though, that categories A and C seem to be languagc fcaturcs, while I3 and D w ~ ~ ~ l d
seem to fit bcttcr under the heading of‘ skills or stratcgics. This is no mere hair-splitting,
antl is at the heart of thc process of analysis and classification that precedes specification antl
itcmization. For instance, it could I)c argued that a feature such as lexical cohesion is an
aspect of the language system antl can thus be taught as languagc knowledge, just like
teaching the grammatical facts about tenses or dctcrmincrs. This would mean not only telling
learners what the synonyms and hyponyms ofa particular word or set of words arc, but also
demonstrating that synonymy and hyponymy in tise are often involved in the creation of well-
formed text and interacti .pccch (see McCarthy 1984; 1988). Howcvcr, another vie\v
might he that lexical cohesion is a language universal; as such, it liecomes more a matter of
skill-training, practice and training in an intuitive skill in order to improve one’s proficiency
in its use, without any need to ‘present it’ as knowlcdgc or fact.This is a crucial decision in
the categorizing of syllabus components: Yaldcn ( 1 983), for example, has clearly flaggcd
features such as turn-taking and closing as ‘skills’, suggesting a different emphasis from that
attached to cohcsion antl reference, while ‘opcrations on a text’ are unambiguously things
58 M I C H A E L McCARTHY A N D RONALD CARTER
we ‘do’ with language, rather than fcaturcs Lvhich ‘exist’ in the language system. But
separating the ‘ivhat’of thc language . tcm from the ‘how’ of language skills and strategic
use can also bc misleading: thcrc is every reason to suppose that knowing ‘what’ can inform
and support knowing ‘holv’.
Munby (1 978) has a simi , though much more tlctailctl, specification of discourse
jiutures (cohcsion, initiating, d c oping thc tliscoursc, ctc) mixed in with textual operations
(‘reading between the lines’, extracting salient points, skimming antl scanning the text,
etc), lvhich, among man: other things, form a continuum from basic phonemic and
graphemic discrimination through to macro-planning, all ler the heading of ‘language
skills’. ‘Discourse lcvel units’ (Munhy 1978: 27) arc still , though, as separate from
language micro-functions antl grammatical/lcxical rcalizat , and discourse is a level or
layer of language rather than integral to its cntirc operation.
Although, as we shall see, kvays of implementing the notion of a discourse element in
the syllabus vary considerably, thcrc docs seem to I)c witlcspread agreement that the idea
of discourse cannot he ignored; syllabus tcmplatcs antl check-lists as offered by applied
linguists such as Munly ( 1 978) antlYaldcn ( 1 983) have a discourse clement built in. But we
must now consider how more integrative vic\vs of discourse influcncc the nature of the
syllabus and the tcaching that evol\-cs from it.
O n e problem with thc vie\vs of comniunicativc competence as implied by the syllabus
specifications that we have looked at so far is that thcy havc assumed that language use can
hc analyscd and described as a sct o f components of various kinds. This assumption often
crcatrs difficulties in that the separation of’componcnts can produce a false picture oftheir
role in creating the overall message. A good example of this is the sort of list often found
in syllabus specifications of speech acts or functions, such as promising, directing, enquiring,
apologizing, etc. As Candlin (1 976) points out, an inventory of speech-acts o f this kind ‘cannot
scrvc any more than sentences as thr direct endpoint of a communicative syllabus’. Any
syllabus consisting solcly of such a list lvould fail in two directions simultaneously: it would
fail to provide the learner with a clear vicw o f thc interrelated and structured nature of
elements of the language system such as modality antl mood, and it would fail to show how
apologies, enquiries, promises, and so on arc actually realized in interaction and as part of
a .sequence o f utterances antl how such realizations depcndcd on higher-order constraints
of genre. In other words, we \vould hc guilty of dealing bvith (some of> ‘the components of
discourse, not with discourse itself’ (Widdowson 1979: 248). Widdowson and Candlin both
come at the problem from the other direction: communicative compctcncc is not a list of
learnt items, but a set of strategics o r proccdurcs ‘for realizing the value of linguistic
elements in contcxts of use’ (Widdowson 1979: 248), and, just as learners may be expected
to pcrccive grammatical regularities in scntcn , so thcy should be given the opportunity
to interpret pragmatic clues for the attachment of value to utterances in discourse, and
become themselves analysts of discoursc (Candlin 1976).
One highly innovative approach to incorporating an integrative view of discourse into
thc syllabus is provided hy Aston (1 988). One ofAston’s concerns is to redress the imbalance
towards transactional language common in much language tcaching (which wr comment
on in section 4) and to get to grips with the problem of creating the contexts for interactive
discourse in thc classroom. Aston too moves away from simply adding discourse as an extra
component in the syllabus and effectively builds his syllabus around central and fundamental
fcaturcs of interactive discourse. For Aston (as we havc argued) interactive discourse is
concerned not only with illocutionary uptake (the realization of speech acts), nor just with
‘cognitive convergence’ (achieving shared knowledge and pcrlocutionary effect), but also
with affective convergence (an essentially humanistic notion), with the processes of creating
and hvith the global and local strategies negotiated in individual contexts
for achieving them.
Aston recognizes the problems created by analysis and classification as thc precursor o f
syllabus specifications: any analysis claiming to describe competence and to itemize it for a
syllabus \vi11 fail to capture the fact that discourse is realized by the crcative exploitation of
the resources that constitute competence (Aston 1988: 1 6 3 4 ) . In this sense, the learner
can engage properly with discourse only ly Cioind it.This would seem to be a strong argument
in favour of thc task-hascd approach as expounded by Prabhu (1 987). In the task-lnscd
classroom, languagc is tised in the process of solving preordained tasks, \vith the purpose o f
promoting and enhancing uptake antl Icarning, rather than presented and lcarnt in orticr to
be used later in cxcr . or outside in the real world.
Aston, however, sees many problcms arising from more extreme views of the task-
based approach (the extremest form of which would be the completely negotiable syllabus,
with nothing preordained and everything open to negotiation among lcarncrs and teachers,
which Clarke (1 991) claims would be unworkable anyvay). Aston seeks to build a syllalius
Xvherein the learning process is not just left to gct on with itsclfin unpredictable ways, hut
in which teaching can operate as a guidance.lb this end, it is not sufticirnt just to specify a
set of tasks for learners to undertakc. For one thing, many of the task-types advocated by
task-based syllabus designers fall into the same trap as the information-gap activities of
communicative approachcs, in that they cncouragc a transactional vimv of language at the
expense of the interactional. Furthermore, simply specifying tasks ignores the fact that
lcarncrs can be guided in the procedural knowledge (the ‘ho\.r,things are done’ in particular
speech communities) as well as the declurutive kno\vledge of‘what is clone’, both of which
arc essential to the creation of coherent discourse. Aston, therefore, favours a task-liasetl
approach that does not shy axvay from specifying the discour. ,tratcgics that thc lcarner
\vi11 need; these will l x specified in a strategic pre-syllabus, which hc sees as a ‘contcnt-
l m d ’ one (Aston 1988: 188). But c n with this pre-syllabus, tasks involving the learnel-
in creating discourse as the main syllabus are not enough. For Aston, the main syllabus is
two-stranded, and the second strand involves the learner in hecoming a discourse-analyst,
or indeed a sort of anthropologist (1 988: 184), observing and cieconstrLrcting how discourse is
created.
Aston’s final model therefore, looks like this:
contcxt-lmctl syllabus construction tlcconstruction
(Aston 1988: 188)
Aston’s viem- of the syllabus seems to recognize that discourse is a process rather than a
product (which tends to be the view of those who see ‘discoursC-as-a-layer’ in language
use), but, sensibly, he sees the value both of an analysis and classification of discourse
strategies as a precursor to selecting tasks for the classroom antl of making the learner stand
liack a little from language and become an observer of it, though as a tliscoursr-analyst rather
than as the sentence-parser and rule-discoverer of some approaches to traditional grammar-
based syllabuses.
O u r s is also an intcgrativc vicw, whcrcin the ovcr-arching pcrspcctivc of languagc-
as-discourse will affect e r w y part of thc syllabus, including any conventional ‘system’
(lexico-grammatical) components and functional/specch-act components, however they
60 M I C H A E L McCARTHY AND RONALD CARTER
arc treated, whether as a series o f layers of language, or as realizations within general

specifications o f discourse strategies.
4 Analysis as the precursor of tasks

Aston’s programmc favoured a ‘ lire-syllalius’ oriented tolvards strategic issues in discourse.
Specifying strategics i s something that can lie done in different ways and at different levels.
Some syllabuses (for example ICC 19x6) specify a gcncral set of strategies, but it is also
possiblc t o conceive of a highly detailed set lvhich translate some of the more traditionally
conccivrd ‘features’ of language use into the strategic domain, and this is Ivhat we would
like hriefly t o consider in this wction. What \z.c propose are a sct of strategy-headings that
can act as a s o r t o f filter lictn n the learning group antl i t s need and the specification of
tasks. Each heading is follon.ctl by example qucstions that arc raised liy each onc and the
s o r t of practical issues that arc likely t o l x encountered in the detailed specification of
tliscourscfiattrrcs that might bc encountcrcd in the subscquent tasks. W e say ‘likely’ because
\ r e cannot always guarantee what thc outcome o f a task will lie. It will he noted that the
global sct o f strategy headings can subsume what has previously h e n seen as a scparate
discourse ‘layer’ by some svllalius designers. Thc most gcncral heatlings are as follows.
1 Genre-related strategies
W h a t are the mctlia and modes that the learners \I i l l encounter?
W h a t genres arc likclj to be most useful?
W h a t patterns of interaction arc most useful (c.g. narratix e , lirohlem-4olution),
2 Coherence-related strategies
What aspects of topic managcment, turn-taking, ctc, \vi11 hc involvctl?
W h a t types of cohesion (c.g. stronger emphasis o n across-turn lexical cohesion for
intcractionally oriented tasks; tlil’fcrcnt types of ellipsis in tliffcrcnt media)?
3 Politeness strategies
What aspects of facc \vi11 need t o Iic atltlrcssctl?
What forms of address will I>citnolvctl (c.g. pronoun systems, m o o d systcms)?
Holv important will reciprocity be (c.g. very important in interactional tasks)?
4 Planning strategies
W h a t sorts o f anticipator! strategies will he i d u l (c.g. cnuniei-ativc labelling, cataphoric
uses o f articles)?
Will special conditions for i-efcrcncc apply (c.g. anaphora across paragraph tiountlarics in
written metli um) ?
W h a t scquences o f t m s c , aspect and voicc arc likely t o 1~ involvcd (c.g. con\rntions rclatcd
to genre)?
What degree of crccitiri~.antl risk-taking with language is fcasihlc antl appropriate?
5 Convergence strategies
Informational or cogniti~econ\crgcntc: \I hat aspects of categories such as theme, m o o d
and modalit! \I ill be in\ol\ctl?
Affective convergence: \\,hat adjacency-pair typcs arc likcly (c.g. solidarity routines, Ixoblcm-
sharing, agrccmcnt~disagrcemcnt)?
What transaction-boundary features are likely (pitch-sequcncing, markcrs)! What role will
repetition play in creating convcrgrncc in diffcrcnt modes and genres? W h a t tlcgrcc o f
cultural convcrgcncc w i l l be required? How w i l l ‘knowing almut’ language anti culture a
in solving convcrgcncc problems?
6 R e p a i r strategies
W h a t arc the risks ol communicational prolilems o r cultural misunderstandings?
Is repair likcl! to lie largcly self repair, or m o r c global, ncgotiablc repairs?
Stratcgirs invarialily overlap. Iyor example, repair strategies may involve politeness, which
in itself involves cultural awareness and the problem of convcrgcncc, antl s o o n . Rut given
the practical exigencies of dividing the discourse process, n-c \vould arguc that thc stratcgic
list I-epresents a manageable antl reasonably faithful framework for syllabus and task design.
W h a t one docs with a list o f strategies for a particular learner group dcpcnds o n onc’s
philosophy concerning methodology. The d i s c o u r s e - h a d approach (i.c. w h c r c \ve slur[
with discourse as the overall driving force of our syllalius) lends itself best, \vc have implied,
to a task-liasetl methodology, in that, in this way, language is not atomized antl treated as
product, thus destroying the basic notion of discourse as engaging Ivith language as process
antl meaning as ncgotiatcd and contextual. Ho\ve\er, in the real world, teachers often have
to \vork within clear and restrictive constraints Lvhere they arc expected to \vork to explicitly
statcd classroom input and to achicvc explicitly measuralilc o u t p u t , in o t h e r \\-or&,
syllaliuses that say rihar is to lie learnt and in \vhat ordcr.
We see n o contradiction het\vecn o u r proposed list of tliscour tratcgics and the sulise-
qucnt spccification of the syllalius in terms of a set of specific performance goals, only that
we start from a different premise: that all such goals can, and should he, expressed as discourse
goals rathcr than as Iexico-grammatical or notional-functional oncs. Ibr example,\\e might
cnvisagc a ‘learners should be able t o . . .’ lcaturc including something like the follo\ving:
Ask significant favours of othcrs in appropriate secluences in\ olving

1 signals of opening
2 explaining thc problrm
3 asking
4 minimizing
5 reinforcing
6 acccding
7 thanking.
The asking of a la, our is thus conceived o f as a genre rather than as a function or spccch-act,
and inlolves not only sp h-act realizations at the micro-lc 1, hut also a strategic Icvcl
involving politcncss strategies (l’acc), planning (opening), convergence (reinforciny), and
s o o n . At the Icxico-grammatical interface, o n c could specify modalitv and (drlirnding on
level) use of idioms. The point is that the conventional syllat,us~as~inventoi-y view can still
be meaningfully adapted to a languagc~as~tliscourse approach \vithout just atitling discourse
as a layer upon the o t h e r layers. t..qually, such an in\-cntory, in o u r opinion, tloex not
sarily preclutle additional use of well-choscn tasks in class that can subscribe t o Aston’s
(1 988) conditions of construction and deconstruction, nor docs it necessarily ~irecludesomc
62 M I C H A E L MCCARTHY A N D R O N A L D C A R T E R
sort of proportional syllabus approach such asYalden (1983) advocates. For us, it is the
analysis of‘language needs through a discourse perspective which is most important as a
precursor to tasks and activities, whether such tasks are additional to a more conventional
communicatively oriented syllabus o r whether the analysis is merely a pre-syllabus for the
selection of open-ended tasks that will form a whole task-based syllabus in themselves.
If analysis from a discourse point of view is to the pre-syllabus for a task-based one,
then we would strongly support Aston ( 1 988) in his view that an analysis based on
interactional language is just as important as one based on transactional uses of language.
Real data show that the two types of language use rarely occur discretely (see McCarthy
and Carter 1994: 1 17-24; Iklton 1988; McCarthy 1991 : 1 36--7). For an interactional view
of language to have an input into task dcsign, the understanding of how natural conversation
works, how speakers/writers orient towards rcciprocity and convergence, how they do so
using systcmatic resources such as lexical cohesion and how features such as topic
management are realized arc all central. It is hcrc, we feel, that syllabus designers have most
to learn from what discourse analysts can offer.
Designing tasks is no easy matter, and much useful literature exists which treats with
more rigour than space allows us hcrc thc factors which can make o r break tasks (see
especially Nunan 1989). It does seem worth underlining here, howcvcr, that tasks which
promote only or mainly transactional uses of languagc (e.g. information-gap tasks) are
unlikely to engage learners in a full range 01’ discour. trategies. Discourse strategies, we
have argued, are concerned with human heings presenting a picture of themselves, not just
conveying information to one anothcr.Thcrcforc, if‘gaps’or ‘problems’ arc the core features
of tasks which motivate their completion, thcn we need to build in much more than just
information or ‘opinion’ gaps (see Aston 1988: 192 -9 for a critique of information- and
opinion-gap approachcs). Gaps in rapport, prohlcms of sensitivity, convcrgrnce towards
acquaintance or friendship, gaps in self-image, problc~msof face, all of these will assume as
much importance as gaps in placcs on a map, o r gaps in agrccing on where to spend a
Saturday night, the stock-in-trade of many prcscnt classroom tasks. Tasks can fulfil some of
these interactional criteria by dclibcrately ‘designing in’ unpredictable reactions, ‘diflicult’
participants, goals where conversational well-king is morc important than informational
transaction, and s o on.
An example of an attempt at building into a task interactional constraints demanding
politeness and convergence strategies, taken from the International Certificate Conference’s
teacher-training programme for teachers intending to use their discourse-strategy and task-
based syllabus (ICC 1986), involl participants in a consensus activity to agrce on the
arrangement of furniture for a school opcn-day. Much of the task is transactionally oriented,
culminating in leaving instructions for the school caretaker to execute the furniture plan.
However, the person who role-plays the caretaker is required to take offence at the tone of
the instructions and the task therefore cannot be complctcd until oil has been poured on
troubled waters and ‘affective’ convergence has been achieved, even though cognitive
convergence is already prcscnt in the written instructions for the furniture plan.This is only
one small example, but it shows how task dcsign can attempt to replicate a wider range of
discourse conditions, and how the ‘pre-syllabus’ might fecd into thc constructional syllabus
in a more controlled way, if the dcsirc is to follow a task-based approach.
5 Conclusion
We hope that the discussion in this chapter has pointed to the following conclusion: that
awareness o f discourse and a willingness to take on board what a language-as~discourseview
DESIGNING T H E D I S C O U R S E S Y L L A B U S 63
implies can only makc us b e t t e r and m o r e efficient syllabus designers, task designers,
dialogue-writers, materials adaptors and evaluators of everything \ve do and handle in thc
classroom. Above all, the approach we have advocated enablcs us to b e m o r e faithful to what
language is and what people use it for. Thc m o m c n t one starts to think of language as
discourse, the entire landscape changes, usually, for ever.
Bibliography
Aston, G. 1988 Learning C o m i y . Bologna: Editrice CLUER
Rclton, A . 1988 ‘Lexical naturalness in native and non-native discourse’. English Langnugc
Research Journal (ns) 2: 7 9 105
British Council 1983; 1986 English Teaching Prof;rIe on .h‘ala,vsia. London: British Council
Canale, M. 1983 ‘From communicative competence to Communicative language pedagogy’. In
Richards, J. C., Schmidt, R. (eds) Language and Communication. London: Longman, pp.
2-27
Canale, M., S\vain, M. 1980 ‘Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to .
language teaching and testing’. Applied Linguistics 1 : 1 47
Candlin, C. N. 1976 ‘Communicative language teaching and the debt to pragmatics’. In
Kameh, C. (ed) Georgetonm Universiy Round Table on LungLiuges ant/ Linguistic<.Washington,
DC: Georgetown University Press, pp. 237-56
Carter, R. A,,McCarthy, M. J. 1988 Ibcahulay and Language Teuching. London: Longman
Chomsky, N. 1965 ,4spects ofthe T h e o y ofSyntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
Clarke, D. F. 1991 ‘The ncgotiatccl s&hus: what is it and how is it likely to work?’ Applied
Linguistics 12 (1): 13 28
Hallitlay, M. A. K . , Hassan, R. 1976 Cohesion in English. 1,ondon: Longman.
Hvmes, D. 1971 ‘ O n communicative competence’. In Pride, J. Homes, J. (cds) SociolingLiistics.
1972. Harmontlsworth: Penguin, pp. 269-93
ICC (Intcrnational Certificate Conference) 1986 Foreign Languages in Adult and Continuing
Education: Spec!fications,fir Stage 3 I.evel of the International Certfj?cate Conference Language
Certificate System. Bonn Frankfurt: Deutscher Volkshochschul~Vcrbandc.v.
McCarthy, M . J. 1984 ‘A new look at vocabulary in EFI,’. Applied I.ingnistics 5 (1): 12-22
McCarthy, M. J. 1988 ‘Some vocabulary patterns in conversation’. In Carter, R. A , , McCarthy,
M . J. Ibcnhulay and Language Eaching. London: Longman, pp. 181-200
McCarthy, M . J. 1 9 9 1 Discourse .Ana!ysissisfor h n g i i a g e Teuchcrs. Cambridge: Camhridgc Univcrsity
Press
McCarthq, M., Carter, I<. 1994 Lunguage 0.5 Discourse: Perspcctirzsfor LungLmqe Teaching. London:
Longman.
written English of Malay students at pre-
Cardiff: University ofWales
Munhy, J. 1978 Communicutive Syllabus Design. Cambridge: Cambridge Uniwrsity Press
Nunan, 11. 1989 Designing Tasks f i r the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridgc
University Press
Prabhu, N. 1987 Second Language Ped~~qogy: a Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Sinclair, J. Mcli., Kenouf, A. 1988 ‘A lexical syllabus for language learning’. In Carter, R. A , ,
McCarthy, M. J. Ibcahulay und Language Teaching. London: Longman, pp. 140-60
Swan, M., Walter, C. 1984 The Cambridge English Course. Volume 1. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press
Widdowson, H . G. 1979 Explorutionv in Applied Linguistics 1 . Oxford: Oxford Univn-sity Prrss
Willis, D. 1990 The Lexical Syllabus. London: Collins
Yalden, J. 1983 The Communicative Syllabus: Evol[ltion, Design and Implementution. New York:
Pergamon
Chapter 5
Guy Cook
T H E U S E S OF C O M P U T E R I Z E D L A N G U A G E
C O R P O R A : A R E P L Y TO R O N A L D C A R T E R
Introduction
C O M P U T E R I Z E D L A N G U A G E C O R P O R A have inspired s o m c of the m o s t

important insights in rcccnt linguistics. They have sho\vn us, for example, that actual
language us(’ is less a matter of coml)ining alistract grammar rules v i t h individual lexical
items, and m o r e a matter o f collocation; that thcrc arc grammatically possible utterances
hich do not occur, and others lvhich occur ivith tlispro1,ortionatc f r c q w n c y ; that in
.tcmatic descriptions o f occurrcnccs, grammar and lcxis cannot l i e as casily separated as
have Iiccn traditionally, either in pedagogy o r in linguistics. Ronald Carter is right to
such insights ‘cxciting’, antl his o\vn \vork with Michael McCarthv on the CANCOIlE
corpus has added t o t h e m . As his articlc (1 9 9 8 ) illustratcs vcry \vcll, the grammatical
constructions \ve find in actual con\.crsations arc not a l \ v a y accountctl for in traditional
grammars.
Clearly all thcsc findings arc important, and thcy d o have implications for language
teaching. The problcm is, howcvcr, that somc corpus linguists (c.g. Sinclair 1991, Stubbs
1996) ovcrrcach thcmsclvcs.Thcy talk as though thc cntirc study of languagc can I x replaced
by the study o f t h c i r collcctions, antl as though all important insights \vi11 emerge only from
automatic scarchcs of their data antl no\\ hci-c clsc. Clearly such solutions to thc study of
complex human phenomena cxcrt a good deal cductivc p v c r . If the tratlitional concern
of linguistics language in all its cultural and 11 ological complexity could be replaced
~~
hy a neat computer hank o f data, life \vould Iic much siinplcr.

Yet thc leap from linguistics t o pcdagogv is as Carter realizes far from straight-
~~
forward. He is not one o f t h c extremists, antl his paper is, for that rcason, a \vorth\vhilc and
interesting eontriliution to language teaching. He proc (1s cautiously, providing s o m e
interesting ‘rcal’ data, antl pointing out significant diffcrcnccs Ixt\vccn actual antl texthook
English. He d o c s not say one should replace the othcr. In his view., materials should l i e
influenced by, hut not slaves to, corpus lintlings. (In this hc sccms to agree with the view of
Summers antl Rundcll (1 995) that pedagogic matcrials should be ‘corpus based not corpus
h o u n d ’ , and t o disagree lvith the CORUILL) slogan that they should lie ‘corpus driven’
(Stuldis 1997).)This is eminently rcasonalilc, though for that very rcason not particularly
radical. My problem with \vhat Carter says is that he seems a little hcsitant or perhaps ~
unwilling to say \\here he stands. Ilocs he reject the fundamentalist views ofthose linguists
~~~
and languagc tcaching theorists for \z h o m corpus findings arc the only source of truth?
THE USES O F C O M P U T E R I Z E D L A N G U A G E CORPORA 65
My first aim in this rcplv is to pursue some of the shortcomings o f corpus-tlri\en

approachcs which I think Carter avoids confronting. I shall also consider some of the more
extreme applications of corpus findings to language teaching. My argument is that there is
an important difference bet\\ een the hard antl soft linc approachcs, that the former, by
appcaring to offer yet another easy ‘scientific’ solution, can do immense damage, and that
\vc all, including Carter, \voultl do \cell to consider more precisely \vhether \z e think corpus
tindings mcrcly add a new dimension to earlier approachcs, or replace them.
Uses and abuses of corpora

A number 01’ Ialse conclusions can lie reached about corpora. It is often assumed, for
example, that as a description of language brhaviour, thcy arc the only valid source of facts
about language; the same as a description of language in the mind; provide a goal and a route
for language 1carning.Thei-e is much in computerized corpus analysis to makc us reconsider
received ideas about the learning, representation, and use of language. But whcrc pcdagogy
is concerned, corpus statistics say nothing about immcasurablc but crucial factors such as
students’ and teachers’ attitudes and expectations, the personal relationships lxt\\
their o\cn wishes, or the diversity of traditions from which thcy comc. Conscqucntly
computer corpora cchile impressive antl interesting records of crrtain aspects of language
~
use can ncvcr bc mort- than a contribution to our understanding o f cffcctivc languagc
teaching.
Corpus a s f a c t
Evcn as a rccord of‘facts’ computer corpora are incomplete.They contain information aliout
production but not about reception.Thcy say nothing about how many people have read or
heard a text or utterance, or how many times.’Thus a memo hastily skimmed by one person
antl consigned to the wastepaper Iiasket counts equally Icith a tabloid headline read b v
millions, or with a text, such as a prayer or poem, which is not only often repeated but also
deeply valued. Occurrencc, distrihution, and importancc, in other \vords, are not the same.
This applics to whole tcxts, hut also to shorter units. Some phrases pass unnoticed preciscly
because of thcir frequency, othcrs strikc and stay in the mind, though they may occur only
once. And becausc tliffcrcnt intlividuals noticc tlil’ferent things, such saliency can n
inclutletl in a corpus.The same is true o f a whole host of aspects of language use: metaphors,
speech acts such as apologies or compliments, interactive cvcnts such as intcrruption or
Is o f formality. They arc not ‘facts’ but matters ol‘
is a truism to obscrvc that there is no straightfor\vartl correlation tictv
use, the intentions thcy had in thcm, and the interpretations which other pcoplc put upon
thcm. If this were not so, there would be no disputes ovcr the mcaning of what people say.
Corpus as record
Corpora are records of language lichaviour. The patterns which rmc’r-gc in that lichaviour
do not ntxcssarily and directly tell us how people organizc antl classify language in thcir
mvn minds? and for thcii- o\vn use, o r how language is best systcmatized for teaching.
Linguists’ analyses ol’thcse data are not ne arily users’ analyses, or thosc ivhich arr most
useful to teachers and Icarncrs. Thcy arc just one kind o f fact. The ways in \vhic.h
nrainmarians antl pcdagogucs ha\ c organizctl thcir matcrial in grammars, syllaliuscs, antl
b
dictionaries are also facts about language. So are people’s emotional lielirfs that one type
~
of language use is better than another-. We should not promote some kinds of facts at the
expense of othcrs.
Corpora are only partial authorities. The cumulative languagc experience of an
individual, though lcss amenable to systematic ac 1,remains far larger anti richer. Even a
three hundred million word corpus is cqui\ alent to only around thrcc thousand books, or
perhaps the language experience o f a teenager. This is why our intuition (in cffwt o u r
random antl incomplctc, access t o our total cxpcricmce of the language) can still tell us facts
about the language which cannot 1)c evidenced by a corpus (Witltlowson 1990). For
example, the canonical forms of sayings antl provcrI)s occur 1 cry rarely in corpora, though
they are obviously well knoum by ~icoplc(Aston 1995). Such omissions, hobvevcr, arc not
merely a quantitative issue; they cannot lie rcmcdicd simply by making corpora larger and
larger. They arc inrvitalilc in an approach lvhich accepts only one o f the three sources o f
fact about language: observation; and ignores o r villainizes t\vo othcrs: introspection and
elicitation. For there arc aspccts o f language which arc knolvn but not used. Corpus linguists
are fond ofobscrving that thc commonest uses of words are not the same as their standard
definitions. ‘I bet’, for example, is more rarely used in the sense of‘wagcr’, and most often
in the sense of ‘suppose’ (Sinclair 1987: xi i). Rut this unsurprising olxcrvation does not at
all invalidate thc view that ‘\vagcr’ is a ccntral prototypical meaning for many speakers to
Ivhich more colloquial uses arc attachcd. (And indeed, thr ‘wager’ meaning is still given as
the first meaning o f ‘bet’ in the Coliuiltl dictionarv.)
Description and prescription

But let us assume for thc sake of argument that corpora arc accurate records of language
behaviour, that they do catalogue antl I-cwal all the important ‘facts’ahout the language.The
question then arises as to lvhosc language hchaviour is accurately recorded ~~ antl the
question takes on a particularly sinistcr signifcancc whcn the corpora in question start being
used not as data for dcscriptiw linguistics, but as sources o f prcscription for TESOL. For
thc answ-er to the question is (as Cartcr scctns painfullv awarc) that corpora arc primarily
records o f native speakers’ languagc Iichaviour. ‘Kcal’ languagc in cffcct means native-
speaker English, and the only language excludcd from this category (apart from the invrntetl
cxamplcs o f linguists antl textbook writcrs) is that usetl to antl by language learners. To his
crcdit, Carter confronts this issue, and intends to remedy it. But the proposed addition of
‘a wider variety of international Englishcs’ will not solve the problem. This will only add
other standard Englishes as spoken by their o\vn native speakers.
And then a second question arises to which Cartcr explicitly refers, hut does not
anskvcr. Why should the attested language usc o f a native-speaker community bc a model
for learners of English as an international language? If a certain collocation occurs frequently
among British or American English speakers, must it also lw used by the Japanese o r the
Mexicans? This is where lve encounter an easy slippage from description to prcscription,
in cffcct making the former into the latter.Thc English which is used by one or more native-
speaker communities, it is implied, ought to lie the English learned for international
communication.
The ready-made lexical phrases \zhich corpora reveal to he so frequent in native speaker
use are moreover as Carter readily recognizes very often culturally specific and loaded.
~ ~
In deploying such units, thc foreign speaker is very likely to produce corpus-attested but
contextually inappropriate language. (This is why attempts to teach set phrases arc likely
to he as tragicomically disastrous in lexical syllabuses as they \vere in functional ones.) In
the terms of Hymes’s (1 972) four parameters of communicative competence, corpus-driven
T H E U S E S OF C O M P U T E R I Z E D L A N G U A G E C O R P O R A 67
language teaching always risks stressing what is actually done at the expense of what is
appropriate in a particular context.
Pedagogical issues
In an extensively quoted, and in itself excellent, essay liy Pa\vlcv and Syder (1 983) on nativc-
like sclcction and fluency, corpus-liascd language teaching finds a source o f inspiration,
providing a potential link lietwccn the facts of language Iieliaviour antl a theory of how
language is acquired and processed in the mind. Here is the claim that mature native spcikcrs
(for this is whom the essay is explicitly about) have ‘hundrcds of thousands’ of institution-
alized lexicalized or semi-lexicalizctl units in memory. Though many of these units can be
analysed grammatically, the likelihood is, so the argumcnt goes, that they arc often produced
and understood holistically. Nativc speakers acquire, represent, and process language in
lexicalizcd chunks as \\ell as grammar rulcs and single \vords.
Yet it h y no means follows that foreign lcarners must do the same.Thcy may not \rant
to study language in this way; they may live within culturally tli\ ersc pedagogic traditions
not compatilile with this approach; they may not aspire to or nccd native-like English; thcy
may not have as much time available as native-speaker children; above all, as adults with
conscious learning strategies available to them, they can choose. And \vhy should th
choosr to continue vicwing the language as grammar structures and slot-filling word
may not lead to native-like English, but it may lead to communicative and expressive English.
It may be learnt morc quickly. And it will avoid the tedious rote learning of mundane
phrases, or the bc\z.ildering refusal to teach grammar, which arc the inevitable consequences
of an overemphasis on ‘lexical chunks’.
Yet cvcn if appearing native-likc were accepted as the goal of languagc learning, it \voultl
still not follo\v that frequency and tlcsirability arc the same. Thcre is a hidtlcn irony in the
dogma that frequcnt native-likc collocations are the best model to imitate. It is that e\en
\i.ithin the native-speaker community it is often the infrequcnt \vortl or expression which is
most p o n - c d d antl most communicatively effective, antl therefore most sought after. This
is also \\ hy foreigners’ speech is often expressive and striking. t b t h for native and non-native
speakers there is an altcrnati\e goal to seeking the most usual, the most frequent or, in short,
the most clichktl exprcssion. It is the goal of rich, varied, antl original language. Among
native speakers it is unusual language kvhich is valued. Should non-native spcakers lie trcatcd
tliffercntl y ?
This lcatls to the important point that not all types of language arc cquallp valued, either
by native spcakers or foreign learners. Something is not a good model simply liecause
it occurs frequcntly. A good dcal of actual language use is inarticulate, impoverished,
and inexpressive. Inevitably, because onc cannot teach cvcrything, part of the job o f
teachcrs and coursc designers is to sclcct the languagc use which they \4.ish their students
to emulate. Many foreign language students have strong feelings about this too. They tlo
not Lvant to learn just any English because it occurs in a corpus, and it is patronising
to overrule them. In advocating selection and modelling of corpus data, in the use of literary
rather than transcribed dialogues, and in his recognition that one of the topics in his authentic
data (‘straggly hair’) may have a limited topic life in many classrooms, Carter seems to
agree.
To be corpus driven, in short, deprives cvcryone (native antl non-native spcaker alike)
of the opportunity for choice antl to make their own impact on the language. Corpora are
inevitably records of what has happened rather than what is happcning.They prcscnt us with
a,fuit accompli, a fixed product rather than an open process.
68 G U Y Cool<
Means and ends

So corpora do not neccssarily provide a goal for languagc learners. Yet even if they did, it
would not follow that the liest route t o this goal is t o present rcal language usc, and to try
t o persuade them to emulate it straight allay. I lcre there is a certain oddity in the corpus
argument. O f course expert-spcakcr use of the language, and the rulcs which generate it,
is usually more complex than that of language learners. If it were not, there would lie nothing
to learn. Hardly surprisingly, the description of English which emerges from corpus analysis
(taking into account as it docs the lvay in \vhich linguistic items and structures vary across
genres, social groups, and linguistic contexts) is dauntingly complcx antl particular. But this
description cannot h e prcscntctl t o students all at once. The issue still remains how to
simplify and stagc the language prcscntctl t o Icarncrs, a n d t o simplify the rulcs used t o
cxplain it, in a Ivay tvhich will enablc thcm t o comc gradually closer t o native speaker usc
(if that is their goal). Surely the point of grammars antl textbooks is that they select, idealizc,
and simplify thc language t o make it more acccssihlc? Intlectl, this s w m s to l x Cartcr’s
view too.
For language tcachcrs the issue remains as t o \\.hat thc principles for selection,
idealization, and siniplification should he. I Icrc thcrc is already a wcalth of long standing
ideas (dating back at least t o the work of Palmer ( 192 1 ) and West ( 1 926)) concerning the
rclationship lietwccn the frequency with bvhich an item occurs and the point at which it
should be taught itleas of lvhich many corpus linguists, in their haste t o atlvcrtise thcm-
selves as promulgating a totally ne\\’ approach to language, seem unaware. For cxamplc, an
item may hc frequent but limited in rangc, or infrequent hut useful in a wide rangc of
contexts. Or it may lie infrequent h i t very useful, or appropriate for some pedagogic reason.
These are factors lieyond mere description. Unlike many corpus linguists, Carter does show
himself awarc of such considerations in his conclusions. But that leaves m e wondcring
whether his approach is such a break from tradition as he suggests.
The hard line
This Iirings m e from Cartcr’s views moclcratc, sc-nsil,lc, anti informed t o the more
~~ ~
extreme, b u t unfortunately associated, views o f language teaching based o n corpus

linguistics. Herc is the belief that what is perceived as a linguistic revolution necessarily
constitutes a pedagogic one. Very often \vritcrs arc carricd a v a y I)? a single insight into
language, taking it illogically to be sufficient t o change I u n g u q c tcaching.Thus Willis (1 990)
elevatcs frequcncy counts t o the guiding principle for his lexical syllalius. Lewis (1993)
considers the high occurrence of lexical chunks as a cue to tlecrcc (in a diatrilie characterized
liy bombastic asscrtion rathcr than rcxonetl argument) that language tc-aching has changed
forevcr, t o be rcplacetl by ‘the \Yay lorward’ (p. 196), with an ominously authoritarian
definite articlc: his o\vn lexical approach. ‘Abstract, absolute kno\vlctlge of a system has had
its day’, antl people who think other ‘are wrong’ (p. 74); ‘\voolly mindedncss in this
mattcr leads t o I d practice which has ncgatilc long tcrm cffccts’ (p. 167).
Such approachcs arc firmly in the tradition of using linguistics theory to dictate to
language teaching practicc. Their gross over- gcncralization antl over-confidence arc
potcntially damaging t o good teaching practice. Thcy invoke corpus linguistics as an
unassailable authority, side-step all serious cngagcmcnt in debate, anti cannot take on board
the kind ofrcscrvations cxpresscd hy Carter. Such corpus-driven pedagogy is a vain attempt
to resuscitate a patriarchal attitude to EI.T, invoking the latest linguistics theory t o intimidate
tcachcrs into Iiclicving that all prcvious practicc, all thcir owm antl thcir students’ intuitions,
T H E U S E S OF C O M P U T E R I Z E D L A N G U A G E C O R P O R A 69
all the culturally various pedagogic traditions in hvhich they \vork antl study, arc, as I x w i s
\vould put it, ‘hvrong’.
Conclusion
1 have contrasted throughout this rcply what I scc as the soft and the hard line \ ie-\vs of the
relevance o f corpus findings t o language teaching. In thc one, CI\ have the wicc of
moderation urging a limited application ‘modclling’ as Carter calls it ivhich b y \ii-tuc
~ ~
of its very reasonableness does n o t amount to anything very radical. In the other, \vc have
thc stronger view: cvangclical, authoritarian, antl dismissive of tradition, assuming that a
little of the latest linguistics theory is all that is needcd t o changc- the coursc of languagc-
teaching. I believe that if Carter lvcrc t o follo\v his arguments through to their conclusion,
he too \vould explicitly reject, as I do, the morc extreme versions h t h of corpus linguistics
antl of corpus-driven language teaching, Rut it is b: no means clear whether he d o c s so.
Notes
1 This point has bcrn made hy corpus linguists thcmsclves (Francis 1979, Stul)lw
1996: 1 I ) , hut the point is not adequately taken on board, either in corpus construction
or analysis.
2 Stubbs (1996: 2 1 ) tells us that thr. ‘deep patterning’ rcvcalrd by corpuh anal!
‘bcyond human ol)servation antl memory’,
3 This issue is clouded by snolhish and chauvinistic claims that a particdar national o r
sociolcct is l x t t c r than anothcr. But this is not a necessary componcnt of the notion that
crrtain usages ~ literary, xvrittcn, or simpl\ eloquent and elegant one^ arc morc
desirable models than others.
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Cat-trr, I<. 1998. ‘Orders of reality: CANCODE, communication, antl culture’. ELY’journcil,
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Univcrsit) Press, 1964, edited b? K. Mackin).
h v l c y , A. and F. Sydcr. 198 3. ‘T~vopuzzlcs for linguistic theory: nativclikc selection and
nati\rlike fluency’ in J. Richards anti J. Schmidt (ctis.). h n g u u g e cind Coinmunitation.
London: Longman.
Sinclair, J. et ul. 1987. Collins Cohuilcl English l anguuge Dictionar).. London: Collins.
Sinclair, J. M. 1991 , C o r p u , Concordance, Colloccltjon. Oxford: Oxford University I’rms.
Stulhs, M. 1996. Text cind C o r p s .$nci@s. Oxford: Rlack\vell.
Stubbs, M. 1997. Review of Il.sinfl Corpora,/& /-anguci,qc Re.scarch..lppliecl Linguistics 18/2: 240 3 .
70 G U Y C O O K
Summers, D. and M. Rundell (etls.). 1995. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. London:
Longman.
West, M. P. 1926. Learning to Read a Foreign Language. NcwYork: Longmans, Grccn.
Widdowson, H. G. 1990. ‘Discourses of enquiry and conditions of relevance’in J. E. Alatis
(etl). Linguistics, Language Teaching and I.angnup Acq~iisition.Washington DC: Georgetown
University Press.
Willis, D. 1990. The Lexical .$llabns. London: Collins.
Chapter 6
Ann Hewings and Martin Hewings
A P P R O A C H E S TO T H E S T U D Y OF
DISCIPLINARY VARIATION I N ACADEMIC
W R I T I N G : I M P L I C A T I O N S FOR S Y L L A B U S
DESIGN
1 Introduction
N R E C E N T Y E A R S , S Y L LA B U S E S for academic writing in higher education

I have increasingly focused on teaching students about the features of differing written
genres. S o , for instance, we find published material on laboratory and technical reports (for
example Dudley-Evans, 1985), expcrimental rcscarch reports and other research papers
(for example Wcissberg and Buker, 1990), theses and dissertations (for example Anderson
and Poole, 1994) and essays (for example Roberts, 1997). The gcncral motivation of this
approach is thc need to offrr appropriate dcxcriptions and models of generic texts so that
thc students’ ability to understand and produce them is improved. More specifically, students
arc taught about thc textual features, both tcxt structural and sentence-level, that are
characteristic of‘ each gcnrc.
While this represents a valuablc development from earlier approaches which treated
‘academic writing’ as an undifferentiated, homogeneous entity, it is important to recognisc
that variation is found not only from genre to genre, but also within genres. Evidcncc
is accumulating that single genres vary over time (Bazerman, 1988; Dudley-Evans and
Henderson, 1990; Selager-Meyer, 19959, vary from one cultural context to another (Taylor
and Chcn, 1991), and varv from discipline to discipline (Berkenkottcr and Huckin, 1995;
Prior, 1998).
This essay is primarily concrrncd with the third of these and, in particular, thc methods
that have been adopted for the study of disciplinary variation and the implications of findings
to date for syllabus design. Knowledge of disciplinary variation is liccoming especially
important with the growing trend towards inter- and multi-disciplinary study in higher
education so that students may be required to work within a number of disciplines which
have different views on the naturc of academic writing. We begin by reporting threc arcas
of applied linguistic investigation which have explored the question of disciplinary variation
in rather different ways and with rather different implications for syllabus design. First, we
present Swales’s approach to genre a n a h i s and discuss studies of disciplinary variation based
on this approach, in particular those which have explored variation in thc academic rmcarch
72 A N N H E W I N G S A N D M A R T I N H E W I N G S
articlc. Second, we outline lvork \vhich has cxamincd metadiscourre in academic \vriting
that is, the part o f a tcxt Lvhich helps thc rcadcr organisc, classify, c d u a t e and react to the
propositional contcnt (Vandc Kopplc, 1985) and the \ l a y this varies in texts taken from
different disciplines. Third, i \ c r e p o r t studies o f one clause-level feature of t e x t , t h r
~qrammaticalsiihjcct, that have tlcmonstratcd its significance in reflccting how m.ritcrs reprcscnt
data, previous research antl thcmsclvcs in the tcxt, and h o w this varies across disciplines. A
discussion o f the implications of the findings o f such work for academic writing syllabuses
concludes the essay.
Throughout, our attention is primarily o n gcm-es Ix-oduccd within an academic context,
either clussroom genres those produced IIV students for purposes of asscssmcnt, such as
essays, dissertations and thcscs, 1al)oratot-y and case study reports, and litcraturc reviews ~
or prof;ssional p r e s thc tcxts by which scientists antl scholars communicate \vith o t h e r

scientists antl scholars, such as conference papcv-s, research articles, monographs, technical
reports, working papers, and grant proposals.
2 Approaches t o the study of disciplinary variation
2. I Genre
Within the context of English for Spccific I’urposcs, the teaching o f academic lvriting has
Ixcn greatly influencctl by the apliroach t o gcnrc arising from work by John Skyales (for
’
example 198 1 , 1984, 1990). This approach considers a non-fictional gcnrc t o be:
a rccognizahlc communicati\ c cvcnt charactcrizctl b y a sct of communicative

purposc(s) idcntificd antl mutually understood by mcnil)crs of t h r professional or
academic community in \vhich it regularly occurs. Most often it is highly structured
and conventionalized with constraints o n allo\vahlc contributions in t e r m s o f their
intent, positioning, form and functional valuc.
(Bhatia, 1993: 13)
The primary critcrion, thcn, b y \vhich tcxts arc consitlcrctl to lie o f tht. samc g e n r e is
communicative purpose. If tcxts have tliffcrcnt communicative purposes, they are likely t o
be o f a tliffcrcnt genrc, antl it is this shared communicative p ~ i r p s ethat produces the
convcntionalisctl form of the gcni-e antl its chai-actcristic linguistic features. The analysis of
a genre for pedagogical purposes involves the identification o f thcsc regularities in tcxt
organisation and Icxico-grammatical features antl, in addition, an attempt to explain how
thcv relate t o the tlisrource cornmnniy (Hcrzbcrg, 1986; S\valcs, 1990; Bizzcll, 1992) Tvithin
\vhich the genre is produced. Such analysis can thcn bc converted into syllabuses and
materials that aim t o teach students aliout tcxt organisation antl relevant language forms.
S\valcs’s ( 1 9 8 1 , 1990) pionccring lvork itlcntifictl a set of ‘movcs’, and ‘steps’ within
t h e m , which were rccurrcntly found in the introductions t o research articles in o r d e r t o
contcxtualise an author’s o\vn research. A move is a unit \\ hich is rclatrd both t o the purpose
writers h a w antl t o the contcnt they n i s h t o communicate, \vhilc a stcp is a component o f
a move which is a morc tlctailcd option availaldc to the kvritcr in setting o u t a move (Dudlcy-
Evans and St John, 1998: 89). Swales proposed ( 1 990: 141) a three-movc model for articlc
introductions (modifictl from four in his 198 1 lvork):
DISCIPLINARY VARIATION I N ACADEMIC WRITING 73
Move 1 Establishing a territory

Step 1 Claiming centrality
unti/or Step 2 Making topic gencralisations
clnti/or Step 3 IievicLving items of previous research
Move 2 Establishing a niche
Step 1A Counter-claiming
or Step IB Indicating a gap
or Step 1C Question-raising
or Step ID Continuing a tradition
Move 3 Occupying the niche
Step 1A Outlining purposes
or Step 1B Announcing prescnt resrarch
Step 2 Announcing principal findings
Step 3 Indicating research article structure.
Typically, academic discoursc communities are bound togcther by subject matter, antl
professional academic writing is seen as adding to the body of kno\vlcdge Lvhich is at thc
core of the discipline. In addition to disciplinary knowledge, the way subject matter is
discussed the genrc conventions used is also of importancc. To hecome ‘good academic
xvl-iters’, students need to become a\varc ofthesc conventions, that is, how the tcxtual forms
and communicative functions arc related to the expectations of the academic community
to which they belong.
Swalcs’s movc and step approach has been used not only to identify the characteristics o f
particular genres, Iiut also to compare texts of the same genre but from different disciplines.
For example, in the prcliminarics to an invcstigation of active and passive vcrb forms in t\vo
astrophyics journal articles, laronc et a1. ( 1 998) notc that S\valc,s’s ( 1 990) overview of the
organisation ofthc rcsearch article as having an ‘hourglass’ shapc is not applicable to articles
in astrophysics. ‘ I Iourglass’ articles hegin with a broad overview of the ficltl, narrow the
focus tlo\vn to a specific area of interest Lvhich is then expcrimentcd on in somc way, and
conclude w i t h a widening-out of the discussion to rclatc findings to t,roadcr issues relcnnt
to the ficltl.Astrophysics papers, however, are consitlcretl hy‘l-arone et (11. to have an ‘inverted
pyramid’ construction in which the focus of‘ the paper is gradually narro\\ccl down,
beginning with general physics, through the particular phcnomcna to explain, thc specific
physics of relevance, spccific equations, to a specific solution.Thc reason, thcv argue, is that
hvhile thc hourglass is a satisfactory rcprcsentation of reports of cxperimcntal studies,
astrophysics attends to suliject matter \vhich cannot lie cxpcrimentcd on, so that papers in
the discipline prescnt logical arguments rather than expcrimcnts.
A number of studics have examined how scctions of rcscarch articles vary across
tlisciplines.Thc typical sections of research articles arc an introduction, a mcthods section
which explains the procedures undertaken (often experimental procedurcs in the casc of
scientific research articles), a report ofthc results ofthc procedurcs, antl finally a discussion
of these results antl their significance. Brett’s (1 994) starting point is Swales’s ( 1 990: 175-6)
proposal that tlisciplinary differences in research articles are likcly to lie in methods and
results sections rather than introductions antl discussions. He examines results sections in
research articles from sociology and observes certain communicative categories within
them, such as his Substuntiation of Findings antl .Yon-vu/itlation of’ Findings, not prcviousl)
74 ANN H E W I N G S AND M A R T I N H E W I N G S
documented as appearing in rcsults o r discussion sections (for example in Relanger, 1982;

Dudley-Evans, 1989; Hopkins antl I>utllcy-Evans, 1988; Weissberg and Kukcr, 1990). He
relates thcsc to the methods of quantitati ,ociological research in which ahstract concepts
such as ‘ethnic identification’ or ‘satisfaction’ arc prcscnted as numcrical data. These data
arc then manipulated using accepted statistical techniques, and the resulting statistics
intcrprcted to produce deductions about human tiehaviour. Not only are the effccts on the
dependent variahle of the most significant indcpcndcnt variables tliscussetl, but so are
the effects of other variables. The second o f thcsc, I3rctt found, took up more space than
the discussion of the most significant findings, kvhilc thc effects of secondary variables arc
assessed as either supporting (Substantiation (rf Fintiings) or lcssening the validity o f ( AJon-
validation o_f‘Fzntfings)the main findings. As in Taronc et al.’s work, then, Brctt suggests that
thc suliject matter and the mcthotlologics deployctl intluencc the constitution of written
text within the tlisciplinc.
Holmcs ( I 997) undertakes a comparative study of the organisation of the discussion
sections of articles presenting original research from the disciplines of political science,
sociology and history using a Sudcs-typc m o w analysis. He identifics a total of eight moves
(Background information, Statement OJresult, (Iln)expectcd outcome, Rcfirence to previous research,
Explanation of unsatisfactoy result, Gcnerali.sation, Recommendation, and Outlining parallel or
subsequent derdopmcnts). In comparison with similar \vmk on articles in the natural or hard
sciences (Pcng, 1987) Holmes (1997: 3 3 2 ) finds that discussion sections in the social
sciences, as represented bv political scicnce and sociology, are less complex, employing a
restricted repertoire of moves, j e t arc less predictable. O n the other hand, social science
introductions have ticcn found to display ‘qreatcr complexity than those in the hard sciences
(Crookcs, 1986; Holmcs, 1995). O n the basis of such cvidencc, research articles in the
social sciences \vould seem to display greater complexity and elaboration at the bcginning
than at the end while the revers<’ is thc case in the hard sciences. A number of explanations
for such differences might be put forward. Gi\cn the rclative lack ofconscnsus on goals and
methods of research in the social scicnccs, there may tic greater need to establish more
overtly and in greater detail the parameters of research in the field. Morc generally, Holmes
(1 997: 3 32) proposes that the greater conventionalisation o f rcscarch articles in the hard
sciences is a reflection of their higher tlcgrce of bureaucratisation, measured ‘by reference to
quantitative data, collaborative authorship and external financial support’ (ibid.).This view
is supported by the observation that discussion sections in history, the least burcaucratiscd
discipline of the three studied, have less in common with those in the hard sciences and are
the least prcdictablc.
Evidence of generic variation across disciplines is also found in ‘classroom genres’ in
the writing of students in higher education. In a comparison of master’s-lcvel dissertations
written in highway engineering and plant biology, Dudley-Evans ( 1993) notes particular
diffcrences in the discussion sections. In plant biology, considerable spacc and attention is
given over to comparison of present rcsults with previous findings reported in the literature.
Thus, claims about present rcsults antl explanations of unexpected outcomes are supported
with refcrcnce to previous work. In highway engineering, in contrast, emphasis is on stating
present results antl making recommrndations based on thrsc results, with less attention to
the relationship betwern present results antl previous research in the field. From his reading
of thc dissertations, Dudley-Evans’ impression ( 1 993: 145) of highway engineering is
of a discipline in which there is not a huge amount of previous research to refer to

and which sees its work in the context of practical suggestions that the practising
engineer can put into operation in the tieltl.
Such studies, thcn, suggest that the nature of a particular discipline, as indicated in its
subjcct matter, its methods of investigation, the amount of previous research in the ficld,
the level of consensus on agrerd knowlcdgc, and the degree of bureaucratization in the
discipline may he reflected in its generic convcntions.This has direct implications for syllabus
design. I t reinforces the need to move away not only from academic writing as a
homogeneous entity, but also from homogeneous genres. While information on, for
example, the sections of the research article may be useful as a prcliminary, students also
need to be made aware of the specifics of what to include, what to cmphasisc, antl what to
cxclude within each scction for their own particular disciplinc.
2.2 Metadiscourse
A rather different approach to the in tigation of the relationship lictwcen disciplinary
communities and their tcxts is found in studies of metadiscourse in academic writing. A
distinction can be made bctlveen the propositional content of a text, its information o r subject
matter, and metadiscourse, that part of the text which helps the reatlcr organisc, classify,
evaluate and react to the propositional content (Vantle Kopplc, 1985). The elemrnts of
metadiscourse have heen divided (scc, for example, Hyland 1999a) into those which, in the
terminology of systemic functional grammar, serve a textual function and those hvhich scrvc
an interpersonal function. Halliday (1 973: 66) descrilxs the textual function as
an enabling function, that of creating text . . . It is this component that enables the
speaker [or writer] to organise what he is saying in such a w’ay that it makes sense in
the contcxt antl fulfils its functions as a messagr,
while the intcrpcrsonal function is said to include
all that may he understood by the expression of our olvn personalities and personal
feelings on the one hand, and forms of interaction and social interplay with other
participants in the communication situation on the other hand.
Mctadiscoursc, thcrefore, allows hvriters not only to show ho\v a text is organised and ho\v
different parts of the text arc rclatetl, but also to express thcir attitude towards the subject
matter of thc text and towards the intcndcd readership. Academic disciplines have
conventional ways in which writers are allowed both to present thcir arguments and to
reprcscnt themselvcs, and this is achicvcd mainly in thc metadiscoursc in text. I t is through
the study of metadiscourse in the texts of a particular disciplinary community, therefore,
that the characteristics of that community can bc explored. Studies of metadiscourse in
academic text have looked at cultural antl gender variation (Crismorc et a]., 1993; Mauranen,
1993) and the use of metadiscourse in particular academic genres (Hyland, 1999a; Hcwings,
1999). Howc\w, it is Hyland’s (1 99911) work on metadiscourse and disciplinary variation
that is of main concern here and reported below.
In a study of fifty- six research articles takcn from eight disciplines (microbiology,
physics, marketing, applied linguistics, philosophy, sociology, mechanical engineering, and
electrical engineering), Hyland considers variation in the writers’ stance. Stance is part of
the interpersonal component of metadiscourse and defined as
the ways that writers project themselves into thcir texts to communicate their
integrity, credibility, involvement, and a relationship to thcir subject matter and thcir
readers.
(19991-3: 101)
It iy considered to hale f i ~ cmain components:
hedges (c.g. po.ssib/e, might, perhaps, belicr.c), through which the Ivritcr Ivithholds full
commitment to a proposition;
emphutic.~(c.g. it is ohriotis, chfinitclv, o/‘cotir.sc), through \vhich the writer cmphasises
the force of a proposition;
attituck markers, concerned \\ ith the \vr-itcr’s attitutlc to \\.hat is said and signalled
bv such devices as uttitutle r~erhs(c.g. I ci<qrec,11.c prejer) and sentence adverbs (c.g.
tmjirttinateb;, hopefiil!ir);
relational markers, conccrncd \vith the Ivriter’s attempt to invoke reader
participation antl signalled hv such devices as first per.son pro not in^ (c.g. r v e j n t l here,
let its now t t ~ r i ito) antl imperatives (c.g. consiclcr, recall, note thot);
person markers, conccrnctl with the use of first p u s o n pronouns and possessive
atljcctives (c.g. rve helierz, rry tina]l..se.siniolr~ccl)to present propositional, affective and
interpersonal information.
(1 99911: 103-4)
The main variation found in the use of features of stance is bet\vecn ‘hard’ disciplines
in the sciences and ‘soft’ disciplines in the humanities/ social sciences rcsprctivcly. Overall,
Hyland found some 30 per ccnt morc features of stance in the soft discipline research
articlcs, and he attributes this not only to disciplinary prcfercn in style, but also to
differcnces in \-dues antl hclic+ about knowledge and kno\ving across disciplines. For
example, Hpland found a greatcr use of hedges in general in the soft knowledge arcas. This,
he suggests, is hccause in thew arcas prol)lcms are I c s s clearly defined antl thus explanations
arc likrly to be less assured. Writers therefore, as he puts it, have to ‘Lvork harder to engage
their audience and shape their arguments t o the shared perspectives of the disciplinc’
(1 999b: 1 1 1 ).
Evidence that ‘hard’ disciplines have a morc cohesivc body of agreed knowledge than
‘soft’ disciplines is also provided in the oliservation that the hard-kno\vlcdge areas use twice
as many attrihutive hedges, that is, tlcviccs such as ahout, partialb; approximat+, gencralb and
so on, used to restrict the scope of the accompanying statemcnt. He gives as an example
(1 99911: 1 10) the following extract from a research article in mechanical enginccring: ‘for
metallurgical coal is usually met by imports from the Unitcd States while virtually all . . .’.
l’his kind of ‘weaker hedging’ is used, according to Hyland, when the writer m-ishcs to
indicate how far results diverge from a position which the disciplinary community conceives
as reality. I t is used less in the softcr knowledge arcas Iiccausc there arc fewer instances of
agreed reality.
Hyland concludes by arguing that :
Rather than thinking of acadcmic tliscourse as impcrsonal . . . we nced to think of it

as reflecting the different social practices of the disciplinary communities in
constructing knowledge. Simply, some fields permit greater authorial presence than
othe c s.
(1999b: 1 2 1 )
These findings can be incorporated into syllabuses for teaching academic writing through
the acknowledgement of variation in the extent antl type of metadiscourse in the texts of
different disciplines. Students nced to be helped to explore patterns of occurrence and
characteristics of the disciplinc to which these patterns are related.
2.3 The grammatical subject

A third approach to the stud! of tlisciplinar; \ariation has de\elopcd from the v o r k of
MacDonald ( 1 992, 1994) on the p ~ ~ m m a t i c iruhlect
ll Thc subject, o r grammatical suhlt.ct
(G$), has all? a)\ been rccogniwd a4 a signhcant component o f English in both ti aditional
and functional grammars. The t! pica1 English sentence pattern I S 5ul1~ect Vcrli O b l c c t ,
lor example
Su7anne playcd her I iolin

Sirhlect T‘erh Object
and the subject is an obligatory clement in all sentences with the exccption of inipcrativcxs.
MacDonaldk rationale for focusing o n the GS \vas that it is
the constituent defining the topic of the scntcnce that \vhich the sentence is ‘about’
~
antl which it presupposes as its point of departure.

(Quirk et ill., 1985: 79)
Thus the GS is important for determining \\,hat a \vriter is writing ohorit antl ho\v they
represent data, previous research and themselves in their texts.
In her invcstigation into disciplinary differences in professional \vriting in the humanities
and social sciences, MacDonald developed a mcthod of classifying GSs o n the h i s of
Ivhether the); contriliutc to the content of a text o r hvhethcr they are more concerncd lvith
consolidating knowledge construction in a discipline that is, the huilding of knowledge
~
o n foundations laid h y other rcscarchcrs. For some disciplines, the consolidation o f

knowledge is of such importance that it is reflcctcd not only at text level hut also in scntcnce-
level choices. Analysis of the GS is used to demonstrate the rhetorical practices of such
disciplines. For example, acadcmic texts with sentences beginning ‘Work 1:, Jamcs . . .’ or
‘Experimental cvitlencc . . .’ are clearly liuiltling on a foundation constructctl for thc
discipline h y those within it.The GSs can thus l i e said to have an epistemic focus, one which
is concerned \vith methods of study and the validity of knowlctlge claims. b o r other
disciplines, the people, things antl events that constitute the phenomena or content that arc
studied arc foregroundcd. For example, in literature studies, ‘Shakespeare’s plays’ might
\vel1 lic the content o r subject that is being ivrittcn about, and where thcsc \?-or& occur as
the GS thcrc is said to be a phenomenal focus. Within this Iiroad two-fold division, MacDonaltl
rccognises a further disciplinary characteristic. Disciplines such as those in the humanities
are more concerned with specific ~icople,placcs and events, whereas those in, for examplc,
the social sciences rely more on gencralisations and abstractions. This is again reflected in
the choice of G S , with a cline existing hetlveen those GSs Lvhich represent phcnomena at
their most specific and individualistic through to those which are most abstract.
On this basis, MacDonald (1992) has developed a classification system for GSs, a
modified version of tvhich is summarised inTable 6.1 .
Thc \ - d u e of this \vork for the study of disciplinary variation becomes apparent if \vc
compare findings from psychology, history and literature (from Macl)onald, 1992) antl
wildlife hchaviour, conservation biology and legislative history (Samraj , 1995). Macnonald’s
(lata are hascd on an analysis offour journal-length articles in cach discipline, \vhile Samraj
analysetl six student papers from thrcc different courses which formed part of a US Mastcr’s
programmc in environmental studies. The figures inTablc 6.2 show the percentagc average
distribution of cach of thc seven classcs of GSs in the texts.
Table 6 . I A classification system [or thr grammatical subject
Summary of grammatical subject classification
Phenomenal
Phenomenal grammatical subjects are thosc which deal u ith the material that a researcher or writer
studics or writcs about.
Class 1 (Particulars) contains nouns rcfcrring to spccitic people, placcs, or ohjrcts, usually named
(e.g. the USA, Stalin, Europe, the storm).
Class 2 (Non-Spcxcific Groups) contains gcncralisctl or grouprd nouns (..e. large ureas o f t h e country,
gullies, downland soils, the tsetsepy poptilotion).
Class 3 (Attributes) contains the most abstract, least material nouns in the phenomenal category.
They arc nouns cxprcssing properties, attributes, actions o r motivations of the people or things in
1 and 2 (e.g. agricultural practices, rainfall intensities, planning).
Epi,stemic
Epistcmic grammatical subjects rcprcscnt thr concepts, catcgorics, abstractions or methodological
tools the researcher uses to reason ahout the subject.
Class 4 (Research Matters) contains rctrrcnccs to the constitucnts of rcsrarch and the activities of
researchers such as data collection and analysis, gcnrrating itlcas and comparing and contrasting
tiitfcrcnt theories (c.g. the eyoations, the,Fnal hypothesis, it has been argued t h a t ) .
Class 5 (Researchers antl Studies) contains rcfercnccs to published research and to writers in the
field (e.g. Pinch and S t o r y , /YY2.I ) .
Class 6 (Audience) contains suhjccts like thr gcncraliscd w e (hut not thc actual we which refers to
authors) and one oryou.
Class 7 (Discoursal) contains suhjccts which refer to the text itsclf, cithrr in whole or in part, and
rhctorical questions used to organisc the discourse (c.g. this cssoy, Figure 2 , Why are mobile homes
popular uith pensionen?).
An examination of the tablc shows some very large variations in the types of GSs
favoured by different disciplines antl the grouping of these into phenomcnal or cpistemic
categories. Disciplines with more epistemic subjects (classcs 4-7) foreground research
methods, inferences and findings rather than the phenomena that are being studied o r
written about (classes 1-3). Some disciplines are clearly more phenomenal in their focus
and some more epistemic. Psychology, for example, has a total of 62 per cent epistenlic
grammatical subjccts, whereas literature has 84 per ccnt phenomenal. At the levcl of
individual classes, legislative history and literature usc more class 1 (particulars) than the
other disciplines. This undcrlines thcir conccrn with specific pcople, places and objects. In
contrast, psychology uses less than 1 per ccnt of class 1 GSs. Instead, it favours non-specific,
more generalised referenccs to phenomena as found in class 2 . Most disciplines, except
literature, but especially the two histories, have fairly high numbers of non-specific groups
of people, places or things. Class 3 GSs are frequent in all disciplines except psychology.
They arc nouns which express properties, attributes, actions o r motivations of thc people
o r things in classes 1 and 2.
Hewings (1 999) has used MacDonald’s techniques to examine writing development
among undergraduate students within the discipline of geography at a British university.
Tuble 6.2 Average distribution (Yo) of GSs in tliffcrcnt disciplines antl sub-disciplincs (data from
MacDonald 1992 and Samraj 1995)
GS Psychology History Litcraturr Wildlife Conservation I egislati\ c

class hchaviour' hiology history
1 01 6 30 1 7 35
2 27 44 10 30 28 30
3 I1 26 44 29 44 28
4 49 15 7 18 9 I
5 12 6 5 18 8 2
6 1 3 4 ~
Comparing essays written by students in the first and final (third) years of their programme,
she found a substantially higher proportion of phcnomenal to epistcmic GSs in first-ycx
essays (76 per ccnt and 24 per ccnt respectively), while the proportion of epistcmic GSs
was higher in final-year essays (56 per cent phenomenal and 44 per ccnt epistrmic). First-
vear essays showcd a greatcr focus on the real-world phenomena that geography invcstigatrs,
as in the following example in which GSs, all phenomenal, are underlined:
Bus and rail are the obvious components of a mass transit system. The 1x1s is t h c
cheaper of the two options, but even with designated bus lanes it still adds to thc
problem of congestion antl has a lower capacity. on the other hand is much more
expensive but has a higher capacity and takes travcl away from the roads. There arc a
number of examples of mass transit systems around the world, ~ ~ are m highly
c
successful others arr not.
These clearly foreground the phenomena that are bring studied and indicate a priority
of content over rhctorical motivations. While third-year essays were also concerned with
rcal-\vorltf phenomena, thcsc were oftcn displaccd from thc subject position b y cpistemic
GSs, underlined in the following examplc:
ExDerimcnts by Morpan et al. (1982) on 'detachment of soil particlcs from a sandy

soil by raindrop impact in storms of 50mm/hr and 61 m m / h r for 5 minutcs duration
showed that the rate of erosion untlcr a cover of hrusscl sprouts dccrrasetl as the
canopy cover increased from 0-1 5 25%, but erosion increased if the canopy cover
increased any more antl at 50% cover the erosion rate equalled that of bare soil'
(Morgan 1986). Similar experiments were done on potato crops with similar findings.
These results add to thosc ofvis which show under certain circumstances plant covers
are associated with high rather than low ratcs of erosion mainly due to their influence
on the kinetic energy of intercepted raindrops. Othrr cxiieriments such as bv De
Ploev et al. (1 976,)recorded an increase in soil erosion with an incrrasc in grass cover.
. . . Morpan (1980) showed in his study on soils in Silsoc that sandy soils in
Bedfordshire are ten times more erodible in summer than in n-intcr.
O n a gcneral lc\cl, then, the model is uscful for indicating certain disciplinary trends
within writing. It provides a way o f focusing o n a particular linguistic fcature and uses it to
tease out aspects of the disciplinary culture which would otherwise be obscure. Bv this
means, advice on writing can he tlircctctl morc specifically to those features which reflect
the underlying culture of a particular disciplinary community. GSs in successful and less
successful student writing could lie coniliared and stuclcnts encouraged to classify the GSs,
initially using their own criteria antl later using the I)roatl phenomenal/cpistcmic
classification given aliovc.
3 Implications for syllabus design

Thc starting point of this essay \vas that the recent trend to\r ards genre-based approaches
to the teaching o f academic lvriting \\as a positive tlcvelopment when compared Ivith those
which rrprcscntctl a homogeneous viclv of academic M riting, undifferentiated across genrcs.
Indccd, in current thinking o n tertiary academic literacy it is now taken almost as axiomatic
that an understanding o f generic comcntions, particularly in terms of moves but also steps
and their lcxicogrammatical rcalisations, is essential in achicving academic succcss. I h c a r c h
is shobving both how genrcs differ antl how kno\vlctlgc of one gcnre may tic inadequate
preparation for the production of another. For cxamplc, Hylantl’s ( 1 999a) work on the
metadiscourse of textbooks leads him to concludc that
students need to tic steered a n y from using textbooks as models. Too close a
familiarity with the lvays that textbooks address readers, organise material and prcsent
facts may mean that learners arc poorly pi-clm-cd \vhcn assigned research articles by
their subject lecturers or kSP tcachcrs o r when asked to write argumentative prose.
(Hylantl, 1999a: 2 1-2)
Ho\\-c-ver,in the design of syllabuses for academic writing programmes, it is necessary

to rccognisc the lesson ofthc research rcportcd in this essay: that helping students to develop
a knowledge of gcnrcs is insufficient in a number of \vays. First, i t is important to guard
against teaching gcnres as a set o f templates to lie copictl unsxvervingly. Razerman’s (1 988)
investigation of the cxprrimental article in science leads him to offer thc following caution:
the largest lesson that this study holds is not that thcrc are simple gcnres that must be
slavishly followed, that \vc must give students an appropriate s c t of cookie cutters for
their anticipatctl careers, h u t rather that the student must understand and rethink the
rhetorical choiccs embedded in each generic haliit to master thc genre.
(l3azcrman 1988: SO)
Second, it is ncccssary to dcvelop students’ sensitit ity to the fact that gcnres vary,
particularly across disciplines. This is incrcasingly important given the growing number of
studcnts in multi- or inter-disciplinary academic programmes whcrc success is dependent
both on being abvarc of disciplinary variation in communication practices and on developing
sufficient flexihility t o producr writing that reflccts the predilections of a particular
disciplinary community. Such Ilcxibility is unlikely to he achieved simply by learning the
prcfcrred conventions of a discipline, but must be untlcrpinnctl hy a deeper understanding
of how this reflects such matters as thc dcgrcc of consensus within the disciplinc on the
definition of prolilcms and appropriate methodologies to address thcse problems, the
amount of prc-vious research that it is convrntional to ackno\vlcdge, and the cohesiveness
of the hody of agreed kno\vlcdgc within the discipline.
Third, we need a reassessment of ‘common-core’ and ‘discipline-specific’components
of academic writing programmes (see also Rhatia, 1 999). Common-core teaching, focusing
on the ‘language and conventions related t o the general requirements of the academic
community’ (Ihdlcy-Evans, 1 995), has the advantage of being addressctl to studcnts from
across tlisciplines and is thercfore efficient both in t e r m s of thc n u m h c r of students taught
and, often, financially. €Io\z.ever, it has the disadvantage o f h c i n g relatively insensitive to thc
pi-c~t‘crrctlwavs of writing in particular disciplines. Discipline-specific components providc
this sensitivity but usually have the disadvantages of addressing smaller numbers of stutlcnts,
needing specially focused research antl being less cost-efficient, and will often h a w t h e
atltlitional complexity of requiring the input at some stage of a subjcct specialist. Perhaps
o u r goal is that of c o m m o n - c o r e tcaching mediated through a disciplinary filtcr. Whilc
helping students develop an awareness of the general significance of certain of thc
characteristics o f writing in particular genres text organisational patterns, metadiscoursal
features, grammatical subjects, for example at the same time we need to provide them
~
with the strategies for examining how thcse operate and why this should be s o ti? reflecting
on the subject matter, working practices, valucs and idcologies of the discipline or disciplines
within which they are working.
Note
1 Whilc the ESP approach to genre analysis has been particularly influential in pedagogical
applications, other perspectives exist, antl Hyon (1 996) has itlentifed t\vo additional
broad areas of scholarship rcsearching non-literary genres: North American Rhetoric
studies and work within Australian systcmic functional linguistics (for cxxample Martin
2000).
2 Samraj had a further category, ‘miscellaneous’, which is not included here. Ilcnce the
figures (lo not add up to 1 00Yo.
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P A R T TWO
Political and institutional

constraints in curriculum
deve Iop me nt
Chapter 7
Ronald Carter
P O L I T I C S A N D I<NOWLEDGE ABOUT
L A N G U A G E : T H E L I N C PROJECT
1 Introduction
T H E R E L A T I O N S H I P B E T W E E N P O L I T I C S and knoLvletlge about language

is both comprehrnsive and complex. In this chapter three main perspectives are
offered: a brief overview of a national language education initiative in England and Wales
with a particular focus on keywords in discourses about language, English and education;
thc place of grnre theory in relation to such an initiative; some research and developmcnt
questions for teaching school students about language.
1 . 1 Examining language
Here is part ofa General Secondary Education paper set for 15-1 6-year-old pupils in Britain
in the 1940s. Questions of this kind about grammar constituted between 20 and 30 per ccnt
of thc total examination paper:
Question 1
(a) Analyse into clauses the following passage. Give the grammatical description of
thc clauscs and show their connection with each other:
In that year (1 85 1 ) when the Great Exhibition spread its hospitable glass roof high
over the elms of Hydc Park, antl all the world came to admire England’s wealth,
progress and enlightenment, there might profitubb have been another ‘exhibition’ to
show how our poor were housed and to tcach thr admiring visitors some of the dangers
that beset the path of the vaunted nelv era.
(13) State the grammatical features o f t h c words italicized in (a).
Reference is made to such an examination exercise at the very beginning of this chapter
bccause the views of language and of language teaching enshrined within it go right to the
very centre of current debates in Britain about language tcaching in the context of the new
National Curriculum for English in England and Walcs. The debate is characteriscd by
different political positions antl, in particular, by strenuous efforts by the British government
88 R O N A L D C A R T E R
to persuade teachers to a return to thc 1940s antl to the kinds of practiccs of language
teaching illustrated by this cxamination paper.
What are the practi Tvhich arc illustrated by this examplc? Why do government
ministers wish to see the reinstated? What do tcachcrs think of them? What is the viekv
taken by linguists of such practic AnsLvcrs to such questions may begin to explain why
the materials for teachers protlucctl by the Language in the National Curriculum
(henceforth, LINC) project \vert not only rcfuscd puldication by the British government,
but also hccamc the centre of contesting iic\vs almut languagc and education.
1.2 Views of language and language teaching
The different \ i e w s of language and language tcac hing in rcspcct of this reprcscntati\c
examination paper held ti) go\ crnmcnt, English teachers antl 1): linguist5 mal be lx-oatll!
wmmarisctl under three hcatlings ( 1 ) go\crnmcnt 1 IC\$ 5 , ( 2 ) teachers’ l i e n s , and (3)
linguists’ \ I C W S
GOTernment il e i i 7
1. The examination papcr illustrates a manifest conccrn with measurable knoMledge. A

bocly of linguistic facts can hc taught, learned b y pupils and thcn tested. Answers are
either right o r wrong, the liody of knowlctlgc taught is dcfinite and measurable, and
teachers can even be assessed lw ho\v \vel1 they teach it.
2. The learning \vhich cnsucs is tlisciplincd antl takes places nithin a clear framework.
It contrasts vividly with what is felt to he the vaguc and undirected concern with
creativity and personal cxprcssion which charactcrises ivork in many English lcssons
at the prcscnt timc.
3. Such practiccs w i l l help to guarantee corrcct grammar antl standard English. They
will remove sloppiness in expression antl eradicate a climate in which errors are
viewed only in relation to a process of language dcvelopment and thus not always
immediately corrected.
7iacherc’ rreris
Until recently, teachers’ views have bccn rcgularlv dominated by what are described
as ‘romantic’ conceptions of h g l i s h as a subjcct (. Christie, 1989; Carter, 1988).
Romanticism in English teaching involves a classroom emphasis on languagc use \vhich is
person-centred, lvhich str . the capacity o f thc individual for originality and creativity,
and a concern that strict rulcs and conventions may be inhibiting to pupils anti, in the
, restrict thcir capacitirs for using the language. There is a particular stress on the
primacy of speech, even in writing where indivitluals arc cncouragctl by thc teacher to find
their olvn personal voice. During the coui-sc of thc LINC project shifts in tcachcrs’
perception of’formal language study were recorded, but strong rc tance remains, on thc
above grounds, to the tlccontcxtualised study of language, to aching practiccs and
pedagogics which arc ncc .aril! transmissive and narrolvly kno\vletlgc-bascd, and which
allow little or no scope for an emergence of the pupil’s owm ‘voice’.
POLITICS AND KNOWLEDGE ABOUT LANGUAGE 89
Linguists have taken a prominent role in the shaping ofthe National Curriculum for English
in England and Wales. Most take the follohving main viclvs of grammar-haset1 tcaching and
testing of linguistic knowlcdgc:
1 They point out ho\v examination papers from the 1940s and 1950s are prc(~ccupietl
with the written rather than the spoken language.
2 They point out that the analysis is invariably decontcxtualisetl since the dcfinitions
required of pupils arc formalistic. Examinations such as thosc above arc exercises
in the naming of parts.
3 They point out that such examinations arc concerned lvith scntcnccs rather than texts.
In fact, the text here is genuinely incidental. The focus is on a bottom-up analysis of
the smallest units of language with little o r no interest in eliciting from pupils how
such units might combine to form larger functional mcanings and effects.
Accordingly, thosc linguists lvho advised the government did not recommend a return to
the 1940s antl to a tcaching of grammatical forms by m a n s of decontextualisctl drills. But
they did not reject a formal study of language. Instead, they strongly advocated programmes
of study for pupils in knowledge about languagc (KAL), based on a wider range of analysis
than grammar, and [. . .] clearly rooted in theories of language variation, both spoken and
written. The government \vas quick to rccognise that knowledgc about language, based on
a variety of texts, includes discussion of language in context, and that discussion of context
is often necessarily social. Such an orientation served only to rcinforcc for the g o x r n m e n t
the desiraliilitv of dccontcxtualiscd drills and exercises.
2 LINC: An in-service teacher education project

LINC is designed to make the theories and descriptions of language in the nc\r National
Curriculum accessible to teachers, antl to assist them with thc language components ol’the
National Curriculum lor English. [ . . .]
In basic outline the main projcct team \vas asked to produce study units for tcachcrs
which were to be used in in-service courses, in school-based follow-up and (ti
and in sclf-stud! sessions. The resulting training package is therefore activity-lnscd antl
open-entletl. I t contains many linguistically hascd tasks with accompanying commentarics
so that teachers can work on the material in a range of‘contexts.
2.1 The LINC ban
The LINC project assumed political prominence \\hen the government dccidctl that it did
not wish to publish the materials produced by the project. Neither would it allow
commercial publication in spite of interest on the part o f . ral international puhlishcrs
in publishing the complete training package. Although the projcct \vas a l l o w d to continue
anti although the LINC training package could be made available in photocopied form for
purposes of in-service training courses, such dccisions amounted to an effective ban on
\videspread publication and dissemination of LINC materials.
[. ’ .I
l>cIiatcs surrounding thc LINC ban ccntrc o n certain key\vortls. They are tht. satnc
keywords which recur repeatedly at times o f social and cultural change when questions of
language and the nature of English as a subject are always central.
I t is no semantic accidcnt that words such as standard, correct, and proper are
among the kcy\vortls. Debates ahout the state and status of the English language are rarely
debates about language alone. The tcrms 01’ thc deliatc are also tcrms for defining social
bchaviour.The term English is synonymous with Englishncss, that is, with an understanding
of who the proper English are. A vimv o f one English with a single set of rules accords with
a monolingual, monocultural version of society intent o n preserving an existing order in
which everyone knows their place. A view which rccognises Englishcs as well as English and
which stresses variable rules accords with a multilingual, culturally divcrse wrsion of society.
Both positions include politically extrcmr versions. Thcsc range from a view that standard
English is correct English and must tic uniformly enfbrccd in all contexts ofuse (with dialects
extirpatcd) and that children not drilled in t h r rules of stantlard grammar are both deviant
and discmpo\vercd (strong right-wing position) to a view that standard English is a badge
of upper-class power, antl that to require children to learn it is a form of social enslavement
(strong leftning position I) to a view that standard English must be taught to working-class
children so that they can \vrcst linguistic power from those more privileged than themselves
(strong left-wing position 11). It is striking how political positions converge in certain
respects and how the pedagogical positions arc oftcn identical.
2.2 L l N C a n d g r a m m a r
[. ’ .I
In the LlNC training materials therc is no advocacy o f a return to the dccontextualised
drills and exerciscs of the 1950s. Instead therc is systematic exploration of grammatical
differences lietwecn spccch antl writing, Iietwwn standard and non-standard forms of the
language, and between diffcrcnt varieties of English. In spite of tieing described in certain
national newyapcrs as a dialect project, 97 per ccnt of the examples is a LlNC materials
are of pupils speaking, reading and lvriting in stantlard English. They also dcmonstrate that
one of the most effective 1%-aysof learning standard English is for pupils to compare and
analysc diffcrences between their o\vn dialects and thc tlialcct of standard English, discussing
explicitly how and when differcnt forms are appropriate. [. . .]
Here is an example of LINC’s approach to grammar taken from some local training
materials. The example is liascd on a text in the form of a postcard delivered through the
letterbox of customers of a water company.
The following tcxt communicatcs information; in this case the information concerns
the interruption to water supply. Whenever instructions arc given, a ‘modality’
enters the relationship between the writcr and reader of a text. ‘Modality’ takes a
number of diffcrcnt forms in English liut the presence of modal verbs is particularly
significant. Hcrc are some of the main modal vcrlx in English:
can; could; will; izould; must; should; shall; may
What i s the function of modal verbs in thc tcxt that follows?

What other verb forms work, in particular, to establish a relationship between the
Water Company and the customcrs to whom it has distrilmted this notice?
Commentary
This tcxt is in a curiously mixed mode. The Water Company has to inform its
customcrs that repairs are unavoidable. I t has to give its customers instructions which
Notice of interruption to supply

We are w r r y to inform you that nccc55ar) mains repair5 in the area ma) cause an
interruption to Jour 13 atrr supply hetuccn the hour5 olerleaf.
1 . Every effort will be matlc to keep turn or switch off other sources of
inconvenience and thc duration of heating thc water by gas, oil or
the shut-off to a minimum. electricity.
2. Do not draw more water than your Central heating systcms can
minimum requircmcnts. continuc to be used at moderate
3. If the water docs go off, do not tempcratures.
leave taps open or flooding may The main \vi11 be flushed before the
result when the supply is restored. supply is restored b u t
4. You may use water from thc hot discolouration and or chlorine may
tzater systrm but it must be boiled persist for a short time. Allo\v your
before drinking. cold tap to run for a frw minutes
5. Even if the domestic hot \vater to clear this watcr from your
supply runs dry there will bc no scrvicc pipe.
risk of damage to the system, liut Do not use your washing machine
as a precaution kccp a lo\v fire or other appliances during the
where a back hoilrr is installed antl discolouration.
We apologise again for any inconveniencc this may cause you and request your
paticncc and co-operation. In case of any difficult! please contact the
Nottingham District Office.
Please remember neighbours who may be older or disabled - they may

need your help
they nerd to follow both in their own intcrcsts antl in the intcrcsts of other consumers.
At the same time the company ncctls to reassure its customers that a more or I t x
normal service is still available, that, in spite of the interruption to supply, the company
still providcs a good service and, above all, that there are n o safety or hcalth risks
involved for its customers s o long as they comply with the guidelines and instructions
issued with the notice. I t is important therefore that the company is clearly seen to
lie in control.This ‘mixed mode’ is inscribed in the different modal verbs in the texts
along the following gencral lines:
Mode qf rcassurance/possihi/it/c.:may cause an interruption; may persist for a short

time; they may nccd your help; every effort will be madc; flooding may result;
any inconvcnicncc this may cause you.
Mode ofcontrol: must be boiled before drinking; the main will be flushed; can
continuc to be u s d .
Notice that some modal w r b s can signal possibility ant1 control, depending o n the
other words which s u r r o u n d thcm as well as on the context in which thcy arc used.
For cxample, ‘you may use water’ (primarily control); ‘they may nccd your help’
(primarily possibility).
‘Control’ 15 also established through an cxtensne u w of imperatne forms of the

herb \.z hich unambiguouslj inform us u hat to do and M hat not to do. For example.
Do not lea\ c taps open Do not uw )our 1% ashing machine

Allow your cold tap to run Please remember neighbours
Ac tivi tv
Collcct examples of further texts in lvhich you would expect modal verbs t o be used
quite extensively. For example,
horowopcs school notices

mcather forccayts recipes
problem pages legal tcxts
What other examples can ~ o find?

u Wh) arc modal Lcrbs concentratcd in some tcxts
but not others?
It is one key fcature of the IJNC approach to grammar that teachcrs and pupils should,
where possible, explore grammar in complete texts, in relation to social and cultural
contexts and \vith reference both t o forms and functions. It is primarily concerned with
how grammar works to construct meanings in the kinds of literary texts with which many
English teachers arc familiar antl, as in the ahovr example, in the everyday texts we all
encountcr in our daily lives.
2.3 Keywords
What was effcctivcly a ban on the puldication of I SNC training materials probably should
have hcen expcctctl.The emphasis on language variation antl on language in context led to
a too frequent rcfercnce to social theory antl an emphasis on sociolinguistic persprctives.
For governments of a particular political persuasion the word social is directly equitable
with the word socialrst.’l’hc training packagc itself was tlcsignctl, it was said, in too activity-
based and open a manner.The govcrnmcnt cvcntually made it clear that it had preferred all
along training matcrials \vbich cmphasiscd right and wrong uses of English, reinforcing such
an emphasis with drills antl cxerciscs for teachers and pupils to follow, antl with a printed
appcndix containing the correct answers to the exer .The emphasis should be on factual
knowledge which is measurable and tlctcrminahlc, and which can be transmittctl from a
position of authority rather than be discoverctl through activity-centred processes. A kcy-
word here is thc wort1 drill. Finally, it \vas said that certain keyvords do not appear in a
sufficiently unambiguous \Yay. In the training package words such as correct, standard
and proper arc always rclativiscd t o specific contexts and practices of teaching.
In respect of such key\vortls, linguists antl teachers tlo, in fact, need to find a w.ay of
talking about language M h Iwttcr controls and engages \vith the cxisting public discourses,
especially those of most ions of thc prcss antl mctlia. In this connection, English teachers
have to apply thcir knowlctlge about language t o a major problem of communication. The
very \mcabulary currently available t o talk about language variation offers only apparently
negative or oppositional tcrms which play neatly into the hands of those with the most
simplistic notions of language and education. Thus, t o talk about non-standard English can
be seen as a departure from standards; t o talk about the dangers of absolute rules of
corrcctncss is sccn as an endorsement of incorrcct English o r as a failure to correct pupils’
POLITICS AND I<NOWLEDGE ABOUT LANGUAGE 93
\vork; to suggcst that proper English is relativc to contexts of use is itself improper. Space
docs not allon- further exposure o f these antinomies (othcrs are traditional \-. trendy;
national v. unpatriotic; basic \-. progrrssiyc; simple v. complex) but it is ea.
thc generally moderate antl Iialanccd h g l i s h teacher is constructed as an
ordcr, decency antl common sense. Rather than talk in terms o f standard and non-standard
English, it \vould he prcferalile to talk in terms of d riptive language such as ‘gcncral’ and
‘special’ English.
3 LINC and genre theory

[. . .] One of the most significant recent developments is in the field of genre theory and in
the teaching, in particular, of gcnres of lvriting. It is a controversial area of teaching antl
learning and LINC in-service training courses and materials engage in places directly \vith
key aspects of gcnrc theory, as developed in the United States, \vithin the context of
European text linguistics and of work in Australia lvithin the context of
linguistics. Here is a sample of the kind of analysis undcrtaken in project materials within
thc frame\\ ork of genre theory (teachcrs haw already undcrtaken analysis and classification
of a range of different genres of writing):
The following piece of \vriting \vas produced by a 1O-year-old girl in a junior school
in England.To which ‘genre’ of lvriting might it be assigncd?Which particular features
of language use support your decision? Does the writing have itlentifiablc ‘stages’ o f
gcncric structure?
Snakes arc rcptilcs.They belong to thc lizards family. Snakes ha\? no legs but for a
long time ago they had c h v s to help thcm slither along. Snakes arc not slimy, they
arc co\ered in scalcs.Thc scales are just bumps on the skin.‘l.hcir skin is hard and
glossy. Snakes often sunbathe on rocks.This is because snakes are coltl-lilootled and
they nccd the warm s u n in orclcr to heat their body up. Most snakcs li\es in the
country. Some snakcs live in trees, somc livc in water, b u t most livc on land in
thick, long grass.
A snakc \vi11 usually eat frogs, lizards, mice and r v r n small crocodiles.
(Jenny, aged 1 0)
Commentary (1% rittcn 1), a group of teacher\)
The first stage o f the lvriting classifies the phenomenon; the second stage provides
further descriptive information ahout the phenomenon (in this instance a snakc) .‘I‘hc
gcnrc is that of an inJbrrnation report.
This report i s characterised by the following linguistic features: a timeless, simple
present tense used to make generalisations antl to con\ general truths antl facts (lire,
.srinhuthc, hure).The iterative will (a snakc ‘will’ usuall: t) also serves in this instance
to convcy the sense of a general, repeated action. The \vriting is charactcrisetl ljy an
absence of personal pronouns. In fact, nouns are more common than pronouns and
many of the nouns are in a form (with an indciinite article ‘a’ or in the plural form
‘snakcs’) \vhich dcscribcs it as a gcncral rather than an intlividualiscd or unique
phenomenon. Many of thc \-crlx used are ‘relational’; for example, I S , hurt, belong
t o , consist ofsupport a tlefining stylc o f pr
The vocabulary used i s neutral rather than cmoti\ e o r attitudinal antl this
corresponds t o a report lvhich i s one o f impersonal classification rather than personal

ohscrvation. Such impcrsonality is rcinforccd by the use of the passivc voice (‘they
are covered in scales’).
3.1 Reactions to genre-hased teaching

1. LINC tcams have lieen convinced b y the strcngth and depth of arguments for making
the language structure of texts tnorr visililc o n the grounds that genuine intervention
by thc teacher and c o n s c y c n t tlevclopnient in pupils’ language use arc n o t possiblc
unless the relevant patterns of language arc identified. [. . .]
2. LINC teams have acccptcd that a primary concern with personal shaping of expericnce
has resulted in classrooms in \vhich thcrc i s an ovcr-concentration on narrative t o the
exclusion of other gcnrcs.
3. In a related way LINC has adopted a morc inclusivc 1 ic\v o f authorship, especially in
the writing classroom. It a pts the view of Pam Gilbert (1 990: 70) that: ‘Authorship
i s but one of the ncncst of a long line of discursive devices which serve to entrench
personalist, individualist, SIJ 11-oriented theories o f writing in schools.’ Although
such a position obscures important developmental connections between spcech and
M-riting, it establishes a basis lbr inore impersonal Lvriting motlcs, and thus a \vider
rangc of generic types o f ivriting o n lzhicli LINC has built.
LINC’s introduction o f a m o r c gcnrc-liasctl approach t o lvriting has provoked some
hostility on the I n r t of British tcachcrs. A major concern i s that such writing practices
arc inherently conservative antl are designed t o produce unreflective operatives \vho
will b c able to do n o morc than sustain a market economy for a conservative society.
The concern of gcnrc thcorists for a \vitlcr rangc o f Mriting typcs which arc in turn
closer- t o the rcquircnicnts 01’ thc \vorltl o f \vork is intcrprctcd as a narrow
vocationalism. W h a t has hclpcd t o change this pcrccption is the notion of critical
literacy, \vhich augments functional litci-acy to cnablc learners not only to comprehend
antl produce society’s discourses, but also t o criticisc antl rcdircct them, if necessary.
As Michael Hallidav ( I 996: 357) has put it:
To be literate i s not only t o participate in the discourse of an information socicty;

it is also to resist i t . . . it i s rathrr pci-vcrsc t o think you can engage in discursive
contest without engaging in the languagc- of the discourse.
Such mark underlines that gcnrc-Imcd teaching is both revolutionary antl reactionary.
British tcachers havc bccoinc increasingly impressed by thc precise analytical work
\vhich has cnablcd central, prototypical featurcs of particular genres t o be identilied.
It i s the samc explicitncss o f anal . which has helped both pupils and tcachcrs to
develop a critical linguistic literacy.
LING tcams have valuctl the overt, cxplicit and rctricval)le arguments advanced
in particular I)? Martin (1989) antl KI-css (1989) b u t also 1w others. Taking such
strong, clear argumentative lines cnablcs others t o ai-guc with or argue against in a
systematic \lay.
POLITICS AND I<NOWLEDGE ABOUT LANGUAGE 95
3.2 Problems and irsues

Work on the LINC prolcct has also enahlcd teacher5 to identit) what sccm to them to be
some problems 111th currcnt mark in gcnre theor!, and which ma) suggest directions for
tuturc research and dc\clopment Such I \ the rxtcnt of interest in Britain in genre-based
work that solutions to somc of these problcm~arc alread) being explored in a numlx,r of
action-rewarch projects in UK schools and teacher-training collcgcs. 1 he main points of
concern arc stated belo\r
1. Existing descriptions o fgenre lvithin a systemic functional tradition may have tended
t o neglect \voi-k in other traditions of description. There has lxcn a concentration on
the rcalisations of schematic and generic structure in the lexico-grammar of texts.
~.
1 hcrc is now a largc hody of \vork within the traditions o f text-linguistics antl Xvritten
discoursc analysis o n lexical patterning, cohesion, coherence antl textual macro-
structure.
2. LINC teams keep coming across texts which do not conform to any single generic
structure. They are the, rcsult of mixed gcnrcs. Examples of mixed genrrs arc
arguments which make use o f narratiw structures, narratives which have reporting
or exposition structures embeddcd lvithin them, and reports Tvhich arc simultaneously
impersonal and personal in form, that is, they arc reports \vhich also contain personal
accounts of events antl specific, person-bascd rccommcntlations. LINC teams \vould
thus want to emphasisc that gcnrcs are not autonomous systrms, and that accounts o f
gcnrc and genre teaching may be limited in their considerable potential if they become
too simplistic or narrowly monologic.
[. .I
'
3 Work within the framclvork o f Australian and British genre theory on the genre of
narrative tends to hc a little too simplistic overall. Recause spoken narratives unfold
sequentially in time, they do n o t normally have the charactrristic cmhctltlings,
shifts in point of view, and complexities o f narratorial presentation which charactcrise
most written narrati] era1 area of continua lxt\vccn spoken and
\vrittcn gcnrcs it is in11 , that literacy is n o t wholly construed as
\vrittcn texts.
4. Early examples lvithin Australian \vork of teachcrs modelling gcnrcs to a \vholc class
~ T T Cpcrc.cived by I J N C to 11c possibly over-rigid antl tlctcrministic. A common \ icw
is that thcrc has been a tendency among some genre theorists to swing thc pendulum
too far in the opposite direction from romantic conceptions o f learning and teaching.
arch in domains of both first- antl sccontl-language teaching sholvs that ~ v edo
learn cffcctivcly b y making things our o\vn, and by being personally involvcd in the
' o f constructing a text. It has also been demonstrated that process-lnscd
approaches to writing, with an emphasis on o\z-ncrship of the text, lead to increased

motivation to use language. In a parallel \Val;, there may lw among theorists in a
tcmic functional tradition a tendency to ovcrcmphasise factual, impersonal gcnrcs
at the expense of the personal. Accordingly, British teachers and linguists have heen
particularly imp-essrtl h y rcccnt mmk o n modelling in relation to joint and individual
construction which operates successfully to show writing to he both process-
and Ix-oduct-based, antl that work on gcnrc can hr integrated with more holistic
approaches to language learning and dcvclopmcnt.
5. The identification o f genres for dcscription antl teaching tends to he internal t o thc
school .Thcrc is little attempt to identify the gcnrcs of Lvriting commonly required in
the workplace. For example a rcport gcnrc in a junior school is markedly different
from a rcport genre in industrial o r business work settings. Text-intrinsic accounts o f
genre need t o take fullcr cognisance of the audiencc, purpose and context in which
particular genres operate.
6. Encouragement to pupils t o rcllcct o n language has tendcd t o lie restrictcd to the
patterns of IanguagcT in the gcnrc in focus. Instead, a gcncral classroom climatr needs
t o he established in which talking and writing almut language leads to [. . . ] language
airureness that is, gcncral scnsiti\ it\. t o different styles and purposes of language use.
~
These include tliffcrcnces l x t m w n spoken antl written language, cxplorations of the

languagc of literature, thc language o f jokes, advertising, pop fiction, and political
rhetorics, and investigations of’the continua I>ct\vccn different accents and dialects,
including standard English. Such cxplorations arc a nc ary habit-forming prelude
to looking m o r e closely antl analytically at the linguistic patterns \vhich make u p
different genres. Analysis is not al\vays best fostcrcd by practising analysis of and
reflection o n language solely within the context of individual genres.
Several of these observations arc hardly ncw, and many of’thcrn have been advanced by genre
theorists themselves. Teachers in Britain intcrestctl in lzriting development arc bcginning
positively t o e m l r a c c xzork on gcnrc-theory and on gcnrc bvithin a functionalist pcrspcctivc
in particular. Thcsc observations should I>c vicwwl in a correspondingly positive light.
I. . .I
4 Conclusions: the lessons of LINC

A project of the scale antl complexity o f LlNC cannot escape criticism. It is important that
the lessons of both succcss and failure arc i x ~ o t - d c d 1:or
. cxamplc, for all their S U C C ~ S S C S
\vith tcachers, LINC materials ncctl t o he further adapted in three main ways. First,
materials o n reading should Iic t l lopctl t o cxcmplify in grcatcr detail what a mixed
methods approach to r c d i n g entails. Morc examples antl case studies ~ - o u l dillustratc how
readers use a rangc- o f different cucs and cluc-s, syntactic antl semantic, phonic and visual,
of learning t o read. Morc action rescarch \voultl illustrate when t o mix
1
vhcn t o concentrate o n a xinglc teaching ptwccdurc. Future LINC materials

) must also cnablc teachers Iictter t o analysc the linguistic tliffcrcnccs
between real books and hooks from gr-adctl reatling schcmcs. Sccontl, supplements to
existing units arc ncccletl o n diffcrenccs bct\vccn spoken and Lvrittcn English, particularly
in relation t o the teaching of punctuation, which depends crucially on the relationship
Iiet\vccn grammatical structure and the rhythms and contours of spccch. More examples
arc also nccdcd o f how standard English varies across spoken and written modcs hvhile still
remaining standard English. Third, inorc cxxaniplcs arc nccdctl t o show how literary texts
can stimulate enhanced kno\vlcdgc about language, especially the history of the language,
antl how greater linguistic kno\vlcdgc underpins literary appreciation.
4.1 Negative conclusions

Even if the gcncral tlcvclopmcnts outlined ahovc take placc, they \vi11 take placc against a
cultural background in lvhich both positive antl negative factors arc at w o r k . The main
negative factors arc, first, that some teachers will continue to pcmist with the worst cxccsscs
of romanticism in their view of language learning and tcaching.l’hcy will continue t o make
linguistic processes invisildc antl regard language only in so far as it provides a \vindo\v o n
to content, the expression of the individual self, the kvorltl of ideas. They will continuc to
refuse to see forms of language as a powerful resource for creating significant domains of
meaning. Second, governments may want to intervene more directly in the shaping of the
English curriculum. If so, and Lyhatevcr their political persuasion, governments may not
want to endorse classroom language study which explores relationships between language
and society, and which subjccts those relationships to interrogation. They are likely to
continue to be especially disturbed by classroom K A L work which encourages childrcn to
investigate such rclationships indcpcndently. Thcy may exert their powers to impose a
language study which is ‘neutraliscd’b y being more decontextualisctl, formalist rather than
functionalist in orientation, and \vhich, above all, can be easily assessed and measured. The
currently very overt demands by thc British government for grcatcr attention to phonics
in the teaching of reading is but a signal of an increasing emphasis on the basics in so far as
1% hat is ‘basic’ often involvcs a dccontextualiscd language focus.
4.2 Positive conclusions

It is a positive factor that governments are drawing attention to language, recognising it as
both medium and mcssagc, mounting arguments in relation to the ‘proper’ study of English,
attacking the positions adopted by those with a profwsional interest in language.
Although the battles will continue to be bet\\ n those who have thc power but not
the knowlcdgc, and those who have the knowledge but not the power, the \-cry fact that
governments arc forced to mount explicit arguments about language is healthy both lor
proccsscs of public debate and for the cause which espouses the ccntrality of language to
the school curriculum. Increasing attention to language on the part of teachers, coupled
with high degrees of enthusiasm and conviction, will lead to pupils being progrcssi\-cly
interested in language. Increasing knowledge about language among pupils will produce
within a generation a society which is likely to be less prejudiced and ignorant and more
informed and articulate about matters to do with language.
Finally, a morc positi\e view of applicd linguistics emerges from projects such as thc
LINC project. It is a view in which teacher and linguist work more collaborati\ely ton.ards
common agendas. As a result, tcachcrs become more a\varc of the problems of linguistic
description and, in turn, linguists begin to address problems identified by teachers, rathcr
than only those problems itlentifietl by linguists themselves. [. . .] Incrcasingly, all concerned
with language have come to appreciate how notoriously fascinating, complex and ultimately
dangerous language and language study arc. In a project inspired by thc work of Michael
Halliday, the final word must be left to Halliday (Halliday, 1982):
. . . there is a real sense in kvhich linguistics is threatening; it’s uncomfortable, and it’s
subversive. It’s uncomfortable because it strips us of thc fortifications that protect and
surround some of our dccpcst prcju . As long as xve keep linguists at bay ~ v can
c
go on believing \\.hat ~ v \\,ant
e to hcli >outlanguage, both our own and
ClSC~’S...
More than any other human phenomenon, language reflects and reveals the
inequalities that arc cnshrinctl in the social process. When we study language
sjrstcmatically . . . we see into the power structure that lies behind our ever);day social
relationships, the hierarchical statuses that are accorded to different groups \vithin
society . . .
Bibliography
Carter, R. (1988) ‘Some Imvns for Kingman: language education and English teaching’, in
Grun\vell, P. (etl.) .,Ipplied Linguistics in S o c i c : ~ 3 , British Studies in Applied Linpi.stics (CIIT,
London) pp. 5 1-66.
Christie, I;. (1 989) I unguugc Edricirtion (Oxford University Press, Oxford).
Gilbert, P. ( 1990) ‘Authori7ing disadvantage: authorship and crcativity in the language
classroom’, in Christic, F. (cd.) Literuy fi)r a Chunging Cihrld (Australian Council for
Educational Research, Halvthorn, Victoria), pp. 54-78.
Halliday, M. A. K . (1982) ‘Linguistics in teachcr cducation’, in Cartcr, R. (etl.) Linguistics a n d
the Zucher (Routledge, London), pp. 10 16.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1 996) ‘Literacy and linguistics: a func.tional pcrspectivc’, in Hasan, R. and
Williams, G. (eds) Literacj, in Sociecl, (Longman, Lnndon), pp. 339 75.
Krcss, G. (1 989) Liniqtiistic P r o c e w s in Sociocultural fructicc (Oxford University Prcss, Oxford).
Martin, J. ( 1 989) Fuctuul IVriting (Oxford Univcrsity Press, Oxford).
Chapter 8
Gary M. Jones
B I L I N G U A L EDUCATION AND SYLLABUS

DESIGN: TOWARDS A WORI<ABLE
BLUEPRINT
Introduction
B R U N E I D A R U S S A L A M (henceforth Brunei) has a hilingual education system in

which two languages, Rahasa hlelayu and English, are used. As this paper will suggest,
ho\\ ever, the two languages should not lie regarded as indcpcntlcnt variables or in any way
as competing with one another, but as k i n g highly intcr-dcpcndent and complementary.
In Brunei, the final school leaving examination (the GCE ‘0’lewl) has determined the
syllabuses of the individual school subjects, with the result that subject syllabuses have been
planned in isolation and then joined to create the school curriculum. In a bilingual system,
such subject-centred planning makes little pro1 ision for the tlevclopmcnt of t\vo languages
as intcrlocking variables. Language development is considered in much the same way as any
other ‘suliject’: in isolation rather than as complementing other sulijects antl playing a key
rolc in the child’s owrall cognitivc as well as educational d lopmcnt. As I hope this paper
\vi11 demonstrate, syllabus design should play a crucial role in a bilingual education system
and careful consideration must lie given to the timing and introduction of the various school
subjects and their allottcd language medium.
[. . .I
The current curriculum

The present school syllabus, as sho\vn inTable 8.1 , shifts in three stcps from a predominantly
Malay-medium to a predominantly English-medium system. These stage shifts, how
are abrupt rather than gradual.
At Primary 4, when the pupils arc eight ycars old, the first and most important of the
transitional stcps is taken. A t this time, in addition to English Language as a subjcct,
Mathcmatics, Science, History antl Geography are introduced antl taught through English.
This is a most demanding and difficult change for pupils and tcachcrs alike. Ramirez et al.
(1 99 1 ) haw notcd that:
there is some evidence that suggests that when limited English-proficient students
receive most of their instruction in their home language, thry should not lie aliruptly
transferred into a program that uses only English.
(Ramirez et al., 1991 : 40)
100 G A R Y M . J O N E S
Tcihle 8. I Compulsory and cxaminablc suhjccts in Rrunri priniarv antl sccontlarv schools
I oii cr PrimoLy (age 5-8)

English Language Mala! I anguagc
Mathematics
General Studies
Islamic Rcligious Kno\z.le.tlgc
Physical Education
Arts antl Handicraft
Civics
llppcr Primor) (ugc 9 I I )
Englith Language Malay Languagc
Mathematic5 Islamic Religious Kno\z.lctlge
Mictor) Physical Education
Science Arts and Handicraft
Gcograph: Civics
~ Seconduy (uge 12 I J)
1 . o cr
English I.anguagc Malay Languagr
Mathematics Islamic Kcligious Knowlcclgc
Science Historv
Geography
English I anguagc
Mathematics
Scicncc/Art/T'echnical Subjccts
(clcpcntling o n stream)
Although some Malay continues to be usctl in the RI-uncian system, at Primary 4 thcrc
is an abrupt change, antl this occurs at a time when the pupils have only a limited proficiency
in English. Not only is the number of English-medium hours greatly increased, but the
incrcasc is in some of' the most cognitivcly demanding subjects, subjccts which Cummins
(1 984) would characterise as precisely those that require a well-tlcvclopcd L2 proficiency.
BICS and CALP

Cummins (1 984) has in fact distinguished bctween two sets of language skills: basic
interpersonal communication skills (BICS) and cognitive acadcmic language proficiency
(CALP). He argucs that children will be unable to cope with the school curriculum unlcss
their cognitive academic language proficicncy (CAW) is sufficiently dcvclopcd. A child's
language-cognitive abilitics nccd to be sufficiently ~ . c ltlevclopcd
l to cope with the curricular
processes of the classroom. This proficicncy could be tlevcloped in either of the tiilingual
child's languages o r in both simultaneously. In Cummins's ( 1 984: 143) opinion, CALP
involvcs some universal undcrlying proficicncy which is shared across languages. Once
acquired in one language it can tic transferred to any other language. Thus, proticicncy of
this sort acquired in Malay could hc transferred to English-medium classes antl vice versa.
Cummins develops thc concept of RICS antl CALI' in the four quadrant model which
is reproduccd as Figure 8.1 .
BILINGUAL EDUCATION AND SYLLABUS DESIGN 101
Cogillti\ cl) undcmantling

(RICS)
H B
ConCcxt-cmbctltlctl Contcxt rctluc c d
c I)
(CAI P)
C‘ogniti\ cl\ tlcinantling
Flgtrre 8. I RICS ant1 CALI’

Sorrrcc: Curnmins. 198 1
In the Brunei context, subjects such as Mathematics and Science, which arc cognitively
demanding and often context-retlucrd (based on abstract rather than concrete examples),
would be placed in the fourth quadrant (D), whilc those such as Art and Physical Education,
which arc cognitively undemanding and generally context-embeddetl, xvould be placed in
the first quadrant (A). What should be of some conccrn to curriculum designers in Brunei
is that Cummins (1 98 1 ) hclicvcs that it often takcs one or t\vo years for a child to acquire
context-eml~edde~l second language fluency (the typ language that might IK d
in Art or Physical Education classes), but from fivr to years to accluirr context-reduced
fluency (working with more abstract subjects). If thi case, then after only three years
of English 1,anguagr as a subject at lower primary school, Bruncian children arc unlikely to
haw thc rcquired English proticicncy to study the type of cognitivel! demanding, contcxt-
reduced subjects that the); arc currcntl); introduced to in Primary 4. [. . .]
Cummins’s concept o f BlCS and CALP has been criticiscd for being too simplistic.
Romaine (1 989) argues that language skills cannot be compartmentalisetl as neatly as
Cummins suggests and that Cummins is guilty of equating semantic development with
cognitive development. I t is ccrtainly the case that not all subjects can be simply and easily
placed in their rrspcctivc quadrants. Science will allvays be cognitively demanding, but it
could be taught in a context-cmbcdded as \vel1 as a contcxt-rcduccd style.’l’he same is true
of most subjects: much dcixnds upon the style and skill of the teacher. Nevertheless, while
it might he difficult to neatly place all school subjects into one of‘ the four quadrants,
Cummins’s motlcl does provide insight into Lvhy pupils \vorking in a sccond language may
struggle in some subjects hut do wrll in othcrs. Most important is that Cummins hcli
context-reduccd, cogniti\rl!.-demantling communication capaliility develops intlependcntly
and can be promoted by either or both languages. [. . .] If kno\\lctlgc is transferable across
languages, then thew is no nerd to begin the study of thcsc academically tlrmanding subjects
at an early age through the medium of‘ English to prcparc for an English-medium
examination that will he takcn eight years later.
1. .I’
Threshold levels
The present assuniption in Brunei is that subjects which will be examined in English at ‘0’
level at age 16 should bc taught through the medium of English from as early an agc as
possihle. Subjects that arc eventually examined in Malay are therefore taught through the
medium of Malay throughout. [. . .]
This present division of Malay-medium/English-medium subjects, cspccially a t thc
primary lc\-cl, is putting an unncccssary strain on pupils and the education system. Many
102 G A R Y M. J O N E S
pupils have an insufficient command of English to prolxrly follo\v their new subjects,
cspecially Mathematics antl Science. The result is that many pupils arc failing to acquire
either sufficient subject knowledge o r to imlx-ove thcir language skills. 1. . .]
The shift to cognitivcly and linguistically dcmantling tasks at Primary 4 is at present
made on the assumption that pupils ha\ c sufficient mastcry of English t o actually study
through the medium of English (as \\‘as originally cnvisagetl in 1951). This assumes that
pupils have attained some miniinurn languagc aliility or threshold. [. . .]
Although language thresholds \vert not discussed as such hack in the 1950s, rcccnt
clarification of what they involve helps to licttci- clarify the situation in Brunei and relate
language levels there to those attained elsc\vhci-e.
Van Ek andTrim ( I 991) d c rilie the threshold level in terms of the type of functions
that a young European learner should be alilc t o pcrfoi-m in the target language. These
functions are incvitalily Euroccntric, rcflccting the nccds of Europcan stutlents.They include
being alile to understand and use the target languagc as a medium of instruction antl as a
language of social interaction in English classes antl among learners during breaks and at
mealtimes; lwing able to report and discuss prolilcms relating to teaching, social conditions
and accommodation and also how t o follow admission procedures t o cntcr teaching
institutions.
Van Ek and Trim ( 1 991 ) specify thc numlicr of tcaching hours that should be needed
to attain the threshold level of proficiency: t\vo t o thrcc hours per Lvcck, 35 to 40 \vccks a
w a r over two t o three years. A minimum o f 140 hours of teaching and a maximum of 360
hours. In Bruneian lower primary schools, prior to transfer to Primary 4 and the teaching
of acadcmically demanding subjects through the medium of English, Hruneian pupils receive
approximately 262 hours teaching in and on the English language (two and a half hours per
week, 35 weeks a year over three years). It should also Iic rcmcmbcrcd that these Bruneian
children arc very young (oltlcr Icarncrs may n o t ncccssarily lie Iwttcr learners but they d o
understand the educational Iiroccss and a r c thcrcforc faster Icarncrs, as Singlcton, 1 989,
has oliservetl), that they may not ha1.c a v c r v supportive learning c n \ ironmcnt outside
school, especially for the tlcvclopnient o f Lnglish, antl that English is unrelated to any of
their other languages. These arc condition5 \vhich must surely crcatc greater language
studying difficulties than for their European peers.
I . . . ] In 195 1 , with selected pupils following intcnsivc personal tuition, minimum
proficiency levels \z-crc presumahlv consitlercd attainable. Ho\\ er, the Same is not true
today of large mixed ahilitj classcs ofchiltlrcn. Many pupils arc failing to attain a minimum
proficiency in English liefore the introduction of cognitivcly and thcrcby linguistically
dcmanding English-medium sulijccts. It is probably the case that they are only reaching such
a level w h m they cntcr Lower Secondary school, at \vhich time thcv should really be
functioning at an intermediary level hcyontl the sccond threshold. This level, in turn, may
only be reached at the point these pupils rcach upper secondary, at which timc the pupils
have t o take their ‘0’levels, which require an cvcn higher language Ic\cl.
As a result of problems ticginning at primary school, pupils continue to lag behind their
required level or threshold of language proficiency antl the majority never really rcach the
language standard which their age might assume. Sornc c.vidcncc for this has been gathcrcd
b j Lewis Larking, w h o tested the reading comprehension ability of Bruncian pupils in
Primary 5 and 6. He found that at Primary 6, 700/0of pupils were helow their native-
speaker equivalent grade level in English reading comprehension ( 2 8% were one year below
grade Icvcl; 38% two or more years Iiclow antl 4% three or more years hclow gradc level).
Interestingly, only 7% of thcsc same pupils \ \ w e hclow grade level in Malay reading
comprchcnsion (Larking, 1994: 58). 1. . .]
Subject order: some considerations

Given the mix of primar hool subjects and the various degrees of cognitive demands thcy
make antl opportunities for language interaction they offer, perhaps the easiest and most
urgent changes would be to the subjects that are taught through the mcdium of English at
upper primary and to the nature of thc transition from predominantly Malay-medium to
English-medium subjects.
Instead of teaching the cognitivcly demanding, ‘contrxt-rcduccd’ subjects in English
and the cognitively undemanding, ‘contcxt-cmbeclded’ subjects in Malay, the easiest proposal
would be to switch subjects. Thus Mathematics and Science would rcmain Malay- medium
subjects (at lcast, until Lower Secondary) whilc Art and Physical Training would be taught
as English-mcdium subjects at the primary Icvcl. Support for retaining thc tcaching of
Mathcmatics and Science in the mother tongue (at lcast until secondary school) can also be
seen in Ramirez et al. (1 991) where it is noted that students Ivho were abruptly moved into
almost exclusive instruction in English ‘. . . experienced a marked dccrcasc in growth in
mathematics skills over timc’ (Ramircz et a ] . , 1991 : 33).
To avoid the sudden incrcasc in English-medium subjects at Primary 4, morc English-
medium subjects could be introduced at lower primary level. [. . .]
A r t and Physical Education arc not literacy but oracy and participatory activitics that
should not endanger the acquisition of first language literacy. Thus these two subjects could
be introduccd in English-medium at lower primary, together with English Language, lvithout
harming thtx pupils’ ability to first become literate in Malay.
Age and language acquisition: some considerations
Harlev (1 986) antl Singleton ( 1 989) have shown that the question of age antl language
acquisition is complcx and does not lend itself to an easy and universal anslvcr. Most of the
research supporting the ‘younger is better’ position does so with reference to phonological
advantages, while that supporting the ‘older is better’ stand is on the basis of syntax antl
morphological measures of ability. Hamcrs antl Blanc ( 1 989) and others question the
evidence for there being a sensitive period and a biologically tlctcrmincd optimal age for
L2 acquisition. [. . .]
The conclusion that younger learners arc at an advantage because they have more time
to learn and are less likely to suffcr interfcrencc from their first language matches quite
closely, though for different stated reasons, the conclusions that Genesee ( 1 987) has drawn
concerning the various immersion programmes in Canatla:
Second language proficiency tends to increase the earlier immersion begins and the
more second language exposure the learner has. Thus, early total immersion generally
yiclds higher lcvcls of second language pruficicncy than carlp partial immcrsion,
delayed immersion, o r late immersion.
(Genesee, 1987: 191)
Singlcton (1 989) argues that many factors arc involved in language acquisition and that
cxamples of age-related research have to be analpsed individually, noting the peculiaritics
of each study. Singleton concludes that:
there is a fair amount of cvidcncc suggcstivr of a long-term adbantagc for learners

whoa(, c,xpcrirnce of the target language begins in their childhood yrarr. . . . with
104 G A R Y M. J O N E S
regard to short-term attainment, the picture is more confused. Hobvcvcr, the Iialance
o f evidence docs sccm to indicate an initial advantage for oldcr learners at least as far
as grammatical dcvclopmcnt i s conccrncd.
(Singleton, 1989: 122)
Dcspite his extensive research o n the sulijcct, Singleton remains undecided about the
benefits of one approach over thr other:
(1) The a\ailablc e\ idcncc doc5 not consistcntl: \upport the hJpothcsis that youngcr
second language learner? arc gloliall~m o r e cfhcicnt and ruccc5sful than oldcr
learners.
(2) Nor 15 it possililc t o conclude f r o m t h e (x\itlcnce that o l d c r second language
learners arc glol)all! more cfhc lent and 5ucccssfuI than Joungcr learners
(Singleton, 1989: 138)
Although Singleton docs not favour cithcr an carl! o r late start, he does suggest that
Cuinmins’s RICS/CALI’ distinction rcconcilcs contradictions in the cviclcncc aliout age-
related differences among second language learners, citing Cummins’s o\vn proposals:
the older learners, \vhosc‘ CALP i s Iwttcr tlcvelopcd, \voultl acquire cognitive/
academic I .2skills more rapidly than youngcr learners; however, this \vould not
necessarily he the case for those aspccts of L2 proficicncp unrclatccl to CAI,P
(i.c. L2 BICS).
(Cummins, 1979. In Singleton, 1989: 1 1 3)
This lcntls support t o the type of sul3jcct division rccommcndctl earlier for Brunei,
with the study of cognitivcly untlcmantling, c o n t ~ ~ x t - c r n l ~ c ~ l suhjccts
~lc‘tl preceding
cognitively demanding, context-rcduccd subjects.
The majority o f Bruncians u.ho voluntccrcd a reply to the question’ Are there anj.
comments thatyou u d d like t o make ahout Dri,ihuhusci!’ in a national attitude questionnaire that
\\-as concluded rccrntly suggested that more English should h cintroduced at an earlier age.
It \voultl lie \cry cas! t o dismiss such suggestions as Iicing uninformed and subjective, b u t
I think that this \vould bc \\rang and a misjudgcnicnt of‘ the rcspontlcnts.
Rruncians havc hcen exposed t o a varicty 01’ school tcms.’l‘hcrr can bc little doubt,
ho\vevcr, that the Bruneians w h o arc most at case \vith the English language arc those who
attcndcd English-medium mission schools at an earl! age. Some of thcsc pcoplc continued
their education in the mission schools ivhilc others \vent on t o government schools. In either
case, an advantage seems t o have Iiccn tlcrivctl from early cxposurc- to English. Of course,
an ability with English \voultl also he tlcpcndent upon factors outsidr school, especially
languages iisetl in the home, and it can I>cassumed that many parents \vho sent their children
to English-medium mission schools \z oultl themselves very prohalily usc English at home.
But this would n o t havc been the case for all familics. The English language a b i l i t j of
graduates from such schools is takcn as cvitlcncc Iiy Bt-uncians that early exposure to English
results in ticttcr acquisition of the 1anguagc.This conclusion ma! bc subjective, hut in Brunei
it is accepted as self-evident and is the most commonly cited reason given 1iy Rruncian
parents \vho can afford it for sending their chiltlren to English-mctlium kindergartens.
Although research \voultl obviously h a w t o lie undertaken to provc the point, my own
imprrssion fi-om oliscrvations in Brunei is that as \vcll as phonological atlvantagcs, early
exposure t o English also appears to result in a greater cor$dencc among learners in actually
using thc language. Such confidrncc results in fewer inhihitions antl a willingness to
experiment with thc language. A t its simplest, the Bruneians who haw acquired English
early at mission schools are gencrally more confident, and therefore more at case with the
language antl thus likcly to use antl experiment with the language, than their peers who
went to government schools.
The relevance of The German Model

A wcll established motlcl of bilingual education that has given consideration to the timing
and sequencing of the school subjects in its system is that no\v referred to as ‘The German
Model’ (Masch, 1993). Bilingual Gymnasium (‘grammar’) schools in Germany make a
gradual transition from German to a second language, introducing the new language
through a sequcncc of subjects that are chosen to complement each other as \vel1 as to aid
both language and subject acquisition. [. . .] In sequence, the subjects chosen as 1-ehiclesfor
bilingualism in The German Model arc: (1) Art; (2) Geography; (3) Politics (Civics); (4)
History.
Art is considered to provide a concrete situational base from which to develop language
skills (as well as subject ability). Geography performs a refcrcntial, information giving
function and provides a relatively simplc start to description. Geography is also recognised
as pcrforming a second hut crucially important role in bilingual education in Germany.
While some scicncc subjects are considered to bc language poor because of the spccialisetl
content ofthcir subject-specific languagc (Masch cites Biology as an example), ‘Geography
alone sufficiently covers virtually all the necessary elements from thc natural sciences
through physical geography and geophysical phenomena, and from the application of
mcthodological skills through its work with figures, statistics, graphs and sketches’ (Masch,
1993: 163).
Politics (Civics) antl History arc included in the lilingual education system in Germany
as much for integration and a better understanding of the country’s European neighbours
as for the language benefits of the subjects. Nevertheless, the study of politics does include
a recognisablc languagc function:
[. . .]The aims ofthe course in politics suit thc bilingual section: an ability to rccognisc
tliffcrcnt types of action antl a capacity to form an opinion.
(Masch, 1993: 1 6 3 4 )
Physical Education
Physical Education is not mentioned in Masch’s dcscription ofthe German Model. However,
this subject docs lend itself particularly to communicatiw activities because it emphasises
n language and physical movement. A physical education lecturer at the
Univcrsitv of Brunei Darussalam has noted the link l x t w e r n his suhjcct and language
acquisition in Brunei. He maintains that physical education creates a language rich
cnvironmcnt :
[. . .] The most noticeable change in students’ attitude o r lxhaviour \vas a readily

discernible increase in confidence . . . Emanating from this incrcase in contidrncr a
noticeablc improvement in fluency together with greater self-assurance whilst making
statements was evident in the studcnts’ performance.
(Austin, 1992: 25 -6)
106 G A R Y M. JONES
Revised syllabus
As an alternative to the present distribution o f suhjects and language media, and with due
l RICS/CALP and the threshold levels,
consideration to language acquisition antl age as ~ . c las
I would suggest that compulsory and examinable sulijects in Bruneian primary and secondary
schools might be more appropriately distributed as shocvn inTalile 8.2.
Table 8.2 An altcrnatiLc distribution of subjects in the Kruncian education 9ystcm
English medium ,WO/UJ medium
I ower P r i r n q
English Language Malay Languagc
Arts (antl I Iantlicraft) Mathematics
Physical Education General Studies
Civics
Islamic Religious Kno\\ lctlgc
llpper Priniar)
English Languagc Malay Languagc
Arts (and Handicraft) Mathematics
Physical Education Civics
Grography Scicncc
1 Iistory
Islamic Rcligious Kno\vlctlge
Luiwr Seconclucv
English Language Malay Language
Mathematics f Iistory
Geography Islamic Rcligious Kno\vlctlgc
Science
[Jppcr Scconday.
English Language Malay Languagc
Mathematics
Science/Art/TcchnicaI Sulijccts
(depending on stream)
Physical Training and Art Mould join English Language as English-medium subjccts in
the lower primary curriculum. Geography, givcn the expcricncc of the German Model,
would also seem an appropriate subject to introduce at thc primary level. Mowcvcr, rather
than tax the pupils with too many English-medium subjects at once, the introduction of
Geography might best lie postponed until upper primary. In this revisctl system, History
would remain a Malay- medium subject throughout (there arc not the same integrative
political considerations operating in Brunei that encourage the bilingual teaching of this
subject in Europe) and the introduction of Scicncc and Mathematics \vould be dclaycd until
secondary school. I. . .]
The system described above is open to a number of permutations. For instance, should
three subjects bc introduced simultaneously from Primary 1 or would it be bcttcr to
introduce them consccutivcly, one year at a time? Is there any advantage to lie gained in
switching History from Malay to English-medium? Ideally, a number o f permutations might
be triallcd until the most appropriate model for Brunei is arrived at. Of course, this would
takr time and may not tic feasible because of the common national examinations that have
to be taken at the end of primary school. However, givcn the research that has been
conducted into threshold levels and the timing of their acquisition, as well as considerations
of contcxt-embedded /context-reduced, cognitivcly demanding/cognitively undcrnanding
subjects, then this revised model for the introduction of subjects in the Brunei education
syytem, in one form or another, would seem more appropriate than that currently employed.
While I bcliew that the above \vould he a better system than the present distribution
of subjects, there arc a number of practical considerations which would impede the
implementation of this proposal. As well as the problem of new examinations and syllabuscs,
there would also be the huge task of supplying o r retraining teachers for new media of
instruction. Givcn that providing a sufficient number of properly qualificd teachers has
always been a problem in Brunei, changing the language-medium of some subjects would,
in the short term at least, further compound this problem. Malay-medium Art, Geography
and Physical Education teachers may not be willing or able to teach in English; English-
medium Mathematics, History and Science teachers may not be able to teach in Malay.
Ncvcrthclcss, the introduction and redistribution of school subjects at thc primary level is
an issue that should eventually be addressed.
References
Austin, S. ( 1 992) ‘Languagc development through education’. Paper presented at a seminar in
thc University of Brunei Darussalam, December 1992.
Cummins, J. (1 979) ‘Cognitixe/academic language proficiency, linguistic inter-dependence,
the optimum age question and some other matters’. Ilbrking Papers on BilingLiulism 19,
198 203.
___~ (1 98 1 ) ‘Thc role of primary language developmcnt in promoting educational succcss for
language minority students’. In The California State Department of Education (ed.)
Compendium on Bilingual-Bicultural Education. Los Angeles: California Statc Department
of Education.
~ (1 984) Bilingualism and Special Education: lssues in Assessment and Pedagogy. Ckvedon:
Multilingual Matters.
Genescc, F. (1 987) Learning Through E o Languages. Cambritlgc, MA: Ncwbury I Iouse.
Hamcrs, J. F. and Blanc, H. A. (1989) Bilinguals and Bilingualism. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Harley, B. (1 986) Age in Second Language Acquisition. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Larking, L. (1 994) ‘Reading comprehension ability of Primary 5 & 6 children in Malay and
English in Brunci Darussalam’. In M. L. Tickoo (ed.) Reatling and Research in Writing.
Singaporc: Rcgional Language Centre.
Lenneberg, E. H. (1 967) Biological Foundations $Language. New York: Wiley.
Masch, N. (1 993) ‘The German Model of bilingual education: An administrator’s pcrspcctivc’.
In H. Ractcns Rcardsmorc (cd.) European Model.$ ?f Bilingual Education. Clcvcdon:
Multilingual Matters.
Ramirez, J. D., Yuen and Ramey (1 991) Longitudinal Study of Immersion Earlj-exit and Late-exit
Transitional Bilingual Education Programs .for Language M i n o r i y Children. Mountain View,
CA: SRA Technologies.
Romaine, S. (1 989) Bilingualism. Oxford: Basil Blackwcll.
Singleton, D. (1 989) Language Acquisition: The Age Factor. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Van Ek, J. A. and Trim, J. L. M. (1991) Threshold 1-eve/ 1990. Strasbourg: Council of Europe
Press.
Chapter 9
Kimberley Brown
WORLD ENGLISHES I N TESOL

P R O G R A M S : A N I N F U S I O N M O D E L OF
CURRICULAR INNOVATION
Introduction
T H A S B E E N S U G G E S T E D (c.g. Kachru, 1988)thatitistimeforaparadigmshit‘t

I which takes into account the changing roles antl functions of English around thc world
in linguistic research antl in languagc pcdagogj. In spite of clearly articulated arguments and
n d - d c f i n r d calls for applied and theoretical research in the languagc education community,
Kachru’s perspective on the role and functions o f English as an international language
remains a minority perspective. Even though t\vo gcncrations of scholars have been rcfining
the elements of what has comc to Iic termed thc World Englishes paradigm (Kachru, 1992a),
there is little evidence of its infusion intoTcaching English to Speakers of Other Languages
(TESOI.) preparatory programs (Vavrus, 1991a).
This paper examines possiblr explanations for the lack o f incorporation of this paradigm
in TESOL preparatory programs. In an attempt to find a \ v a j to incorporate thc World
Englishes paradigm intoTESO1, programs, I kvill draw upon Hamnctt et al.’s (1 984) three-
pronged approach to what they term ‘thc intligenization of social science research’ (78).
This paper will also explore impediments to curriculum design and teaching practice that
may hamper the inclusion o f the World Englishes pcrspcctive into TESOL preparatory
programs.
A paradigm refcrs to a particular thcorctic framcmvork o r perspcctivc. The World
Englishes paradigm (hereaftcr referred to as the WE paradigm) may lie charactcrizcd by
three elements (Kachru, 1988: 1 ) :
a ticlicf that there is a ‘repertoire of modcls for English’

a belief that ‘the localized innovations [in English] have pragmatic Iiases’
a belief that ‘thc English languagc now bclongs to all those who use it’.
Paradigm shifting and diffusion o f innovation

Within meta-theory research, i.e. theories about theories, I’atton (1 975) explores the
relationship betwecn the context in which information is lcarnctl and the dcgrcc to which
people remain attached to that information. I IC statcs: ‘. . . paradigms are deeply embedded
WORLD ENGLISHES I N TESOL PROGRAMS 109
in the socialization of adherents and practitioners telling them \\hat is important, what is
legitimate, what is reasonable’ ( 1 975: 9). By implication then, any process of shifting
paradigms cannot be a simple proccss.Tollcfson (1 991 ) suggests that the intellcctual belief
system an individual may adhere to is often not seen as a particular s e t of lenses; i.c.
individuals may hold to particular ideologies without evcn recognizing that there is
something subjective about these idcologies. Thus before any shift in ideologics can comc
about, the first step must be to recognize and name the paradigm to which one has bccn
intellcctuallp socialized. [. . .]
It is possible to see the introduction of a new paradigm into the intellectual arena as
similar to thc diffusion o f an innovation into a particular setting. In thc social sciencc
literature that explores attributes of innovations, Rogers (1 983) examines variahles affecting
the rate a t kvhich innovations are adopted. One is o f particular relevance to this discussion
if the WE paradigm can be considercd an innovation. Rogers terms this variable ‘perceived
attributes of [an] innovation’ (1 983: 233).
The five facets of this variablc are compatibility, relative advantage, complcxity,
trialability, antl obscrvahility. Rogers suggests that compatibility ofthc new idea with current
idcas (or paradigms) antl with client needs (in this case teacher and learner needs) affects
whether thc new idea is adopted. An exploration of currcnt idcas in TESOL reveals two
frameworks incompatible with an underlying framework in thc WE paradigm IvhichVavrus
(1 99 1 a) terms the ‘Dynamic Paradigm’ .To avoid confusion, h o cr, the term ‘perspective’
will be used instead of paradigm.
Much of the underlying theory in the WE paradigm belongs to what Vavrus ( 1 99 1 a ,
199 111) calls the ‘Dynamic’ perspective, a framemnrk in which non-native varieties of English
arc sccn neither as fossil-ridden examplcs of interlanguagcs, nor as inferior cxamples of
incorrect speech. She suggests that most language teaching fraine\vorks may lie characterired
as belonging to one of t\vo perspectives. The Deviational perspective supports the notions
that all errors arc due to fossilization or to learners being at various stages of interlanguage
transfer.Thc Deficit perspective supports the notion that errors occur because learners arc
deficient in their command of English. Neither the Deficit nor Ileviational perspectives arc
compatible with the Dynamic pcrspcctive. The lack of compatibility tictwccn these thi-ec
pcrspecti\es thus affccts the rate at which thcWE paradigm may tic adopted. Until cducators
hccomc more aware of the reasons for adopting a WE paradigm or of thc conse‘quenccs of
not adopting it, they may resist this innovation.
The remaining elements in Rogers’ pcrccivetl attributes of innovations arc rclatiw
advantage, complexity, trialaliility, and ohscrvability. Relative advantage refers to a pcrcep-
tion that the new idea is better than prcvious ones. Complexity is sclf-explanatory. Rogers
suggests that if an idea is n as being too complex, it \vi11 not lie atlopted.Trialaliility rcfcrs
to ‘the tlegrec to which a nnovation may be experimented with on a limited liasis’ (1 983:
231). Research suggests that if individuals can work with a new idea on a trial basis, they
may lie more likcly to adopt it. Finally, ohscruability refers to how visible an innovation is.
If individuals arc quite familiar with an idca, they are more likcly
A t the present time, the WE paradigm docs not clearly po
compatibility, and ob \-ability. I do not bclicve the WE pcrspcctiv
than other perspccti . But much of the early work in World Englishcs is not in a user-
friendly format for c room teacher educators. This does affect the trialability factor.
(. . .] Hamnctt et a / . (1984) discuss thrcc elements that have a direct connection to
nce of the WE perspective in TESOL prcparatory programs. Thc first
is thcoretic indigenization ‘in Lvhich the social scientists of a nation are involved in constructing
distinctive conceptual framc\vorks and mctatheories that reflect their om-n world vie\\ s,
theoretic indigenization would involve the crcation and refinement of thcory. A t thc present
time, these parameters arc well developed (scc Kachru, 1992a).Therc does appear, however,
to be a problem with access to antl availability ofinformation.This problem will be discussed
more thoroughly in a later section of the paper. Another aspect of the theoretical dimension
of the WE perspective is also presented by Lincoln, who looks at the politicization of the
research process and suggests that at the present time ‘some groups and research models
[are] favored over others, with some definitions of problems morc acceptable than others
with avenues to funding and support clcarly discriminatory’ ( 1 990: 70).
The second is structural indigenization, defined ‘with rcfcrence to national institutional
and organizational capabilities for social science knowledge [including capabilities for]
educational and research institutions, a community of indigenous scholars, and locally
produced social science literature’ (Hamnrtt et a l . , 1984: 78).Within the WE perspective,
in Outer Circle countries, i.e., those countrirs once colonized by England o r the USA and
who use o r have used English for intra-country purposes (Kachru, 1 988), structural
indigenization would involve thc development of institutions which sponsor a particular
type of research, the development o f scholars committed to working within the WE para-
digm, and the development of locally produced WE literature and empirical o r qualitative
studies. In Inner Circle countries, i.e. the USA, UK, Australia, New Zcaland, o r Canada
(Kachru, 1988), the structural challenge is to support the development of young scholars
from Outer Circle and also Expanding Circle countries (Kachru, 1988), i.c. those countries
in which English has been taught as a foreign language, who will return home to promote
structural changes in how English is taught, antl to support Inner Circle scholars developing
collaborative frameworks with Outcr and Expanding Circle colleagues for their teaching.
For cxample, the cooperative small group antl pair work in communicative language settings
is a standard concept promoted in most TESOL Methods courses. In many O u t e r and
Expanding Circle countries, large classes and a standardized Ministry of Education
curriculum which prepares students for college-level entrance exams are common. Small
group o r pair work may be proscribed. Having successful teachers from these large
classroom settings prepare lcssons on how to teach large classes, which could then he infused
into current Methods c o w . , would hclp Inner Circle teachers learn from O u t e r and
Expanding Circle colleagues.
The third element in Hamnett et al.’s text involvx substantive indigenization, which is
‘concerned with the content focus o f the social sciences [such that] the main thrust of
research and teaching in a country be toward its own society and people and their economic
and political institutions’ (1 984: 78). Within the WE perspective, substantive indigenization
would call for the development in Outer and Expanding Circle countries of’ their own
research and teaching focus. The challenge in Inner Circle teacher preparatory programs
would be to encourage Outer and Expanding Circle students to return home to conduct
research on topics and with agendas that may not have been those suggested in basic research
design courses. A further challenge would be to prcpare Inner Circle students planning on
teaching overseas to understand and appreciate the integrity of the possible alternative
planning frameworks they would be working under.
Shifting paradigms in TESOL programs is a difficult task. Individuals who have
completed their own profcssional preparation under one paradigm may not see a reason to
shift. It is necessary for those scholars who have called for the paradigm shift to see them-
selves as change agents and to actively engage in effective promotion efforts so that teacher
educators and practitioners in the held can understand the perceived attributes of the WE
perspective. This promotion process may involve contributing to the development of WE
theory and collaborating with colleagues in Outer and Expanding Circle countries to
support the tlevelopmcnt of indigenous institutions, scholars, literature, and empirical or
qualitatkc studies. Further, it may involve bringing to the attention of scholars in Inncr
Circle countries details of the current research and teaching focus of English language
cducation programs in Outer Circle and Expanding Circle countries.
Many efforts on US campuses to ‘internationalize’thc curriculum have drawn upon an
injusion model in which supplementary units on particular topics are worked into cxisting
curricula. [. . .]
In addition to the overall difficulties with respect to any paradigm shift or curricular
innovation, there arc at least five other possible impediments: amount of time necessary for
truc diffusion of scholarship; student and instructor background schemata; text availability
and level of difficulty; supporting material availability; and workshop and short-term
courscwork availability for Methods instructors.
Time for diffusion of scholarship

There are currently two major centers in the USA \\here scholars are conducting extensive
research in World Englishcs, at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC) and
a t the East-West Center (connected to the University of Hawaii at Manoa) in Honolulu. By
extension, Methodology courses taught in these centers are likely to incorporate the WE
perspective. A second generation of scholars who have graduated from these institutions
are teaching a third generation of teachers and scholars to incorporate such a perspective
in institutions from upstate New York to Indiana to California. Other scholars who havc
begun to publish extensively in this ficld havc come to places like UIUC antl the East-West
Ccntcr for short periods of time antl have returned to teaching positions throughout the
world. Even in Outer Circle countries, though, it has only been recently that master’s
students in language education have been encouraged to conduct their research from hzithin
the WE perspective. For example, Robert Raumgardner, an cxpcrt in thc ficld of Pakistani
English, writes that in Pakistan, the first master’s degree paper to look at a WE issue was
presented in 1985 (personal communication).
Research being conducted around the world may not make its way into mainstream
journals for three to five years after its coniplction. Anthologics of matcrial publishcd by
places like the Regional English Language Centre (supported through SEAMEO) arc not
publicized in materials catalogues that most teachers in US T E S O L programs have ready
access to. When multiple copies of texts arc requested from halfway around the world, many
Inner Circle bookstores balk at filling orders because of currcncy exchange difficulties and
policies which prohibit them from ordering materials from other countries.
Student and instructor background schemata

Many stutlcnts cntcring TESOL programs havc not had any prior cxpcricnccs identifying
paradigms and ideologies. They may not have been trained in identifying their underlying
assumptions cultural and paradigmatic, pedagogical, o r personal. They arc not critical
~
readers in thc scnsc that they haw not bccn asked to read material in linguistics and language
cducation in order to categorize the ideology of thc authors. One explanation for this is
that much of the writing students cncountcr is heavily centered in what R. Paulston (1 976)
calls the ‘equilibrium paradigm’, e.g., structural-functionalist and systems theories as
contrasted with theories in the ‘conflict paradigm’, e.g. Freirian, Marxist, o r nco-Marxist
theories. The rhetoric in structural-functionalist and systems theories is less readily
112 K I M B E R L E Y B R O W N
identifiable. To ask students to consider making a paradigm shift when they cannot yet
identify paradigms is problematic.
International students in TESOL programs may sometimes possess low self-esteem
regarding thcir o\vn language proficiency and, as Ihxtcr (1 980) points out, may never have
had the chance to reflect upon antl respond affirmatively to the question ‘Arc you a speaker
of English?’To identify thcir oxvn idcologics and move to a point of grcatcr acceptance
of whatever their variety of English may bc comes at the expense of the amount of time
necessary to absorb such a perspective.
Just as it may lie difficult for students to name the ideologies and planning frame-
works they work under, it may also lie difficult for their teachers. Paradigm shifts cannot
be made when people do not overtly idcntify paradigms which currently dominate the
field. Both Tollefson ( 1 991) and f’hillipson ( 1 992) deal extensively with this issue in their
texts.
Text availability and level of difficulty

Three of the most popular Methods texts, Cclcc-Murcia (1991), Brown (1987), antl
Long and Richards (1 987), devote one chaptvr or less to the concept of World Englishes.
In Celce-Murcia, there is no mcntion at all ofanything related toworld Englishes. In Brown
(1 987), while there is rcfermce made to Kachru, and the institutionalized vcrsus
performance varieties of English, the total number of words is less than 200. In Long and
Richards (1 987), one chapter by Judd defines the term ‘English as an International and
Intranational’ language. There is no chapter dealing specifically with the concept of
institutionalized versus performance varieties of English, the role of native and non-native
speakers of English, or any of the points highlightctl by Kachru ( 1 992a) as bcing central to
WE theory.
Five other concepts Ivhich need to 1)c rc-examined within traditional Methods courses
if a WE perspectives is infused into the curriculum arc the presentation of instrumental antl
integrative functions of language without introducing the expressive (Pride, 1979) function of
language; the presentation of interlanguage continuum inlormation and its relationship to
sociolinguistic continuum information; terminology used to refer to the teaching we do;
thc role ofnative spcakcrs in instruction in the Outer Circle (i.c. E X countries like India,
Nigeria, Malaysia, and Ghana) antl the Expanding Circle (i.c. EFL countries like Japan,
Germany, antl Brazil); antl approaches antl techniques for helping students from Outer
Circle countries versus students from Expanding Circle countries improve the international
intelligibility of their varieties of English.
Most introductory M<>thoclstexthooks cover instrumental and integrative reasons for
learning a language (Gardner and Lambert, 1972). Choosing to learn a language for the
purpose of expressing one’s identity or choosing to \\.rite in Filipino English or Malaysian
English to express certain \vays of being and knolving arc not cxamined in traditional
Methods texts. [. . . ]
In units on second languagc acquisition, the interlanguage continuum concept which,
as Vavrus ( I 991 a) noted, is part of the Deviational perspective is usually not presented in
conjunction with information \vhich is part of the Dynamic perspective.
Terminology referring to the teaching of English still falls most consistently into the
polar terms English as a Second Language (ESL) and English as a Foreign Language (EFL).
Until the time when more inclusive alternative terms are used, lie they ‘English as an Inter-
national Language’ or, as Canadian colleagues have long practiced, ‘English as an Additional
Language’ , attitudes toward Inner Circle, Outer Circle, and Expanding Circle varieties of
English are not likely to change. Speakers of Outer Circle and Expanding Circle varieties
of English in the program where I teach continuously remark on the lack of relevance of
some material in stantlard Mcthods courses to their ncctls in their countries.
Kegarding materials xvhich focus exclusively on World Englishes, Giirlach states ‘the
books published in 1982-84 make up a particularly impressive list: it is no cxaggcration to
say that the following ten books more or less sufticc to teach a full academic course on thc
topic [ofWorld Englishes]’ (1 991 : 1 l).Yct one ofthc Kachru texts, The Indianiyation ofEnglish
(1 983), would not be ordered as a class text by some US collcgc bookstores because the
text is published outside the USA; and Kachru (ed.), The Other Tongue: English Across Cultures
was out of print until just recently, and a revised cdition with substantial changes has just
been published (see Kachru, ed., 1992b). Another Kachru text, The Alchemy $ English
(1 986), is too difficult for most undergraduate Methods students, although with stud:
questions and referral to Richards et d . ’ s 1985 Dictionaiy $Applied Linguistics, currently also
out of print, students can manage. Platt et a/.’s The New Englishes (1 984) as m.cll as Pride’s
1982 New Englishes arc out of print. Gorlach’s 1991 volume Englishes: Studies in Varieties pf
English, 1984-1 988 is published by John Benjamin; one of its representativcs at the 1992
American Association of Applied Linguistics meeting in Seattle commented that this
publishing tirm docs not exhibit at international TESOI, meetings as it is not Lvorth their
financial while.Teacher educators attending a key meeting in their lield would thus not have
access to this text to even peruse for potential course adoption. Finally, even chapters dealing
with World Englishes in fine texts such as Rerns (1 990) have been termed ‘too difficult’ by
some teacher educators for use with undergraduate students.
Supporting material availability

Often, instructors mill assign research papers o r annotated bibliographies on World
Englishes topic. Over the past three years, when such assignments have been made in our
Mcthods classes, at least one or two students per quarter have decided to research topics
such as the ‘Non-native English speaking teacher’. Resources such as ERIC list few refer-
ences on WE. Difficulty in obtaining articles reflecting a WE perspective deters students
from pursuing these topics. A cursory comparison of US library holdings via an on-line
search through the Online Computer Library Ccnter (OCLC) and Research Library
Information Network ( R U N ) of eight journals, six of which routinely publish articlcs
reflecting the WE perspective antl t\vo of which sometimes publish articles in this arca
(TESOI. Quarterk and journal $Applied Linguistics), r als significant diffcrcnccs in the
number of journals availahlc throughout the USA. In addition to the TESOI. QuarterbJ antl
the journal ofApplied Linguistics, the other journals include English Toduy, English I~/orldivicic,
World Englishes, the RELC j o u r n a l , the Indian Journal of Lingtiisrics, and the Indian Journal of
Applied Linguistics (sccTablc 9.1).
As Table 9.1 illustrates, there is a very evident accessibility prohlcm. Journals which
consistently carry WE perspective articlcs are much lcss availahlc to teachers and students
inTESOL programs than arc other journals.
This portion of the paper has examined structural impediments to infusing a WE
pcrspcctivc in current TESOL programs. The next portion of thc paper documents \vhy it
is critically important to \vork to infuse a WE perspective in the Methods sequence.
114 KIMBERLEY BROWN
Table 9. I Journals publishing articlcs on World Englishcc topics
]ournu/ A'wnhcr ofstates .Ytirnhcr ofinytitutions
TESOL Qiarterly 46 384

Journal of'.4pplicd Linguistic5 42 I23
English Today 44 64
Ilbrld Englishrs 32 68
English Ilbrldwidc 26 57
REI C Journal 26 55
lndian Jotirnal of Linpisrics 11 13
Indian Journal ?f,lppliecl I inguistict 9 14
Student responses in coursework

The following excerpt is from aTESL certificate student paper; the student was exposed to
less than four hours of information rclatctl to World Englishrs in ninety hours of Methods
courses.
[SampleA ]
The lack of TEFL-specific materials may lie a result o f a hclicf that most EFI. teachers
should themselves be non-nativcs [i.c. non-native speakers o f English] with the result
being that thc majority of tcaching matcrials are in the teachers' native languagcs, not
English. But i f a person who has learned English from a non-native then teaches EFL
to yet someonc else, the English of the last learner may lie far removed in quality from
that of a native. . . .
cr, more EFI. teachers kvcre native speakers, then more TEFLspccific
materials in English \voultl be tlemandcd and produced. Also, the matcrials
might bc of better quality, giving thc quality of EFL tcaching more of a chance to
improve . . .
TEFL materials oricntcd toward native English speakers will help thcm to give clear
explanations of what they already know. A native speaker is better able to combine
his or her inherent knoivlcdgc with the information provided in an EFL textbook to
give a more comprehensive grammatical explanation. However, this is hest achieved
if the textbook is written \vith the cxpcctation that the user will be a native.
Another lienefit from having a nativc speaker teach English is that students get more
exposure to English, especially when interacting with the teacher outside the
classroom. A teacher whose native languagc is also the students' native language is
more likely to converse hvith them in that language when class is not in session,
whereas practice with a native English-spcaking teacher outside of a stressful
classroom, where performance will not be graded, can be most helpful.
The second sample was written by an individual who had complctcd ninety hours in a
Methods course and thirty hours in a World Englishes class.
[Sample B]
As a result of the reading and thought involved in doing this paper, I now believe that
as part ofthc shift being made in ESLIEFL teaching to accommodate needs for English
as an international language rather than a language used only to communicate with
native or very proficient speakers from countries whcrc English is learncd as a first
languagc, \ve need to shift or perhaps, more properly, expand our views of reading.
We nccd to extend learncrs’ knowledge of literacy antl reading rather than changc it,
lvhich I believe lve often implicitly if not explicitly attempt to do through our
methodology antl ethnocentric view as middle-class, gcncrally white educators for a
post industrial countrj. . , .
As a result of this paper, I have also come to realize that in my own teaching o f
reading, I have too heavily emphasized U.S. mainstream reading styles antl strategies
lvhich may lie of littlc usc to students learning English as a world or international
language, and who arc most likely to read knglish written by writcrs not using
discourse or newspaper styles Ivhich are predominant in the U.S.
The comments made in the first papcr are geocentric, i.e., focused on Inner Circle
countries’ English, antl rcflcct an attitude o f linguicism. Skutnabb-Kangas and Phillipson in
I’hillipson (1 922: 47) dcfinc linguicism as:
idcologier, structures, and practices n hich are used t o Icgitimatc, effectuate, and
reproduce an unequal c l i i~ m n of pomer and resources (both material and immaterial)
liet\\ ccn groups \\ hich are tlcfincd on the basis of language.
The comments in thc second papci- are much less ethnocentric and reflect an attitudc of
tolerance antl respect for multiple varieties of English. Both individuals are leaving the same
TESL certificate program. In the first case, I held an cxtensivc conference with the student
to indicate \\.hat I found prohlrmatic in many ofthc statements and lines of argument of thc
paper. 1 lielicw the confcrcnce was useful, but as the culture contact litcrature revcals,
siinply having individuals with two different pcrspectives mcct to talk about ideas may not
result in long-term attitude changc. [. . . ]
[. . .] It is possible for a paradigm shift to occur. However, necessary resources to
facilitate such shifts ncctl to find their way into Methods textbooks and Methods courses.
Much work remains to be (lone at thc structural and substantive levels. A n infusion model
o f curricular revision is the most practical means to diffusc the innovation inherent in the
World Englishes paradigm. The folloxving recommendations arc also key elements in
promoting the diffusion of this perspective within Methods courses and ivithout.
Recommendations
Languagc education preparatory programs must name the paradigmatic frameworks
lve work under.
We must activcly comllat linguicisrn and gcocentrism, particularly institutional
linguicism, charactcrixed by structures which promote inequality.
Wc must help promotc a diversity of perspcctives, not only a perspective which
suggests that the native speaker of an Inncr Circle variety of English is the most
appropriate professional language educator.
Professional language education organizations and their respective journals must
continue to provide a forum for oral and \vrittcn dialoguc, e.g. within TESOL: the
TESOL Quarterh:, the TESOL journal, the TESOL international conference, and the
TESOL summer institute. In like manner forums should be provided with IATEFL:
International Association ofTcachrrs of English as a Foreign Languagc, and NAFSA:
Association of Intcrnational Educators.
116 K I M B E R L E Y B R O W N
5 Professional language education organizations should work t o crcatc a resource bank

of World Englishcs scholars antl materials.
6 Professional language education organizations should promote mid-carccr professional
cxchange to bring World English scholars as tcachers to Inner Circle teacher
preparatory programs tor one or tlvo tcrms.
7 I’rofcssional language education organizations should support activities which hclp
lireak down structural Imrricrs t o promoting an infusion model of curricular reform.
8 Puldishing houses and authors of kc? texts in English language education programs
should liroadcn thcir rcpcrtoirc of citations.
References
Raxtcr; Jarncs ( 1 980) ‘Ho\v shoul(l I s p k English! American-I!, Japanese-ly, or
internationally!’ ].ILTjournul, 2, 3 1-61 .
Rcrns, Margic ( 1 990) Conlexts of Competence: Sociill anti Culrurul Consitlerirtion.~in Communicative
L ang tiuge Euc h ing . N civ Yor k : Plcnum .
HroTvn, H. Douglas (1 987) Principlec clf’Lungticigc I.ccirning and Teciching. 2nd edition. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prenticc-Hall Kcgcnts.
Cclcc-Murcia, Marianne, cti. ( 1 991) Teuching English us u Second or Foreign lunguuge. NenYork:
N c d u r y House.
Gai-dncr, Kichartl and Lambert, Wallacc ( 1 972) .il/itridcs antl .Ilotirotion in Second Lungtiage
learning. Rmvley, MA: N c d i u r y HOLISC.
Gijrlach, Manfrctl ( 1 991 ) Encq/i.shes: StriJicr in I;lrJe~ie.so/’ Englirh, 1 Y81 1988. Amsterdam/
Philadelphia: John Benjamin.
Hamnctt, Michael, Porter, Douglas, Singh, Amai-jit and Kurnar, Krishna ( 1 984) Ethics, Politics,
ant/ lnternotionul Socrcil Science Rcceurch: From Critiyue t o Pruxis. Honolulu, Hawaii:
University of Hawaii Press.
Kachi-u, Braj R. ( 1 98 3) T h e Inditini/ution o/’En!ylish:T h c English I.ung~icycin India. NC\VDclhi:
Oxtord Univcrsity I’rcss.
Kachru, Rraj B. ( 1 986) T h e ,4/chcn;i. ?f’English: T h e Spread, Function.r, ant1 Models ?f Non-l\ative
Englirher. Oxford: I’ergamon Press. (I<cprintcd 1990, Ut-lmia, 11.: Univcrsity of Illinois
Press.)
Kacht-u, Braj 13. (1988) E R l C / C L L .Ycri..s Eullelin. Scptcmhcr. 12(1), I , 3 , 4, 8.
Kachru, Rraj B. ( 1 992a) ‘World Englishcs: approaches, issucs and resources’ . Lungua<qeTeaching:
The lnternationa/ A hstracting ]ournu/,fbr Langnugc Tcuchers ant/ .Ipp/ied linguistics. Cambridge
Universit? Press, January 1992: 1 14.
Kachru, Braj K., ctl. (1 99213) The Other Tongrie: English .4crors Culture.s. 2 ~ x 1edition. Urbana, I L :
University of Illinois Prcss.
Lincoln, Yvonnc ( 1 990) ‘The making of a constructivist: a rcnicmbrancc oi‘ transforinations
past’. In 7he Purudi‘qm Oiulog. Etlitctl b y Egon Guln. Neiv York: Sage I’ublications,
1111. 67-87.
Long, Michacl antl Richards, Jack, c d s . ( 1987) .Ilcthotlol0~7,v in TESOL: ,4 Book ?f’Reatlings. Nc\v
York: Newbury I Iousc.
Patton, M. ( 1 975) .iltcrnutir~eEinlticition Rcsecirch Pcirc~c1rgm.s.Grand Forks, N D : University oi‘
North Dakota Prcss.
I’aulston, Rollantl ( 1976) C o ? f l i c t i n ~Theories
~ ofSociul ‘inti kdiicc7tional Change:,/l $pological Review.
I’ittslm-gh, PA: University Ccntci- Ibr International Studies.
I’hillipson, Robert ( 1 992) Lingriistic Imperiulism. I .ondon: Oxford Univcrsity Press.
Platt, John, Weber, Heidi and Lian, H . ( 1 984) The .\en, Englishes. London: Routledge.
Pride, John ( 1 979) ‘Communicatirc needs in the usc and learning of English’. In .YewVarieriec ?f
English: I.s.sucs and i1pproachc.s. Etlitcd by Jack Richards. Singapore: SkAMEO Rcgional
I.anguagc Centre, pp. 33 72.
Pride, John, ed. ( 1 982) New .knglishcs. l<o~rlc)i, MA: Nc\lbury House.
Richards, Jack, Platt, John and Wehcr, Heidi (1 985) Longman Dictionmy cfApplied I i n p i c t i c s .
Esscx, England: Longman Group Limited.
Rogcrs, Eierctt (1 983) Diffusion oflnnovations. 3rd edn. NcwYork: The Free Prcss.
Tollefson, Jamcs (1 991) Planning L u n g u a p , Plannin<qInequality. New York: Longman Inc.
Vavrus, Frances ( 1 991 a) ‘When paradigms clash: the rolc of institutionalized varicties in
language teacher education’. I b r l d Engli.she.s, 10(2), 181-1 96.
Varrus, Frances (1 991 b) ‘Stantlards and models: an African perspective’. Papcr prescntctl at
World Englishes colloquium; annual confcrencr of Teachers of English to Speakcrs of
Other Languages, NewYork.
Chapter 1 0
Numa Markee
T H E D I F F U S I O N OF I N N O V A T I O N I N
LANGUAGE TEACHING
Introduction
T H E LAST T W O D E C A D E S I N A P P L I E D L I N G U I S T I C S -whichroughlv
coincide with thc evolution of the communicative approach in language teaching -
have seen the tlevelopmcnt of a numhcr of languagc tcaching innovations, including the
notional/ functional syllabus, the process syllabus, the Natural Approach, the procedural
syllabus, and task-based languagc teaching. All of these proposals have contributed in
important ways to an understanding of theorctical issues related to designing innovative
language syllabuses. Rut it is onl? rather rcccntly that applied linguists have hrgun to
investigate the problcms associated n i t h implcmcnting thcsc innovations.
Indeed, with the exception of such pionecrs as White (1 988), Henrichsen (1 989), and
a number of other hvritcrs, not many language tcaching spccialists h a w developed any
familiarity with the voluminous literaturc that already exists in a number of disciplines on
how and why innovations tliffuse.This is unfortunate Iwcausc, as Kenncdy (1 988) and Beretta
(1 990) demonstrate, a ‘tliffusion~of~innovations’ perspective on syllabus design provides
curriculum spccialists, materials dewlopcrs, and tcachcrs mith a coherent set of guiding
principles for the development and implemcntation of language teaching innovations.
Furthermore, it supplies evaluators with critcria for retrospcctive evaluations of the extent
to which thesc innovations have actually been implemcnted. In other words, this perspective
provides a unified framework for conceptualizing both the development and evaluation of
innovations in language teaching. Thus, although the terminology used may at first sound
cxotic and unfamiliar, a diffusion-of-innovations pcrspectivc on syllabus design, for example,
addresses concerns that arc central to all language tcaching specialists.
In contrast to applied linguistics, education alrcady po c s a well-cstablished tradition
of innovation rcsearch and practice (Fullan 1982, Miles 1964, Nicholls 1983, Kudduck
1991), as do such disciplines as sociology (Rogers 1983), urban planning (Lambright and
Flynn 1980), and language planning (Cooper 1989).7’hus, a rcviekv o f t h c issues that define
innovation in thc specific contcxt of language teaching nil1 draw on these academic
specializations to dcvelop a multi-disciplinary framework, inspired particularly by Cooper’s
work on innovation in language planning. The framework for this discussion consists of the
following composite qucstion: “Who adopts what, where, when, why and how?” (Cooper 1989),
with responses to each individual componcnt o f the question. In this w y , the basic issues
T H E D I F F U S I O N OF I N N O V A T I O N 119
that are of intcrcst to practitioners may be defined. This framework should be sufficiently
encompassing to account for practitioners who wish to engage in any innovation related to
language education.
On defining innovation: “who”

Teachers arc kcy playcrs in any attempt to promote innovations in syllabus design. At thc
same time, other individuals will also be involved in the innovation process (Fullan 1982).
The actual participants who become involved in deciding whcthcr an innovation will be
adopted vary from context to context. Whatever the specific context of implcmcntation,
however, participants tend to assumc certain social roles which define their rclationships
with othcr participants. The urban planners, Lamhright and Flynn ( 1 980), have suggested
that individuals relate to each othcr as adopters, implementers, clients, supplicrs, o r
entrepreneurs (also known as change agents).
Kcnncdy (1 988) suggests that, in thc context o f a materials project inTunisia, ministry
of education officials, deans, heads of dcpartmcnt, and others play the role of adoptcrs;
teachers are implementcrs; students are clients; curriculum and materials designers are
suppliers; and the expatriate curriculum cxpcrt acts as the change agent. As Kennedy points
out, in practice these roles arc not mutually exclusive. Indeed, it is quite likely that the samc
person will play different roles, somctimes simultaneously, somctimes at varying times
during the course of a project. Thus, teachers may at times also be regarded as adopters;
furthermore, in some cultures, they may take on the roles of change agents and suppliers.
With the exception of thc change agent, any of these individuals may also adopt thc role o f
resisters who oppose an innovation. Thus, a broad range of people playing out different
social roles is always involved in the design and implementation of any innovation.
“Adopts”
Adoption has been conceptualized in terms of individuals o r institutions engaging in a
decision-making process which may be divided into a number of different phases. Rogers
(1 983), a rural sociologist who is onc of the leading authorities on the diffusion of
innovations, suggests that there are five steps in this decision-making process.Thesc involvc
potential adopters 1 ) gaining knowledge about an innovation, 2) bcing persuaded of its
d u e , 3) making a preliminary decision to adopt the innovation, 4) implementing their
decision to adopt, and 5) confirming their decision to continue using thc innovation. The
educator Fullan (1 982) proposes a slightly different sequence of four steps which he calls
initiation, implementation, continuation, and outcome.
From an evaluator’s perspective, adoption may also be conceptualized in terms of“leve1s
of implementation,” a measurc which specifics thc depth to which any changes have
occurred. Berctta (1 990), for examplc, in his evaluation of the procedural syllabus (Prahhu
1987), uses this notion to evaluate thc extent to which tcachers actually implemented thr
task-based methodology associated with that syllabus. Lack of space precludes detailed
discussion of Keretta’s rcsults, hut it is noteworthy that only 4 7 percent of the teachers
involved in implementing the procedural syllabus reached what Beretta catcgorizied as
an “adcquate” level of implementation; only 1 3 percent reachrtl what ma! I)r considered an
“expert” levcl of implementation.This result shows how difficult it is to promotc innovation
at a fundamental level. I t is salutary to remember that all innovation is a risky business and
that close to three quarters of educational innovations arc likely to fail over time (Adams
and Chcn 198 I ) , either because they arc never fully adopted or else do not survive the
confirmation stage posited by Rogers (1 98 3).
120 N U M A M A R K E E
“What”
Innovation itself, as a concept, is central to the implementation and/or evaluation of
n c w ideas and ne\v procedures. Synthesizing what she claims are basic characteristics
of innovations, Nicholls states:
An innovation is an idea, object or practice perceived as ne\v by an individual o r

individuals, which is intended to bring about improvement in relation to desired
objectives, which is fundamental in naturc and which is planned and deliberate
(1983: 4).
However, in language teaching contexts, her definition is somewhat problematic. For the
purposes o f this paper, innovation \vi11 be defined as proposals for qualitative change in
pedagogical materials, approaches, and values that arc perceived as new by individuals who
comprise a formal (language) education system.
Nicholls’ idea of“ncwncss”bcing a subjcxctivc matter of users’ perceptions is important
in languagc teaching contexts.This perspective correctly permits the inclusion of the Natural
Approach as an innovation despite the fact that Krashen antl Terrell (1983) view this
approach simply as a rcdi )very of the underlying principles of traditional “natural” or
direct methods popular earlier in this century suitably reformulated and updatcd in light
of current second language acquisition rcscarch findings. While Krashen and Terrell’s
asscssmcnt of the absolute innovativeness of their proposals is accurate, there is no doubt
that from a user’s perspective, the Natural Approach was regarded as an innovation by
teachers in the early 1980s. It continues to be viewed in this light by new teachers who are
introduced to it for the first time today.
r, in terms o f the ti\ c examples of language teaching innovations \vc have alrcady
idcntiticd in the introduction (the notional /functional syllabus, the proccss syllabus, the
Natural Approach, the proceclural syllabus, and task-based language teaching), the remaining
components of Nicholls’ definition arc either too restrictive o r clsc omit defining criteria
that are important for languagc teaching situations. Therefore, the alternative definition
given above is more appropriate to language teaching contexts.The need for this alternative
definition is suggested by a critique of Nicholls with respect to the follokving four issues: 1 )
the systemic context of innovations; 2 ) the fundamental naturc of innovations; 3) thc cxtcnt
to which innovations actually improve o n the status quo; and 4) the cxxtcnt to which
inno\-ations are necessarily dc~libc-rateantl planned for.
First, the systemic contcxt in hvhich an innolation is implemented scc‘ms to be an
important dctermincr o f whether or not the innovation will IIC adopted. As Prabhu (1 987)
points out, the fact that a procedural syllabus u a s implcmcntcd in primary antl secondary
schools in India placed some major constraints on the project since it was decided that thc
procedural syllabus should not be used ivith students who hvcrc due to take various state
matriculation exams. By omitting any specific mention of the systemic contcxt of
innovations, Nicholls lays herself open to bcing interpreted as saying that individuals are
frcc to innovate as they wish. Clearly, individuals do not enjoy such a degree of freedom.
This observation suggests that the relationship lietween individuals antl systems must be
considered in a dctinition of innovation.
Second, it is only through a modification of pedagogical values that innovation can be
said to involve “funtlamental” change. At the less complex levels of using new materials and
approaches, teachers can adopt ncw practices with littlc or n o undcrstanding of why they
arc using these new materials antl approaches which hardly counts as a fundamental
~
THE DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION 121
alteration in behavior. This limitation d o c s not mean that such surface changes arc not in
any sense innovative nor that they cannot lead to deeper change later.
Furthermore, the “inno\.ativencss” of an innovation decreases o\ er time as it lieconics
institutionalixtl antl more familiar t o u s c ~ s .Iior example, notional/functional syllabuses
wcrc initially claimcd to be 1Lintlamrntally diff‘crcnt from structural syllabuses bccause
languagc contcnt was organized in semantic rather than syntactic tcrms. Ho\\.c\cr, it \vas
soon recognized that, although notional /functional syllabuses arc indccd qualitatii ely
different from structural syllabuses, all the criteria for organizing the contcnt o f instruction
in both types of syllabus (i.e. , notions, functions, grammatical structures, wcabular!; r t c . )
are still linguistic (Long and Crookes 1992). Consequently, it is difficult to argue that the
re-orientation implied by notional/functional syllahuscs is fundamental in any meaningful
sense of this w-ord.‘l‘hus, it is liettcr t o dctinc innovations in t c r m s o f qualitative change, a
t e r m ivhich conveniently covers all three lei-cls of innovative Iiehavior (materials,
approaches, and values).
‘I‘hird, although innovations arc certainly intentled to improve on the status quo, it is
not the casc that thev al\vavs do constitutc an improvement o n previous practicc ( I d l a n
1982). For example, Urumfit ( 1 98 1 ; 1984a) has sharply criticized notional/functiorial
syllaliuses as bcing in some instances an untlcsirahlc innovation. He argues that ivhcn thc
syllabuscs arc uncritically implemented, they dcprivc learners of the generative potential
of grammar (i.c., the ability t o use sjntactic rules to crcatc nciv sentences), \vhicli Bruintit
indispensable resource for learning. This criticism suggests that improvcmcnt
rily a defining characteristic of innovations in actual practice. Indccd, in some
cases, innovations should be rcsistctl rathcr than promoted because their adoption may lie
m o r e harmful than bcncticial.
Fourth, and finally, the notion of “delihcratc planning” is problematic for languagc
teaching in t \ v o \Yay. I;irst, although the notional/functional syllabus is indeed a product
ofcxtensive planning, the only aspect ol‘a project that can hc planned is \vhat is to be taught
or tcstcd, n o t lvhat is to he learned (Urumfit 198411). Second, it is doubtful that the
articulation of the principles of t h c procrdural syllabus, ivhich \vas achieved through a
process of trial antl error (Prabhu 1987), can rcally count as an rxamplc of tlclibcr-ate
planning. [. . .]
“Where”
T h e question of where an innovation is implemented is conceived in sociocultural t c r m s
(Cooper 1989). That is, the concrrn is lvith specifying t h c sociocultural contcxt of an
innovation rather than its geographical location. Practitioncrs w h o \z ish to introduce inno-
vative syllabuses into an educational em must rccognizc the potential impact (lvhcthcr
positivc or negative) of n r i o u s soci tural constraints on their acti\-itics. For example,
Markee ( 1 986a; 1986b) identifies cultural, ideological, historical, political, economic,
administrative, institutional, and sociolinguistic factors that affected the implementation o f
an aitl-f‘undctl project in the Sudan. [. . . ]
In addition, some attempts have becm made t o address thc issuc of when thosc
sociocultural constraints should lie considered in thc
Cooke 1982, Munbv 1978; 1984). The relati\e imI anct’ of thesc constraints \vi11 \ a r v
from one contcxt of implementation to another. [ . . . ] Expcrience suggests that these
constraints cannot Iic accounted h r in a discrete, linear fashion; rather, they \vi11 impinge
on all aspects of innovati Ilalius design, implcmcntation, and evaluation.
“When”
While some adopters will implement a given innovation relatively quickly, others will nred
more time to carry out the same innovation.Thus, if one knows whcnA adopts an innovation
and when B, C, or D adopt the same innmation, it is possible to specify the ratc at which
an innovation diffuses among a group of potential adopters and also to distinguish bctw
different catcgorics of adopters.
Diffusion may be expressed as the perccntagc of adopters who implement an innovation
over a g i w n period of time (Kogers 1 98 3). Figure 10.1 shows a typically S-shaped diffusion
curvc.Thc lazy slope of the toe of the curve sho\vs that adoption at first occurs very slowly;
if a critical mass of approximatel: 2 5 percent of potential adopters accept the innovation,
it may take off. At this point, the slope in the midsection of the curvc bccomcs stccpcr
(i.c., the ratc of adoption accelerates) as people “jump on the band\vagon.” Finally, the curve
plateaus as diffusion slo\vs down and cvcntually tapers off, either because every potential
adopter has adopted or else I~ecauscthe innovation stalls.
%
of
adoption
Figure 10. I An S-shapctl diffusion curvc
With respect to diffusion ratc, fivc catcgorics of adopters h a w been idcntified

(Huberman 1973, Rogers 1983).These include innovators, early adopters, early majority,
late majority, and laggards; as already noted in thc scction cntitlcd “Who,” people who never
adopt a particular innovation are known as resisters. In terms ofthe S-shaped diffusion curve
shown in Figure 10.1, innovators antl early adopters occupy the first 25 percent ofthe curve.
Early antl late majority occupy the steepest portion of the curve. Laggards occupy the last
part of the curve as it flattens out to form a plateau.
This information has at least two kinds of potential applications. First, it a l l o w program
designers who introduce an innovative syllabus to focus on those teachers most receptive
to the innovation. Since each category of adopter tends to be associated with personal
characteristics bvhich are either conducive o r not conducive to innovation, recognition of
early adoptcrs would hc important to the innovation process. Second, such data allow
evaluators to determine how successfully and how quickly an innovation has sprcad among
a group of potential adopters.
“Why”
The reasons 1% hy innovations are adopted or rcjectctl arc many and varied. The section
entitled “Where” already addressed a number of the sociocultural constraints that come into
play. In addition, there arc individual psychological factors with respect to the persons
involved, and innovations themselves possess various attributes that influence adoption.
Rogers (1 98 3) notes that individuals with particular psychological profilrs tend to

display specific adoption behaviors. For example, individuals who adopt early tend to travel
widely and are usually \vcll-cducatcd antl upwardly mobile; they tend to seek out and be
open to ne\v idcas, and they tend to have a high degree of exposure to mass met1ia.Their
contacts with other people are often extensive, antl they are usually able to tolerate high
levels of uncertainty. Laggards, on the other hand, tend to display diametrically opposite
characteristics while the pcoplc in between exhibit intermediary traits.
Finally, innovations themselves po attributes which tend to promote or inhibit their
adoption. A number of writers (Bricknrll 1969, Henrichsen 1989, Kelly 1980, I.e\ ine 1980,
Zaltman and Duncan 1977) havc proposed different sets of attributes of innovations. The
attributes proposed by Rogers ( I 987) arc usctl here because they are derived from some
1,500 empirical and/or theoretical studics on innovations across disciplines antl also because
they are the most well-knolvn. Thcse attributes include the following:
the relative advantage to potential adoptccs of adopting an innovation (i.c., the co

or benefits);
the compatibility o f the innovation \vith previous practice (i.c., how different o r
similar the innovation is to \\.hat the potential adoptcr already uses);
thc complexity of the innovation (i.c., how difficult the inno\ation is t o understand
or usr);
the trialability of the innomtion (i.c., ho\v easy it is to try out in stages);
antl the observability of thc innovation (i.e., hou visible the inno\-ation is).
“How”
In Henrichsen’s (1 989) account of the extent to kvhich audiolingualism diffused in Japanese
schools in the aftermath of the Second World War, he notes that scveral difrercnt theories
exist bvhich seck to account for how change occurs. These include equililirium thcory,
evolutionary theory, conflict theory, rise and fall theory, and diffusion theory. Only the last
of these is directly relevant to language teaching. Within a diffusion-of-innovations
perspective, the cducator I lavelock ( 1971 ) distinguishes bct\reen three basic models of
innovation. He laliels these three the Research, tlcrdopment and tlifjiusion (RD anti D) model, the
problem-solving model, and t h r social interaction model rcspcctivcly, from Lzhich hc synthcsizcs
a hybrid linkuge model. Similarly, the social scientists Chin antl Benne (1 976) idcntifv t h r r r
familics of innovation strategies which they respecti\ ely call empirical-r~itionul,normutive-re-
eciucutirz, antl power-coercive strategies of innovation. These models antl strategies “pair up”
and haw lieen used, mostly unconsciously, by developers o f various language teaching
innovations.
Empirical-rational innovation strategies assume that pcople are rational and \I i l l
therefore be persuaded to adopt an innovation if it can he demonstrated that it is in their
rational self-intcrcst to do so. Such stratcgics tend to be used by pcople who subscribe to
an RD and D model of innovation. A good example of this combination is the initial
development of notional/ functional syllahu. by scholars associated \vith the Council of
Europe (Wilkins 1976).
This model is rational, systematic, and theory-based. I t depends vcry heavily on long-
term planning and involvcs a division of labor among teams of highly trained specialists \\ ho
1vot-k on separate phases of an overall project. Thc planning process is basically linear
(although fcxdback loops may be built into the framcwork) antl assumes that thc cnd product
will be used by a passive, though rational, consumer. Planning hcgins with basic research,
124 N U M A MARI<EE
which is then follon.cd liy phases of applied research, development and testing of prototypes,
mass production and packaging o f the product, antl finally, mass dissemination to potcntial
users. It is assumcd that the high development costs will bc offset by the long-term benefits
of efficiency and the anticipated high quality of thc innovation (Havelock 1971 ).
A power-coercive innovation strategy which involves the application of political,
~
administrati\e, or economic p v c r to resolve a prolilem may also be used in conjunction

~~
with an R D and I) model of innovation. This occurs when a ministry of education decides
to develop and disseminate a new syllabus countrywide. A good example of this combination
is the adoption of notional/functional syllaliuscs in primary and/or secondary schools by
the Dutch and Malaysian ministries o f education.
Normative-re-educative strategies arc based on the assumption that uscrs’ decisions
arc not exclusively based on rational criteria. Rather, sociocultural and personal value
systems arc held to be equally important determinants of behavior. These stratcgics tcnd to
bc uscd by intlividuals who lielie\ c in a problem-solving model of innovation. As Havelock
(1 971 ) remarks, this is the most faorctl model of innovation in ctlucation, at least hy writers
in the United States antl Britain. A good example of this comhination in language teaching
is the process syllabus.
The problem-solving model is based o n a qualitatively quite different approach to
planning from the one uscd in the KD antl 1) model. More specifically, users employ action
to articulate a problem and diagnose ho\v thcy n a n t to solve it. This diagnosis is follonul
by a search and retrieval phase in \vhich uscrs try to gather whatever information is relevant
to their necds and which will enable thcm to formulate and/or select an appropriate
innovation. After identifying the innovation, a process of adaptation, trial, antl evaluation
follows. During this timc, uscrs assess whether the solution they have devised really solves
the problem that sct thc whole pro into motion in the first place. If the users judge that
the innovation is deficient or unsatisfactory in any way, thc process liegins again until a
satisfactory solution is found (Havelock 1971).
Social interaction models of innovation oftcn employ normative-re-educative strategies,
certain elements of which underlie Kennedy’s (1 988) work in7unisia.This model emphasizes
the importance of social relationships as a key variahle in adoption. Other factors that are
stresscd arc noted as follo\vs: 1 ) the position of potcntial atlopters in their social network
(i.c., how conncctcd or disconnected thcy arc from pccrs xvho might influence their
decision); 2) the role of informal pcrsonal contacts as a functional mechanism for exchanging
information ahout innovations; 3) the importance of group membership and referencr-
group identification as predictors o f individual adoption; and 4) the typically S-shaped
pattern-of-diffusion curve [ . . .]. l’hc major insight offered liy this model in an educational
context is the important role played by communication in promoting or inhibiting the
diffusion o f innovative curricula (I Iavclock 1971 ).
Finally, there are hybrid, or “linkage” models. Henrichsen points out that:
while a [linkage perspective] allows for research and dcvclopmcnt of an innovation,

it docs not assume that KL) and L)is all that is recpired for successful implementation
of an innovation. Furthermore, a linkage model allows for the ‘dynamic’ of change to
lie an outside force, making it appropriate for explaining directed contact change
even across cultural boundaries.
(1 989: 68)
Conclusion
I t has been argued that the adoption of a diffusion-of-innovations perspective by practitioners
is crucial to the development of language teaching theory and practice. Such a point o f \ ie\\
provides a unified framework for conceptualizing both the dcvclopmcnt and evaluation of
innovations in languagc teaching. In ordrr to illustratc Ivhat issucs arc relevant to
understanding a diffusion-of-inno\ ations pcrspcctivc on language teaching, innovation has
been analyzed in t e r m s of Cooper’s (1 989) question: “Il’ho udopts what, where, when, rvhj, and
how.?” This framchvork providcs an appropriate set of criteria for analysis:
1 a profile of participants’ socially defined roles and their adoption behaviors;

2 a ctelinition of innovation in the context of language teaching;
3 an account of the sociocultural factors which constrain innovations;
4 a definition of diffusion;
5 an overview of the prrsonal factors which constrain innovations, as \vel1 as the
attributes of innovations which either promote or inhibit thcii- adoption; and
6 a synopsis of various innovation models and stratcgics which ma); lie used to promote
change in language education.
The most important characteristic of emerging “post communicative” approaches t o

course design approaches which are explicitly based o n a diffusion-of-inno\.ations
~~
pcrspcctivc is or will be their focus o n t\ro issues: 1 ) the e x t r n t to \z hich teachers actually
use new materials and approaches, antl 2) the dcgrce to which they actually reconstruct
thrir pedagogical values. This shift of cmphasis from design to implcmcntation antl evaluation
is both dcsirable and also long ovcrduc.
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Chapter 1 1
Zakia Sarwar
ADAPTING INDIVIDUALIZATION
T E C H N I Q U E S FOR L A R G E C L A S S E S
I N H I S R E S E A R C H F I N D I N G S hascd on responses from nonnative teachers of

English from Indonesia, Japan, Nigeria, Senegal, antl South Africa, Coleman ( 1 989) lists
four prol)lcms faced by teachers of large classes (1 OOf). First, thcy feel self-conscious,
nervous, antl uncomlortalde; it is indeed tiring t o lie the constant focus of 1 00+ pairs o f
eyes for three to four periods a day. Secondly, large classes pose disciplinary antl class-
tnanagement proldems, in ivhich the noise level must be kept down so as n o t t o disturb
others. Thirdly, it is difficult to evaluate the oral or \vrittcn \fork of so many learners;
teachers of large classes seem to lie Iiuried under an endless pile of hoinc\vork. And lastly,
teachers feel that liccausc intlivitlual attention cannot lie given, very little learning takcs
place.
From 1983 to 1985, as a part of my studies for a master’s degree at Sydncy Unhcrsity
(Sarwar 1983 85), I dcsigncd and cxccutcd a r rch project cntitlcd “li~achingEnglish
as a Forrign Language with Limited Resources. n e o f the aims o f the research \vas to
experiment with communicative language techniques and activities that \I oultl be effective
in large classes o f l o o + . Communicative techniques \voultl naturally include the Ixoad
conccpt of individualization. Finding effective techniques for large class
concern in o r d e r to cxaniinc the teachers’ popular belief that in large cl
nominal and the interactive approach, relying on group/pair \vork, is n o t possiblc.
Thc conccpt of individualization

Before outlining my r arch and describing the tasks antl actilities that encouraged
individualization in my rners, I want to clarifj my t e r m s of rcfcrcncc for thc conccpt
of individualization. The uinbrclla title, indirriduulizution, covers “such s c ~ m i n g l ytlivcrse
topics as one-to-one teaching, h o m e study, intlivitlualized instruction, sclf-a
self-directed learning, and autonomy, I)ccausc thcy all focus o n the learner as an individual”
(Geddcs and Sturtritlgc 1982). It also encompasses a learner-centred approach t o language
and takes special n o t e of ethnolinguistic aspects of language lcarning, in which the
autonomous rolc of the learner- is colourcd by their “second language self-image” and the
teachcr/lcarner roles prevalent in thcir sociolinguistic sphere (Riley 1988).There are also
certain underlying basic assumptions regarding learning whcn \vc talk of“individua1ization .”
According to 1,ogan ( 1 980):
128 Z A K I A S A R W A R
People lcarn even the same material in different ways (this implies accepting
~
different learning styles).

People can lcarn from a varicty of sour , cvcn i f the final goals arc thc same ~
implying that the instructional matcrials can vary.

Direct teaching liy a tcachcr is not essential for lcarning; it is only one of many possible
expericnccs which mcans that a tcachcr can be a facilitator instead of a preacher.
~
A variety of learning activities can take place simultaneously referring to integrative

language-learning activities.
Pcoplc may have a variety of goals o r objectives lor learning a second language ~
implying that learners learn lor tliftcrcnt reasons.
Another pcrspcctive is addctl I>\ Altman ( 1 98O), who clcarl) talks of three liasic tenets
that charactcri7c Individuali/ctl language teaching:
a syllabus that meets the nccds, aliilitics, and interests of cach lcarncr
personalized goals, mcans, antl expectations for learners
teaching methods tailored to thc n c d s of the learners
Logan’s assumptions and Altman’s tcncts \vcrc cxamincd for my research in gcneral,
and lor the sclf-learning programme in particular, to dctcrmine how the conccpt of
individualization could be exploited for lar-gc classes, \\.here learners needed (u)exposure
to language learning, ( h ) activities for confidcncc building, and ( c ) a lcarner-centred
approach to build rapport bctween the tcachcr and the learners. Obviously, a tailor-made
syllabus antl teaching methodology for cach learner was out of the question for my large
classes of 1 OO+. All the same, the learners \vcrc still considered to be the focal point of the
learning programme, with realistic appraisal that they \nm~ldall Ihllow their own pace of
learning and reach achicvcmcnt levels congrucnt with the goals they set for thcmsclvcs. I t
was also accepted that if Logan’s five assumptions lvcrc applicable in small classes, they could
very well be applied to large classes, so long as thc lcarning programme offered thc learners
a variety of optional actil ities.
The four Rs of individualization

The \\.orking definition that emerged from these deliberations was the acceptance of
Altman’s “Thrcc Rs of Individualization: Reeducation, Responsibility, and Relevance” (Williams
and Williams 1979) but mith thc addition of one more R , signifying Rapport, which can
~
lie taken for granted in one-to-one instruction or in a small class. This rapport is difficult,
though just as (if not more) essential, to achieve in a large class. In the context of my
research, the meaning of thcse four lis of indivitlualization arc as follows.
Reeducation
This means reconstructing thc role of the teacher as facilitator and the lcarncr as the active
agent in the process of learning. In the Pakistani context, this change nccds to be emphasized
all the more, since the teacher and the taught are both used to the lecture pattern oftcaching
in which thc student is a passive learner as the teacher “talks” without any interaction or
Iireak for the whole teaching period.
ADAPTING INDIVIDUALIZATION TECHNIQUES 129
Responsibility
This implies that learners take charge of thcir own learning, For the Pakistani learner this
is a conceptual leap as they are used to rote learning and lack confidence in their own
cognitive capabilities. It also implies the teacher’s responsibility to set up clcarly stated tasks
that can be monitorcd by learners on their ovvn antl ensure the availability of self-learning
materials for learners.
Relevance
A? most of the glossy and readil) a\ailalde material 1 5 tleiisctl for the nonnati\e lcarncr
stud)ing EFL in the West, we need matcrials rclclant to our learners. Alw, r r l r \ a n w means
finding contexts of learning that arc mcaningful for our lcarncrs.
Rapport
A class of 100+ is a class-managcmcnt chalknge for any teacher. It is only through the proper
rapport that an atmosphere conducive to learning can bc built up. Also, “humanizing”a lai-gc
class is perhaps thc only way to motivate learning.
The research programme

I devised a 50-hour rclmcdial English course that focused on reading comprchcnsion and
writing skills. I t was a voluntary, non-credit course, taught for two hours three times a week,
and lasting approximatcly right and a half weeks. The learners (1 04 volunteers, who 1vei-e
selected on a first-comc, first-scrved basis) agreed to stay after their regular classes for this
course.Thcy were young fcmalc adults between 16 antl 20 years of age, the majority coming
from a middle-class background. Thesr students \vere false beginners of English, having
studied it For approximately n ycars. They had little o r no exposure to English in their
day-today lives except for studying it as a “subject”in the Faculty of Humanities.
Whilc discussing thc lcarncrs’ expectations for the programmc o n thc first day, it \vas
mutually agreed that since 50 hours of class work would not he sufficient for any tangiblc
improvement, the learners ~vouldsupplement their bvork by following a self-monitored
learning programme that included listening, reading, and writing skills. Learners ivere given
a three-part qucstionnairc hcforr and at the end of the project to cvaluatc thcir progress.
The questionnaire was devised to find out (1) thc Icarncrs’ background, (2) thcir attitude
towards learning English, and (3) their proficiency level in English, through a reading-
comprchcnsion check and paragraph writing.
The response performance as \vel1 as feedback from the project group \vas very ~
encouraging. For the purposes of this article, hom r, I shall only focus on the steps uscd
for putting the concept of individualization into practice. Thc four Rs were taken as a
rcfcrcncc point in a two-pronged thrust: ( u ) individualization in largc classcs, and ( b )
individualizing learning tasks (see Figure 1 1 . 1 ) .
Individualization in the classroom

This section deals with the last R of individualization: rapport. I t focuscs on activities that
“humanized” this largc class for me by helping me familiarize mysclf with the learners as
persons. I t also helped to a great extent in class management.
130 Z A K I A S A R W A R
Voluntary learning
T h e 104 students mho enrolled tor the language project (LP) clitl so \oluntaril) Thc) mere
told that the aim of the programme mas flucnc! rather than accurac!, antl that they \ ~ o u l d
be taught skills rather than prescribed textbook4 The\ were under n o pressure to p i n the
course especial$ as it \%a\a non crdit"unollic ial"course, carricd out a? part of a research
~
projcct. In the lollo\\ ing >cars I h a c used the concept of \oluntar) lcarnmg ti) consulting
the student\ at thc l x y n n i n g ot each academic !car betorc setting u p the >car's teaching
programme tor compulsor\ classes
Background questionnaire
Learners \vere given an hour-long questionnaire on their first day in class. Learning about
their background, attitudes, and pcrcci\wl ncctls, as \vel1 as their proficiency level, helped
m e a great deal in undcrstanding m y learners. It also clariticd thcir course expectations.
The responses gave m e information about the socioeconomic antl ethnolinguistic community
o f the learnel-s, Lvhich proved uscf~ilin organizing their group activities and outside class
projccts.
Grouping
O n the \-cry t i n t clay, after introducing thc co~irsc,I askctl the learners to form groups of
three or four \vith their friends. As a numlwr o f activities \\ere t o use u p time outside the
class, \\e figured that it \vouId I)c casicr for Irarncrs t o do their group tasks together in their
free time in friendly groups. Forming thcir o\vn groups also ga\e the learners more
responsilility in sharing the class-managcmcnt issues. Groups of four \\ere then given a
numhcr to identify their group. The) \vcrc also askctl to sit togcthcr in class so they could
sharc thcir g r o u p activitics. Instcad of moving ai-ountl, \ve had pcrmancnt groups xvith a
pcrmancnt scating arrangcmcnt.
N a m e tags
On thc second day Icarncrs ci-c rcclucstcd t o make namc tags for thcmsclvcs by \vriting
their name antl g r o u p n u m b e r with a thick marker- on a card mcasuring 3" X 4".Thcy wcre
to wear them as part of the class uniform throughout the duration of the coui-se.This put a
name to a face, which is otherwise impossildc in a class of 104! I t also made it casicr for me
to address everyone by their first names during activities antl discussions. The magic of the
first namc also I)rought a m o r e congenial atmosphere t o the classroom, as classmates liecame
m o r e familiar with each othci-.Thcrc \\as definitely a better rapport tict\vccn \ arious groups
as well as with mc.
P r o j l e cards
Crcating profile cards pro\ctl t o IK a ici-4 intci-c sting 1% a! to get t o knoxz the learners lxttei
F ~ r s t the
, points that \I ere consitlerctl M o r t h kno\\ ing alwut an) o n c \T crc clicitcd in a
brainstorming session and put o n the I~lacklioartl 5ccontllj, thew points mere catcgorved
antl put in an o r d e r acceptable to r)onc. I hen students wcrc askctl t o prepare their own
prohlc cards, complete ith thcir photograph antl t h r tlctail\ listed on the ldackhoard. It
\\as announced that thrcc pri/cs \zoultl be g n c n t o prohlc cards \\ ith good handwriting,
correct spclling, and a neat, attract11 e prcseritation.
I learnt a lot ahout m! learncrs’ aspirations, strong points, and mcak points, and ha\ ing
their photograph.; on the profile cards certainl) helped me tamiliari/c m! self \\ ith their
fates The students cnjo!ed making thew cards, too Another ad\antage of ha\ing their names
antl addrc5ses on their prolile card \\as that I \\a\ able to reach mj learners b! mail after a
sutltlcn closing of all educational institutions (a frequent happening hercl) antl send thcm
guidance on hov to continue working on their n
Lending library
As the majority of the 1.1’ learners did not have access to English hooks, magazines, and
nebvspapcrs, I gathered from my f‘riends and brought to the class used, simple stoi-y books,
glossy magazines, and the magazine section of daily nc\vspapcrs.T\vo or threc o f these \vcrc
tlistributed to each group, lvho Lvere to he ( u ) responsiblc for rotating antl exchanging them
\\ ith different groups, and ( h ) returning thcm to me a t the end of the course. My purpose
\vas siinply to provide materials for extensive rcading. I did not check to see if all the students
used these, hut they \vcre film, fashion, antl sports magazines, generally liked by tccnage
groups. I sa\v a brisk exchange before and after the class, so 1 presume a number of students
did use these hooks antl magazines. The responsibility of keeping track of these magazines
gave the learners a sensc of importance.
Individualizing learning tasks

I \vi11 discuss here selr-learning programmes (SLP) aimed at improving students’ language
output as well as encouraging thcm to becomr independent learncrs. Training learners to
monitor their o\vn learning is as important in a large class as in a small one in fact, more
~
important, bccause in a small class, work can he supervised 137 the teacher, but in a large
class this is virtually impossiblc. Hence, thc best chance that a lcarncr in a large class has is
to take responsibility for his o\vn learning. For the SLI’, all the three Rs of individualization
mentioned by Altman \vcrc considered. Students \\ere given guidelines to ( u ) monitor their
o\vn scoring, ( h ) do pcer correction, and (c) Lvork independently o n group projccts. As a
Readinglwriting Radio news

cloze exercise
questionnaire
learning tasks Voluntary in class Profile cards

Group projects: learning
Writing picture - Making reading
storieslpeer cards
correction - Tableaus/songs Responsibility Grouping
class library with friends
Letters to:
-Visitors
-Teacher
- Each other
132 Z A I < I A S A R W A R
teacher in SLP I devised matcrials/activities and prepared guidelines for the tasks. Except
for an occasional consultation, I was not involvcd in the SLP after initiating it.
Most of the activities mentioncd are familiar to language teachcrs and arc used
extensively in EFL classes in one form or another. Therefore, I have picked out only a few
to show how they were adapted to become Icarncr-centrctl for SLP
Radio news
Students were g i w n a sample worksheet with instructions for listening to the local radio
news and filling in a grid (see Figure 1 1.2).This was an activity that provided exposure to
real-world listening for the learners. It also helped them improve their gcneral knowledge.
Moreover, the learners could work at a time convenient to them and at thcir own pace,
without peer and classroom pressurc.Thirtlly, it \vas a self-monitorcd learning task in which
they were able to gauge thc-ir own progress. Bcginning to listen “1xttcr”also improved thcir
self-confidence. They were able to follo\v and takc notes from speeches of native as well as
nonnativc speakers at a later stage of thc language project.
Plcasc usc your radio cassette player and keep a srparatc casscttr for this cxcrrisc
Try to do this cxrrcisc once a day.
,.lirn: This cxcrcisc \\ill improve your listening skills. It \ \ i l l also improve your note-taking skills
I
Stq1
Makr the folloiving grid in your E l P \\oi-khook
Y estcrday f’rirnc Ministcr Inauguratctl Karachi

conliwncc
Step 2
Listen t o the radio n c n s at a time con\cnicnt t o y o u .
Tape only the headlines \vhilr listening to it.
kill in the grid as y o u listen to the nc\vs. S r c cxamplc a h o v c .
Step 3
Put your ivorkbook face t1on.n.
Play back the rccordctl nc\vs.
Fill in the portions yo11 mi.;sctl in the tirst listcning.
Plav back thc rccortlcd n c n s again.
Chcck your rcsponscs and complete the grid as y o u play the rccordctl ncivs.
Look at a neivspapcr to check spcllings/comparc facts.
Figure I I . I Worksheet 1 : radio nc\vs
Self-created cloze
Students were given guidance to improve the “looy o f their Lvritten work b y being given
(1 ) handouts to improve hanchvriting, (2) instructions to give special attention to indentation
and \vriting format (e.g., margin, paragraph, ctc.). As an exercise for this they were asked
to copy a paragraph a day from their prescrihed textbooks, h y i n g out words, filling them
in later, antl then checking with the textbook again (see Figurc 1 1 . 3 ) .
Please usc your prcscrihetl English tcxtlxiok tor the cxcrcisc

T r \ to \\rite at least one paragraph cvcry day.
Use the attached handout as a m o d e l tor your hantlxlriting.
T h e aim o l t h i s cxcrcisc is to i m p r o \ c your
~ Handwriting ~ Punctuation ~ Reading comprchcnsion

~ Grammar ~ Proofrcaciing skills
Step I
(Week\ 1 anti 2 )
u Eclcct a paragraph from )our Fnglish tcxtlmok

h Mark or undrrlinc c\ cr\ 7th \\ ortl.
c Copy the passage in your best handwriting, Icaving out the markc.. $5 ords ka\v a blank linc
instead.
d Cloar. the I)ook. 'l'akr a I)rrak.
e Fill in the hlanks.
(Wccks 3 antl 4)
I ea\ e out c\ cr) 6th \\ ortl in Ctcp 1 u
(Wcck 5 onuards)
~ 5th
Lea\ c out r . rr! \\ ortl
Step 2
Check your \vork:

Havc you put in J margin?
H a v c you put in thr tlatr?
Havc you indrntrd t h c paragraph?
L h c s thc writing look ncat and tidy?
O p r n your tcxtbook a n d chcck if you punctuatcd your work corrcctly.

Chcck your I-csponscs in the hlanks.
Chcck thc numl)cr of blank.; a n t l give yoursclf onc mark lor cach correct ans\vrr.
Figure 1 1 . 3 Worksheet 2: self-created clozc
Thc usual practice is to give an unseen passagc for clozc to teach/test comprehension
or itcmizctl grammar. Rut in the pilot testing of materials I discovered that my learners faced
great difficulty if they wcrc unfamiliar with the text. Copying from familiar texts made the
cxcrcisc easier for them. The feedback confirms that a number of' thcm improved in their
scores with practice ofthis adapted version of clozc.Thcy also Iiccamc more confident when
they attempted regular cloze cxcrciscs. Furthcr, comparing their writing with thc prcscribcd
text, they got training in proofreading thcir own work, which highlighted thcir omissions
and careless mistakes.
134 ZAI<IA S A R W A R
Group projects
A number of g r o u p projects \vcrc also initiated. ‘lo encourage participation, thcsc wcrc
announced as competitions in which there \vould bc a prize for the best cntry in each of
three categories: (1 ) picture storics (using t h e language o f instruction, description, and
narration), ( 2 ) reading cards from ncivspapcrs antl magazines with comprehension questions
o n the back ofthc cards, antl (3) organizing tableaus and songs for thc final certificate award
ceremony, which gavc learners a chancc t o usc language in real-life situations antl take u p
a position of responsibility, while organizing the jirogrammc.
Advantages of the individualized activities

The activities tlescribctl above take into consideration the underlying principles that Logan
( 1980) considers essential for individualization. Morcovcr, t h e four Ks signifying
~~
Reeducation, Responsibility, Relevance, antl Rapport arc also retlected in the tasks and
activities described aliovc. Their application seems t o have mitigatcd some problems that
occur liccausc of swelling numbers o f dcpcndcnt, unskilled l e a r n u s who lack exposure to
rcal-\vorld English. Using the broad concept o f individualization manifested a n u m b e r of
advantages in thcsc activities.
Grouping /groiip proIcctt
gale learners a chancc t o make thcir o n n groups, \\hich brought in thc elements of
both rcsponsibilitJ antl choice
reduced the norkloatl antl made class management easier
ga\c groups ot tricnds an opportunit! t o n o r k togcthcr o n projects in a nonthreatening
atmosphere
made it possible lor the n c a k students t o lcai-n ti-om thcir peer\
,\ume rugs/prof;lc curds
gale a name to a face, thus satisfying Icai-nrrs’ hasic nccd t o I,c i-ccognizctl as
indivitluals
gavc a huinanistic touch t o thc largc class
brought a s m s c of I-esponsihilitv antl accountal)ility t o the learners
developed a I-ajiport in the class, thus making learners m o w motivated and positive
about thcir learning tasks
Rudio ncivssIc1u.s.s Iihmy
provided i-eal-\vorltl English to lcarncrs

gavc them further rcsponsiliility, Lvhich later resulted in conlitlence in themselves as
independent rcatlcrs/listcncrs
built u p managerial skills, and made the class inore cohcsilc
Self-/corning tutks
gale learners a chancc to learn at thcir OM n p a w and achim c thcir OM n goals a great
adlantagr in a large clays
cnsurcd learning for at least those n h o mere moti\ate(l to learn
I. .I
‘
Implications for teaching/learning in developing countries

My rcscarch started with the basic assumption that cia in countries like Pakistan arc not
likely to be reduced in size in the foreseeable future. Hence, solutions have to be realistic,
within the limited constraints of the present teaching/lcarning situation.The acceptance of
this reality can help a teacher to overcome the psychological barrier that the interactive
approach/activitics cannot be used in large classes.This assumption led me to seek out new
ways of managing the class and individualized activities.
ptancc of reality also led to setting up rcalistic, mcasurablc, short-term achievable
goals, which had a reinforcing effect on the tcachcr and learners. What and how much can
a teacher/learner achieve, given the Icarning conditions that prevail in large classes? A
teacher obviously cannot meticulously correct a huntlred papers every day. In thc same m y ,
a lc-arncr cannot learn flahvless English with limited exposure to the languagc. Therefore,
the initial targct was fluency rather than accuracy, providing learners with an occasion to
“use” the languagc in real life.
[. ’ .1
The broad concept of individualization and the whole structurc of the project dcmantletl
a drastic change in the tcachcr/lcarner roles. Again I started with thc assumption that direct
tcaching or lecture is only one form of learning experience (Logan 1980), and that adult
students are capable of taking their learning into their own hands.The transition from learner
dependcncc to independence was not an easy process especially in a system of education
~
whcrc spoon-feeding and rote learning are common teaching/learning stratcgics. But the
skill-based approach tlemantling cognitive interplay \vas a challcngc to a numhcr of students,
I t moved them to\z.artls relying on their own judgements and conclusions, s o that they
bccamc- gradually indcpcndcnt. O n the othcr hand, as a teacher, relegating learning tasks
and responsibilities to studcnts involved an clement of risk and ensuing frustrations. For a
teacher used to complete control of the class, this \vas initially not an easy task, but thc
students’ responses antl enthusiasm l e n t a lot of support. In the last stages, their increased
output and productivity liecame a rc\vard in itself.
I. .I
’
Conclusion
By incorporating individualization tcchniqucs my classroom rcscarch addressed three major
ELT prohlcms: large classes, the dependent learner, and lack of exposure to real-\vorld
English. Now what is needed most is its replication so as to e\aluate the variables involved.
Ideally, this replication should be done in Pakistan as well as in countries whcrc similar
teaching/learning conditions pre\ ail. In contemplating such research, the follolving
suggestions should be kept in view.
The hasic materials and outline of the rcscarch done s o far should be picked up, with
adaptations and changes suitable for the age and 1 1 as well as thc socio~cthnolinguistic
background of the learners. The rationale behind the hroad concept of individualization
should he atloptcd as the basis of thc approach used in handling large classes, and the focus
of the rcscarch should he on activities and techniques tha uld lie effective in large classes.
Abovc all, more classroom-based resrarch in large cl involving practicing teachers
should h e encouraged by institutions, organizations, and drvelopers of syllabi and materials.
N o doubt the picture of a large class of loo+ appears sad to those who have never had
this experience, y t it is a condition faced by more than half the world’s population of
teachers antl learners. Hcncc it is of vital importance that action rcscarch involving large
classes hc givcn high priority. 1. . .]
136 Z A I < I A S A R W A R
Refercnces
Altman, I I . R. 1980. Forrign language tcaching: Focus on the learner. In Languuge teaching:
Meeting indiridnal nee&, cd. I I. R. Altman and C.V. James. NcivYork: Pergamon.
Coleman, H. 1989. The relationship bct\vccn largc class research antl largc class teaching.
Keynote paper prcscntcd at SPEUI‘ International Conference, Karachi, Pakistan.
Getltles, M. antl C. Sturtridgc, ctls. 1982. In~liritluuli/ation.Oxford: Modern English Pul).
Hussain, A. M. and Z. Sarivar. 1989. ELT sccnc in Pakistan: rJrohlcms and prospects. SPEL7’
Kcwletter, 3 , 3 , p. 10.
Khamisani. 1983. English language tcaching. Paper prcscntcd at University Grants
Commission Conference onTcaching English as a Forrign/Sccontl Language, Islamabatl,
Pakistan.
Logan, C. E. 1980. Individualized foreign language instruction: American patterns for
accommodating learner differences in the classroom. In Languuge teaching: Meeting
individual neetlx, cd. H. R. Altman and C.V. James. NcivYork: Pcrgamon.
Mumtaz, A. and Z. Sarwar. 1986. Syllalms tlcsign: Theory and practice. SPE1.7 Seminar Report,
Karachi, Pakistan.
Riley, P. 1988. Ethnography autonomy. In Indii itluulimtion unci antonom)’ in language lcurning
(ELT Documents 131), cd. A. Brooks and P. Grundy. Oxford: Motlcrn English Pub. and
British Council.
Sarivar, Z. 1983 85. Teaching English as a loreign language ivith limited rcsourccs.
Unl?ul)lishcd M. E d . research project, Sptln University, Australia.
-. 1989. The use of English in government ( ces. Paper prcwnted at the International
Confcrcnce on “Varietics of English in South Asia,” U.G.C., Islamahad, Pakistan.
Williams, C. F. andT. L. Williams. 1979. Dealing with largc classes: A course in individualized
instruction. English Eaching Forum, 17,1, pp. 44 45.
C h a p t e r 12
William Savage and Graeme Stover
AN EMERGENT LANGUAGE PROGRAM

F R A M E W O RI<: A C T I V E L Y IN V O L V I N G
LEARNERS I N NEEDS ANALYSIS
Introduction
H A T D O O U R G R O U P O F L E A R N E R S need to do with English in their

\vork environment? What can they already do? What are the content areas which
they need to talk and \vrite about?What materials and situations do they have at \vork \vhich
can serve as vehicles for developing their ability to use language?
1 hese \vert‘ questions which faccd us in the development of a language program for the
I .
staff of an aquaculture outreach project in thc northeast ofThailand, people who had specific
purposes for learning English which did n o t seem to consist of the sorts of information
generated by needs analysis as it has come to be debated in the ESP litcraturc. Wc wanted
to actively involve the learncrs in the nccds analysis and program design, but \yere unsure
about how hest to do so, despite our more than tcn ycars’ cxpericncc in ESP.
The approach which \vc developed evolved through a process o f meeting the learncrs
and planning and participating with thcm in the language program. It \vas after the fact that
we returned to the relevant literature to place our work in the context of the LSP field
specifically antl language learning in general. What this paper tlescrilxs is o u r experience
working togcthcr with the learners in an emcrgcnt program. As such, it describes a pi
of action rcscarch which acldrcsscs the question: “what language program framcwork allows
for learners to lie actively involved in tls analysis antl program design?” The paper i s
organizcd in thc same sequence as hvc c loped the program.
I First, lve describe the Lvork situation of our learners.

I1 Then we discuss our initial framc\vork for developing the program and elaborate on
its three phases.
Ill Next, xve review the language needs which were identified by the learners and ho\i
they were realized.
IV This i s followed by a look at some literature d a t i n g to nccds analysis and each of the
four aspects of the program : working on tasks, reporting back, expanding, antl
evaluating.
V Finally, we will discuss implications for other learning situations and further
development.
138 W I L L I A M S A V A G E A N D G R A E M E STORER
I The AIT aquaculture outreach project

Funded by the Overseas Development Agency of the United Kingdom, the Aquaculture
Outreach Project ofthe Asian Institute ofTcchnology (AIT) is liasetl in Udornthani, a major
city in the resource-poor northeast. Taking an interdisciplinary research approach to
freshwater aquaculture for small-scale farmers, the project's main objective is to dctcrmine
aquaculture strategies which are sustainalile, using inputs (feed, nutrients and matcrials)
which arc readily available. Kecommcndations for fish-farming practices arc generated by
a methodic flow of'information among the project, the participating farmers and on-station
research at AIT.
A delicate aspect of the project concerns the manner in which farmers are recruited
and participate in the project. Thus, Iiroject staff, k i n g from the northeast region
themselves, are crucial to the project's efforts in that they are o f the same culture and speak
the same first dialect as the farmcrs.Thc project staff in the Udornthani main office and two
sub-offices in other northeastern provinces were the group of learners for whom a language
program \vas requested.
O u r initial contact with the project's manager, a native English spcakcr, highlighted
several general reasons to learn English. I'hc funding agency is from an English-speaking
country and the project often receives visitors from that agency and others, as \vel1 as
English-spcaking rescarchcrs who often stay for weeks o r months at a time. A
aquaculturc research information is essential for many staff' members and all the data which
are collected in the field are ultimately reported in English. Finally, it seems likely that the
project will be extended to other countries in the region, itlcally drawing on the cxpertise
of the Thai staff.
Thcsc reasons established the motivation tor a language program but did not give much
information about lvhat needed to lie learned. To that end, a one-day visit to Udornthani
\vas arranged during kvhich one o f the trio teachers met the learners to discuss with them
their work-related nccds. The findings from the site visit \vcrc usctl to set u p a two-day
planning workshop at the AIT campus in the northern outskirts of Bangkok. Seven
representatives of the staff carried out work-rclatccl tasks alongside scvcn counterparts who
had participated in language programs at the AIT campus. In this \Yay, information was built
up from the site visit through thr planning \vorkshop to provide the content for the 2 - w ~ e k
intensive workshop.
I1 The language program framework

O n e of the aims of the language program, as stated liy the project manager, was to gct the
participants to a point where they would bc aldc to continue to develop thcir English ability
That is, the conclusion ofthc program \vas not to I>(- view-cd as an end point,
but as another starting point in itsclf. For this reason, ive have avoidctl usink"
7 course" in our
terminology as, for us, it strongly suggests a discrete end point. We also feel that a coursc
implies a set of content which is presented in hasi he same form each time it is regularly
given. The content of the language program bed here is unique, not only to its
particular situation but also to the group of learn 're lve to go through a similar proccss
of developing another language program at the same location, hut for a different group of
learners, the content would be quite different. Therefore, \vc will refer to the two-week
phase as a workshop o r simply as the two-\\ k intensive. We vimv thc program and its
development as threr-phase: the one-day site visit, two-clay planning workshop and two-
\vcck intensive workshop.
AN EMERGENT LANGUAGE PROGRAM FRAMEWORK 139
site visit ----- > planning workshop --- --> intensive workshop
/\
I ,
// /\
I 1
I 1
I 1
I 1
I 1
I 1
I 1
I 1
I 1
Participant:
I 1 working on tasks
I 1
I 1 reporting back
I 1 expanding
I1
I1 evaluating
I1
discussions
to identify I
work-related
I
needs
Teacher:
observing
assisting ______
understanding learning needs Figure 12.1 ‘I‘hc initial languagc
program framcwork
In approaching the language program, the teachers began \vith the framework illustrated
in Figure 1 2 . 1 . The rolc of the participant in this initial framework was to work on tasks,
rcport back, expand and e\ aluate. The role of the teacher was pcrccivcd as observing,
assisting and understanding the learning needs as the participants were working.
Identification of needs \\.odd not lie confined to one phase, but would occur throughout
the program.
The one-da,v site visit (Udornthani)

During the site visit, one of the teachers met with the project staff. Through discussion,
they were able to identify the following work-related needs:
1 EXPLAINING
(a) The work of the project (methodology antl recommendations) to visitors
(11) Figures antl graphs
2 DESCRIBING experiment results and analyzing data
3 REPORTING from farmer (lata collection forms
4 SPEAKING and LISTENING
5 WRITING
(a) Monthly reports of work progrcss
(b) Summaries of the monthly reports
(c) Subproject reports
6 READING antl WRITING
(a) Scientific project reports
(b) Office memos
(c) Farmer report forms
This information was inadequate in that it merely prescribed a set ofcontcnt to be taught.
(Should we now offer a course callrd “Writing Office Memos”?) It did not tcll us what the
learners could already do in English and what language learning concerns they thought
needed to be addressed. This led us to the two-day planning workshop.
140 W I L L I A M SAVAGE AND G R A E M E STORER
The two-day planning workshop (AZT campus)

Thc site visit information tlcf‘inctl the tasks filr the planning \vorkshop when scvcn
represcntativcs of the Iirojcct stall‘ \vcrc pairctl \vith seven AII’ cainlius staff. The tasks
concerned writing (monthly reports, suinmarirs of monthly reports antl translating reports
from Thai t o English); tlescrihing antl presenting information ahout field w.ork, including
photographs of a farmer’s fish ponds; pi-eparing captions for project extension media; and
descrihing office I>roccdurcs.The i-cliortliack sa\v cach staff mcmlwr speaking t o the whole
group about the task, Lvith the partners stepping in to help out \vhcn necessary. Because thc
partners’ work also rclatcd t o aquaculture, there \vas a gi-cat deal of support and sharing of
ideas. For some, it was their first occasion t o use English t o discuss their 1vol-k. During the
ion, thc tcachcrs \vcrc ahlc to olxcrvc the participants using English antl
placed t o comment on thcii- needs; the participants themselves wcrc better
ablc t o discuss their lcarning ncctls. M r Vorapong, for example, finishctl his reportback by
announcing “Wc want t o write (thc farmer report forms) in English.”Whcn asked \z hy he
did not do so, he began to talk about his limited vocabulary and his lack of’cxpcricncc in
constructing sentences. ’l‘hat is, he I q a n clarifving his nccds for himself antl Ihr us.
On the second morning, the AIT campus staff spokc of lvork they hatl d o n e while
studying English, expanding on language learning conccrns cxIircsscd h y the project staff
the previous afternoon. O n c c again, thv focus of the discussions moved from simply talking
about work-related nectls to m o r e specific learning concerns. Foi- example, Mr Pirat said:
“I \\.ant t o use English c ryday, but I [am] shy. 110 you have this problcm?”Mr Supong, onc
of the AIT partners, ans\vcrctl by talking aliout ho\v he hatl ovci-conic his shyness when he
first hegan to learn English; he \vent on to explain about strategies he had tlcvrlopetl for
learning vocabulary.This widening o f focus in the i-cportlmcks meant that the tcachcrs hegan
t o rethink their initial program framcw.ork as the tcachcr and participant roles as originally
perceived xz-crc no longer distinct. Thc final afternoon \vas devoted to a spoken evaluation
of the tLvo-tfay planning \vorkshop, during n hich cach participant clatmi-atctl o n areas thcv
thought ncwlecl tlcvclopmcnt.
The two-week intensive workshop (Udornthani)

The tcac hci s m e t \z ith thc scicn I cpr hctorc thc intcnsi\ c u (11kshop to diwuss
thcir plans tor thc trio n e c k s and to t in the oi icntation O n the Iii-st
morning, each ot thc ponsibilit) tor orienting the othcr
sc\entccn staff mcmbcrs to the program and about M hat might lie cxpcctctl the! discussed
the iinpoi-tance of tr! ing to use English, ot asking tor help \\ hen “stucY antl the use of the
tirst language, the! talked about keeping a loghook, the! spokc ahout deleloping the
technical tcrms tlictionar! (an idea \I hich hatl come u p during the planning workshop), and
the\ s h m e d photogi aphs takcn during the planning n o r k s h o p and explained 1% hat was
happening in cach one, thcrcln inti oducing thc othcr statt incmlicrs to the itlea of orki king
on tasks and reporting hack.
T h e first task had hccn dccitlctl on I>\ t h r tcachci s and the groups had bccn prc lormetl
In the second task, though, the participants \zcic asked t o select an aica f i o m the ofhcc’s
meekl) suli-projcct sheet to talk allout and the) n c r c encouraged to form their O M n interest
groups 1 his mol e m e n t from tcachcr tlchnccl tasks to tasks idcntihed 11) the participants
themsclx cs \%as integral t o thc progi-am approach B! thc sccontl \z eck, thc participants
\\ere lorming their ov n groups antl dchning ai cas of intci-est t o n o r k on for the final poster
session
AN EMERGENT LANGUAGE PROGRAM FRAMEWORI< 141
I11 Identified needs and their realization in the program

During thc planning M orkshop, the participants and teachers \T ci e able to clarif! and
elaborate o n the nerds that hatl been identified during the one-tla! site \isit 5ome need5
had been immaturcl: defined, tor cxample, the reading and mriting of farmer report forms
While the teacher5 underitood that the report form5 hatl to be written in English, the
participants made it clcar that
Participant 1 : The quantitative data on the forms are n o t translated into English but
arc coded antl then entered into the data basc.
Participant 2 : The qualitative data on the forms can be in notr form, n o t complete
sentences.
After the two-week intensilc, the teacher5 decided to trace the needs through the program
antl to scc hov the) had been rcali/etl and handled through acti\ities in the tno-meek
intcn5i\ e
During the planning \corkshop, both teachers had kept tletailcd notes The sesiions hatl
also been \idco-tapetl In the two-meek intensiTc, a tlail:, log n a s kept which dctailcd each
(la) 's acti\ ities Thc notes, the \ideo record and the dail) log s e n et1 as data In re\ i e ing
~
the data, the teachers looked for learning needs directl! exprcsscd b:, the participants; antl
learning needs ohscr\ ctl b> the teachers as the participants were using English The learning
needs tell into four groups
(A) interacting includes such acts as explaining, describing and discussing, as \\-ell as the
~
frequently mentioned listening and speaking;

(B) langtiage use represents mcchanical language abilities;
~
(C) writing and reading contains all references to materials to be \vritten and read; antl,
~
(D) rnetacognitive refers to commcnts about managing thc learning process itself.
~
Ihc learning needs in each ot thcie groups and ho\\ the! \\ere rcali,xd in the t\\o-\\clrk
intensire appear inTableq 1 2 1 4
IV Rethinking needs analysis

At the beginning of the paper, hvc asked se\eral questions kvhich \ve consider to be basic t o
the work done in ncctls analysis. Looking hack on our approach, it is apparent that \IT have
dealt in practical tcrms with these questions, ones still being discu. d in the literaturc. In
their approach to ESI' language ncccls analysis, Hutchinson antl Waters distinguish target
needs from learning needs (1 987: 53 ~ 6 3 )In. doing so, thry move beyond the cattlgorizing
of linguistic features lvhich results from instruments such as Munby 's Communicative
Needs Processor (1 978). But what they describe as learning needs can, in fact, lie stxcn as
instructional logistics needs. For examplc, the learning needs rclatc to questions of thc
purpose of the course, background of the learners, types of instructional resources, and
location and time of the course. When Hutchinson antl Waters focus on targct needs, they
view lcarncrs as being short of the mark, or lacking (1 987: p. 58), rather than as people
who bring their own cxpcrience and expectations to a language program.
I t was this neglect Lzhich prompted us to develop an approach which \vould more
actively involve lcarncrs in the needs analysis antl design of the language program. Jacobson
(1 986: p. 173) approached ncctls analysis"in terms ofthc strategic competcncc that students
142 W I L L I A M SAVAGE AND GRAEME STORER
Table 12.1 Interacting
1 Explaining
(a) Extension matrrial dcvclopmcnt Interacting \vith visitors;
rqmrtback: tlcscription of radio station survey
for vxtcnsion, evaluation o f extension mctlia;
“muscov! duck” video
(I)) Concepts antl ohjcctivcs in licportl>ack o n 1st 8( 2nd tasks
projcct mctlia
( e ) Project recommendations Interacting \vith L isitors; student vitlcos; poster session:
“Horv to get farmc’rs to grokv fat tish”
(d) Connections b c t \ z ccn various Reporthack: discussion about Khmer and Souay dialects;
staff duties vitlcos
(e) Figures antl graphs I istening posts
2 Describing
(a) Physical features o1’pontl I’ostcr session
systems
(1)) I’rocedurcs* I’ostcr session: tish fry transfer, h o w to deal with
Iisitors
reportback: new criteria tor villagc~sclcction
3. Discussing Lvork duties licporthac,k: recruitment antl follo\v-up in one suh-officc;

\vcckly meetings; farmcr visit forms
4. Interacting on the telephone
5. Speaking antl li5tcning I-ocus o f all reporting Imck; listening posts; student
vitlcos; \\ cckly meetings held in English; discussions of
meek I evaluation to set up Lveck 2 ; defining antl
clarifying tasks
* Thesc procedures arose during the 2-1zcck intcnsivc; onc othcr, related to ofticc procedure, \vas not
atltlrcsscd t)ccause of a lack of time.
need in order to successfully carry out the work required in the [university physics] lab.”
His task-based approach primarily involved direct observations in the lab environment in
which the students were working, and interviews with the lab instructors. Including
observations of what the learners actually had to do with language marked a major addition
to what had typically becn put forward as methods for collecting information about language
learning needs, for example, with questionnaires antl interviews (Mackay, 1978: p. 2 1). But
in the end, what ensued was the delivery o f a prescribed syllahus whose purpose was to fill
in the gaps identified.
Widdowson’s discussion of needs analysis wends its w a j through the inadequacy of
rcgister-liascd analyses to arrive at the desirability of considering “aspects of discourse”
(1983: p. 85). In order to do this, he argues, we nccd to devise way5 to engage learners in
“procedural work” which will convert items of knowledge about language into “actualized
AN EMERGENT LANGUAGE PROGRAM FRAMEWORK 143
Table 12.2 Language usc
Idenr!f;cd needs How r e o / i / c d clnring 2-week intensii e
I Vocabulary
(a) Improper choice (c.g. A focus o f the tcchnical terms dictional-!
rccommcnd for collect) Teacher input antl some student student corrcction
(I)) Inatlcquatc to coniplctc Farmer visit \vorkshccts
forms
(c) A\ oitling circumlocution Rcportback antl meekly mcetings: usc o f media and redia
(tl) Technical terms Recording \vords in logbooks; contcxtualizing \vords for
dictionary; larmrr visit \\ orkshects
2 SIntax
(a) Connwting ideas '1 cachcr input olconncctors
(b) I inking ivithin paragraphs
(c) Consti-ucting sentences Writing memos, minutes of \\ cckl?- meeting antl video
scripts
3 'l'cnnc As abo\ c
4 Introducing a topic in \vriting Preparing for reporting back; \ ideo scripts
5 Writing clcai-1) Preparing for \vcckly mcctings; r e c o r d e r s in mccting;

minutes; video scripts; contcxtualizing vocabulary;
cxplanations foi- dictionary and for setting up listening
posts
6 Gi\ ing details Focus of "cxpantling"
Tohle 12.3 Writing antl reading
1dentlf;cd needs Hon reu/i/ed ciiiring 2-n cek intensive
1 Writing
(a) Farmer \isit l'orms Farmer \ isit \\ orkshccts
(I)) Intcrnal memos Manager reported an increase in thr number of internal
memos \\ rittcn in English; teachers askctl to chcc k
(c) Mcmos to report unusual I>id not arise
data
(d) Monthly reports*
( c ) Monthly report summaries*
(t) Report outlines 1)iscussctl ivith manager b u t not follo\vctl through
(g) Abstracts o f books and articlcs
2 Reading
(a) Incoming memos Mrmo from sub-oftice in tnglish: discussed antl
re\\ rittcn at Meekly mccting
(b) New sub-projcct tasks Informed second task
Prcparation and rollo\v-up for \vcckly mccting
* Note that \\e had intcndcd to hold a tvriting \vorkshop in the second \vcck. This plan \vas
abantlonctl as it was felt that there \vas just too much else going on. Writing was addressctl in othcr
areas, c.g. memos antl mccting minutes, though this \vas only at the scntencc/paragral'll Icvcl.
Table 12.4 Mctacogniti\c
1 Acking others ahout \\ortl\ not l-xainplc\ gi\cn allout ho\\ to ask lor help
understood
Man) example\ ol \tuclcnt stutlrnt and \tutlcnt- teacher
request\ lor hrlp
2 Lrarncrs assisting each other Participanta used t o jvorking as a team (a l’cature o f

\vay the projcct is set up)
Moat apparcnt in preparing lor reporting hack, mcctings
antl postrr session
3 Overcoming shyncss t o spcak This \z as commcntctl o n by 6 of thc participants in their

(conliticncc) Ivrittcn evaluations
4 U\ing L 1 to explain L2 Scrn in larnicr visit lorms and tcchnical terms dictionary
“Muscovy duck” video
* All spoken t o in the orientation by the participants from the planning workshop
communicatile behavior” (1 983: p. 87). Kenny’s ( 1 985) re\iem of Witldowson’s Language

Purpose antl Language IJ\e ( 1 98 3) ad(lcd thi5:
An analysis by the teacher ofthe learner’s conccptual requirements in the defined field
will point us in the direction of thc required tliscoursc . . . The selected discourse
becomes in the lesson the ohjcct we respond to, dissect and discuss, and the
communication we share. Ho\v is it conccptually organized? It is all right?What exactly
is meant? Do wc agree? Might WT add to it? Should \c-e elaborate this point? Can
someone explain this?
(1985: p. 177)
Inherent in these questions is negotiation and through such a process an understanding of

learners’ language needs can bcgin, as lcarners arc cngaged in Widdowson’s “proccdural
work.”At the same time, \ve arc forced to consider methodological issues as bcing at one
with finding out Lvhat learners know and what they need to know. Does the methodology
allow for previously unidentificd needs to be addrcsscd or is the content of the program set
in stonc beforehand! Does the methodology allow for futurc needs to be handled by the
learners “to achieve their o\vn aims after the course is over 1) applying the procedures they
have used in learning to the continuation of learning through language usc” (Widdowson,
1983: p. 91)?
This concert of needs anal and mcthotlology is central to the approach presented
in this paper; by engaging the lcarners in these conccrns of program design, the learning
experience is readily accessible to the participants in terms of the content and their ability
to participate. Nccds analyzctl concurrcmtly with the program and embedtled in the
methodology must tie o f immcdiatc relevance. A methodology which fosters learner
autonomy sustains momentum to continue learning; it becomes “a catalyst for learning”
(Folev, 1991 : p. 69).The validity of any approach to identify antl addrcss the language needs
AN EMERGENT LANGUAGE PROGRAM FRAMEWORI< 145
of learners is ultimately cstahlishctl :1 “how effectively it achieves its declared purposc of

defining the content of purpose-specific language programs” (Widdowson, 198 3: pp.
85 86). In the previous section, we gave cxamplcs of needs identified by the learners and
how these \\-ere realized as content. Let us now turn to placing the program’s aspects into
a hackground.
Working on tasks
We depart from the types of‘tasks discussed in /.angnage /.earning Tusks (Cantllin and Murph!,
1987) in one vital respect: the tasks are derived from and dcfincd I y actual work situations
in Lvhich the learner needs to use English. As one of the AIT partners observed in thc
planning workshop, the work content can scrvc as the language lcarning content. Work-
rclatctl tasks arc suitahlc for dctcrmining lcarning needs hccausc thc use of tasks allo\vs
tcachcrs to cstahiish “the rules [the learner] is using and the . tcms and categories he is
working with” (Corder, 1981; in Im-sen-Freeman and I,ong, 1991 : p. 41).The advantage
for the learner is that it allows him to focus on what he can do, to locate his starting point.
It is important that thc first task bc apIiropriatcly sct up s o that, on reporting liack,
language antl content arc generated to allokv the participants to procccd. In the case of the
planning workshop, this \vas achieved by pairing the participants \\ith counterparts \\ ho
could advise and assist them. In fact, they were helping each other. MrTanin, an AIT partncr,
commented that although he had helped his partner with vocabulary, his partncr had also
explained aquaculture concepts to him.
Reporting back
Reporting hack comes from the \vork donc at the Language Ccntcr o f AIT in the
development of its prr-sessional master’s program,Talkbasc. A reporthack
a focus on mcthod, a sharing of information and reciprocal curiosity allout what others arc
doing or h a w donc, and a first attempt at narrowing tlohvn a \vide and unmotivated topic
to one which is both managcahlc and of personal interest to the students” (Hall and Kenny,
1988: lip. 21 -22).‘livo rclatctl points need to be emphasizrd hrrc. First, mcthod is takcn
to mcan thc lvay in lvhich the task \vas accomplished. In our approach, bccausc Icarners are
dealing with work-based tasks, the mcthod for doing thc task during the language program
antl for doing the task for work arc one and the same. Second, it follows that thc topic is
already of interest as it is dcfined h y the learner antl involves the attainment o f a work goal.
The “narrowing down”1ircoines a process of managing the topic within the learners’ current
ability Ic\~cl.
Expanding
An increased abilit! to deal mith the content of the task at a more challenging leiel using
languagc lust bc!ond the cui rent lelel of abilit) comcs allout through expanding what the
learner has to sa) during a rcportliack Thc participants’ current knov lctlgc of language use
tl in the accomplishmcmt ot the task, upon 1% hich can be huilt a greater aliilit)
to report hack Problems atldressetl in the tasks arc naturail! centered on the leal ncr \z ho
Ilcncfits from guidance, not on11 lrom the tcachcrs hut also from other learners, thus
expanding the scope of the learner’\ task. Or put another \\a!. “student5 [ h a c ] a plan tor
further action u hich might iniollc exploration of further sources ot data, a rcdchnition oi
refinement of topic a r a or a search for mol e detailed information” (Hall antl Kenn), 1988
146 W I L L I A M SAVAGE AND GRAEME STORER
p 2 2 ) 1 his pointing tonartl an cxpandctl, elaborated goal is at the le\el of the content of
the ta5k and reportliack antl language I \ dciclopcd to reach thc ncxt point Thus, our
undcrstanding of expansion of language is that it occurs lxxausc of a need to discuss
expandcd content and not as it has Iieen litnitetl in Wid(lo\z son’s formulation.
generuli/ution + clarification + elaboration + cxempl$cution

(Widdon son, 1978: p. 1 33)
A language expansion sequence such as this seeins more communicatively useful when
applied to the content which language is k i n g used to transmit and not simply to the
language’s structural representation.
Evaluating
Evaluating is seen as “a rcgulai- and continuing process” (Rea, 1987: p. 165). l h e k e j
characteristic of such cvaluation is that it is integral to lcarning antl teaching. In practice,
this means that the language program participants (learners and teachers) arc explicitly
aware that whatever is going on is ultimately open to evaluation; they question how a givcn
task \vas accomplished and how it could tic improved. For example, such improvements
might concern the need to develop a greater ability to talk aliout a certain task during a
reportback session.Thcn the language nccdcd can be input to the learner, from the teacher
o r from other learners; the outcomc of that particular evaluation can lie acted upon
immctliatclj. As Watcrs points out, the negotiation about what is required to act on a task
provides an actual situation to discuss \vhat is to lie communicated and how it will be done.
Participatory evaluation highlights the jobs to lie done in thc ESP classroom and the best
means of carrying them out (Watcrs, 1987: pp. 7-8).
I.et us now return to thc language program framework in a rc-vised form which better
reflects the itlcas we have forwarded and makcs cxplicit the manner in which the program’s
aspects operate on each othcr (see Figurc 1 2 . 2 ) .
V Concluding remarks
What we have tlcscribcd hcrc is the design o f an cmcrgcnt language program, throughout
which the learners were invol\ed in defining the content antl how it \vould he addressed.
Some will argue that the \vay in which \ye have proceeded here is singular to the situation
and not transfcrralile. Certainly, \ve were helpcd liy thc fact that the aquaculture project
staff \vere already a cohesive team before \ve began working \cith them and that they shared
the same first language; antl, that the tlvo-week intensive took placc on-site.
However, we wish to make explicit certain situational constraints. First, the participants
were at widely different levels of ability in English, from beginners to those who were
reading (and writing) research papers in aquaculture. Second, we conducted the program
with a limited amount of media technology two snappy cameras, four portable cassette
playcrs antl one video camera. Third, work demands meant that some participants were
called away during the two-wcek intensive.
We have de1il)cratcly not dealt in detail with the practical instructional features of the
program because individual teachers \vould respond to the learners’ work-related content
in thcir own way. An area which could hc developed is team teaching in an emergent
program.
AN E M E R G E N T LANGUAGE PROGRAM FRAMEWORI< 147
site visit - - - -> planning workshop - - - -> intensive workshop
- - - _ -> working on tasks

I I
I I
I I
observing
I I
I I
I
I reporting back
clarifying I
and I
I assisting
re-defining I
I
I I
I I
I .- - ---- expanding
I
I
understanding
I
I
I
learning needs
I
I
I
I
I
I
-------- evaluating
In concluding, wc cite a particularly challenging passage from Clarkc’s discussion of

the ncgotiatcd svllabus which sums u p the targct \ye \vould likc to sce reached in language
programs:
The syllabus as derivcd from and generated by specific groups oflcarncrs . . . \Till lie
means rathcr than ends drivcn insofar as the ends cannot in fact he accuratelj
- -
prcdictctl. Thc v hole discussion about “design” becorncis somewhat solipsistic when
it is realizcd that the Ncgotiatcd syllabus tlocs not in fact cxist bcforc thc learncrs
m e e t with the teacher in a particular cn\ ironmcnt in order to cstablish its parametcrs.
Dcsign is therefore n o longer extcrnal t o , or prior to, thc irnplemcntation of the
syllabus and in fact becomes its most essential pedagogical component, Iicing itsclf
part o f the learning process.
(Clarkc, 1991 : 1’. 14)
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Kea, P. (1 987) “Communicati\e curriculum \alidation: a task-based approach.” In Candlin,
C. N. and Murphy, D. F. (cds) Language Learning Tasks pp. 147 65. London: Prentice-Hall.
Waters, A. (1 987) “Participatory coursc evaluation in ESP.” Englirh,fbr Spec!$c Purposer 7, 3-1 2.
Widdowson, 11. (1 978) Teaching Langiiacqe us Communication. Oxford University Press.
Widdow.son, H. (1 983) I.eurning Purpose ant/ Languuge Ure. Oxford University Press.
Chapter 13
Defeng Li
TEACHERS’ PERCEIVED DIFFICULTIES I N

INTRODUCING THE COMMUNICATIVE
APPROACH I N SOUTH KOREA
R E C E N T L Y , E D U C A T I O N A L I N N O V A T I O N S I N L 2 education haw
received consitlcrable attention (Bailey, 1992; Freeman and Cazden, 1990; Kcmncd\;
1988; Markee, 1997;White, 1987).The literature on this topic includes studies of language
curriculum d e d o p m c n t , language tcaching methodology, and the process of innomtion
that occurs in tcachcr tlcvchpmcnt contexts (Bailcy, 1992).
Attempts to introtlucc communicative languagc teaching (CLT) into EFL contcxts on
EI;L countrics’ ohvn initiativcs and through international aid projects haw prompted man!
innovations in 1,2 education. In general, such innovations havc had a low ratc of success
(Urindley antl Hood, 1 990), and implcmenting CUI’ uw-lchziclc has often pro\.ed difficult
(Anderson, 1993; Chick, 1996; Ellis, 1994,1996; Gonzalcx, 1985; Kirkpatrick, 1984; Sano,
Takahashi, antl Yoneyama, 1984; Shamin, 1996; l’ing, 1987; Valdcs and Jhoncs, 199 1 ).
Difficult as it is, many EFI, countrics arc still striving to introducc CI -1‘ in the hopc that it
will improve English teaching there.
Why has CLT Ixcn so difficult to implcnicnt in EFI. classrooms? How appropriatc is
CUI’ for EFI. contexts? I bclie\c teachcrs’ perceptions of the feasibility o r a CLT inno\ation
in a particular contrxt are crucial in determining the ultimate su ’ o r failure o f that
innovation (Kc,Ily, 1980; Markcc, 1997). For this reason I undcrtook a c a w study of South
Korean secondary school English teachers’ understanding of the uptake o f CUf in South
Korea. As many EFL countries sharc somc of the characteristics of English tcaching in
South Korea, for cxamplc, traditional tcaching methods antl large classes, this study has
witlcspread implications.
CLT: one definition

CLT starts Lvith a throry of language as communication, and its goal is to develop learners’
communicative competcnce. Canalc and Swain’s (1 980) definition of communicativc
competence is probahly the bcst kno\z n . The)- identified four dimensions: grammatical,
sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic compctcncc. This definition has untlergonc soinc
modifications over thc years, perhaps bcst captured in Bachman’s (1 990) schcmatization of
\vhat he calls lungtiage competence. The most significant differcnce l)ct\veen the two moticls
150 DEFENG LI
is that Bachman takes a far broader vic.12 of thc role of strategies than Canalc antl S\vain do
and separates strategic compctcnce completely from \vhat he calls language competencies
(Bachman, 1990; North, 1997).
In CLT, meaning is paramount. Wilkins ( 1 972) classifies meaning into notional and
functional categories and vicws learning an L2 as acquiring the linguistic means to perform
different kinds of functions. According to Larsen-l:recman (1 986), thc most obvious
characteristic of CLT is that “almost everything that is (lone is done lvith a communicative
intent” (p. 132). Teachers select learning activities according to how well they engage the
students in meaningful and authentic. language use rather than in the merely mcchanical
practicc of language patterns.
Another dimension o f CLTF is “its learner-centered antl experience-based view of
second language tcaching“ (Richards and Kodgcrs, 1986, p. 69). According to CUI theory,
individual learners possess unique interests, styles, necds, and goals that should he reflected
in the design o f instructional mcthods (Savignon, 1 99 1 ).
CLT is characterized by
1 a focus on communicative functions;

2 a focus on meaningful tasks rather than on language per se (e.g., grammar or vocabulary
study) ;
3 efforts to make tasks antl language rclcvant to a target group of learners through an
analysis of genuine, realistic situations;
4 the use of authentic, from-life materials;
5 the use of group acti\-ities; and
6 the attcmpt to create a secure, nonthreatening atmospherc.
I stress that thc description abovc reflects just one definition of CLT, what Holliday (1 994)
terms the weak version of C1.7. According to Holliday, the strong version is actually quite
differcnt:The focus is not on language practicc but on Icarning ahout how language works
in discourse.The Icsson input is language data in the form of text, and communicative relates
more to the \lay in \vhich the student communicatcs \vith the text. Also, students collaborate
for the purpose of helping each other solve language problems rather than for the purpose
of communicating with each other. Because the aim is not to practice language forms,
teachers do not need to monitor group and pair work closely, antl in fact activities do not
have to be carried out in groups or pairs. As long as students are communicating with rich
text and producing uscful hypotheses about the language, \vhat they arc doing is
communicative, according to Holliday (pp. 171- 172).
CLT in EFL contexts

A number of reports in thc literature deal with CLT innovations in EFL contexts. Whcrcas
somc accounts have emphasized the local needs antl the particular English tcaching
conditions in the EFL countries and the importance antl success of traditional language
teaching methods (Bhargava, 1986; Sampson, 1984, 1990), others have strongly advocated
the adoption of CLT in EFL countries (Li, 1984; Prabhu, 1987). However, the majority of
accounts have recognized the difficulties EFL countries lace in adopting CL,X
Burnaby and Sun (1 989) report that teachers in China found it difficult to use CLT.The
constraints cited include the context of the wider curriculum, traditional teaching methods,
class sizes and schedules, resources antl equipment, thc low status of tcachers who teach
communicative rather than analytical skills, antl English teachers’ drficiencics in oral English
T H E C O M M U N I C A T I V E A P P R O A C H I N S O U T H I<OREA 151
and sociolinguistic and strategic competence. Anderson’s ( 1 993) studv of CLT in China
reported such obstacles as a lack of properly trained teachers, a lack of appropriate texts
antl materials, studcnts’ not being accustomed to CLT, antl difficulties in evaluating students
taught via CLT. Based on a study that assessed the attitudes of I Iong Kong educators tokvard
using CLT in the local context, Chau and Chung (1 987) report that teachers usctl C I T only
sparingly because it required too much preparation time.
Sano et al. (1 984) point out that the Japancsc students they studied generally (lid not
feel a pressing need to use English, so that the goal of communicativc competence seemed
too distant for them. A study conducted in Vietnam identified class size, grammar-liasetl
examinations, and lack of exposurc to authentic language as constraints on using CI T (Ellis,
1994). Shamin (1 996) identifies learners’ resistance, among other problems, as a barricr to
her attempt to introduce innovative CLT methodology in her Pakistan English classroom.
The grammar-hased English language syllahus makes the English tcaching situation
complex antl the local usc of CL1’ challenging, according to Kirkpatrick’s (1 984) study of
CLT in secondary schools in Singapore. Gonzalcz (1985), who studied CLT in Philippine
rural areas, found that English instruction there was irrelevant to the population’s ncctls,
as people there seldom uscd English.
In studies of CLT outside Asia, Valdcs and Jhones ( 1 99 1 ) report difficulties such as
teachers’ lack of‘proficicncy in English, their traditional attitudes tolvard languagc teaching,
the lack of authentic materials in a non-English-spcaking environment, thc need to redesign
the evaluation system, and the need to adapt textbooks to meet the needs of communicativc
classes. Efforts to foster a communicative approach to the teaching of English in KwaZulu,
South Africa, met with pervasive reluctance on the part of teachers and students to adopt
the more egalitarian, decentralized ways of interacting associated with CLT (Chick, 1996).
Although these studies highlight many of the principal prohlems in instituting curricular
innovations prompted by CLT, many of the studies takc the researcher’s pcrspcctive.
‘reachers’ perceptions of innovations related to CLT remain largely unexplored.
The study
Thc study reported hcrc used a case stud! approach to inLcstigatc Korean teachers’
pcrceptions of the implcmentation of CUI.
Background: CLT in South Korea

The South Korean government has pla English learning and tcaching high o n its agenda
to ensure that South Korea will play ctive and important role in m-orld political antl
economic activities. The South Korean Ministry of Education recently published
a scrics of new policies regarding English learning and tcaching. First, carly in 1994
the g o x r n m c n t decided that English teaching would liegin at a younger age (Grade 3 in
elementary schools) starting in 1997 and began to train prospective elementary EFL.
teachers.
In addition, rcalizing that “the grammatical syllabus does not help much to develop
learners’ communicativc competence” (Development Committee, 1 992, 11. 66), the
government decided to introduce CLT into English teaching at the secondar,
In the ne\v curricula, the goal of English teaching is “to develop
communicative competence in English through meaningful drills and communicative
activities, such as games, with the aid of audio-visual equipment” (Dc lopment Committee,
1992, p. 180). Students are to learn by means of authentic materials, such as ncwspapers,
152 D E F E N G L I
magazines, English nchvs o n the radio, antl English TV programs. Thc curricula reflect the
belief that “CLT is characterized l ~ ylearner-ccntrcdncss” (p. 1 S l ) , antl teachers arc
cncouraged to organize materials based on students’ needs.
Accompanying the release of the nc\v curricula \vas the publication of a series of new
textbooks. O v e r 10 sets of English textbooks arc now a\-ailahle to secondary school English
teachers, who arc free to choosc any set provitlctl that the \vholc school adopts it.The new
textbooks incorporate a communicative perspective and more listening and speaking
materials and activities relative to the older ones.
Will the shift in the government’s policy result in an improvement in students’
communicative competence? Is Korea prepared to implement CLT in English instruction?
To ans\vcr these questions, 1 investigated Korean teachers’ perceptions o f the difficulties in
using CLT.
Design
The analvsis consisted of a pilot study, a \vrittcn questionnaire, antl interviews. To develop
an appropriatc survey instrument for this study, in s u m m e r 1 9 9 4 1 administered a pilot
survey t o 21 South Korcan EFL teachers studying in a teacher education program a t
a Canadian univcrsity. Thc final qucstionnairc includctl both open-ended questions and
questions with tixcd altcrnativcs gcncratcd from the data collcctcd in the pilot study (see
the Appendix).
In s u m m e r 1995, the questionnaire \vas administered t o 18 South Korean secondary
school EFL teachers studying at thc same Canadian univcrsity.To ensure that the participants
fully understood the questions, I distributed the questionnaires at the end of a class. The
participants were urged to read the clucstionnairc, antl they asked questions for clarification.
All 1 8 questionnaires distributed \vcrc handed hack. Following the survey, I conducted
in-depth inter\,iews with 10 o f t h c participants t o explore further the teachers’ back-ground,
their understanding of English teaching in South Korea, antl their tlillicultics in using CLT.
The interviews \vcrc scmistructurctl, contluctcd in a systematic antl consistent order
b u t allowing m e as the intervic\z et- sullicicnt frccdom t o digress and probe far beyond the
annvers to thc prrpared antl stantlartlizctl qucstions (Berg, 1989, p. 17). T h e interviews
xvcrc conducted in English. Although I was n ~ l a\varc l that the teachers’ imperfect English
might limit thc information they provided, I made certain that they u e r e ablc to cxprcss
their itleas fully ti) prcpariiig anti sending a n u m l x r of questions t o them ahratl of time.
1. . . I
Participants
Surv5r partrcipunts
The participants in the formal qucstionnairc survey \vcrc 18 South Korean.

English teachers w h o \vert‘ studying in the Korcan l i ~ a c h c rEducation Program (KTEP) at
a Canadian university in the summer- o f 1995. [ . . .I
The 9 inale and 9 female participants ranged from 30 t o 5 0 years in age, \vith the majority
in their 30s; thc avcragc age \vas 36.5,’fhcir experience in teaching English varied from 5
to 25 years, with an avcragc of over 1 1 ycars. A t the time o f the study, 8 participants were
teaching in mitltllc schools, and 10 were teaching in high schools. Many had taught at both
middle and high schools, as secondary school teachers in South Korea must transfcr schools
THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH I N SOUTH KOREA 153
every 5 years; high school teachers quite commonly transfcr to middle schools antl \ ice versa.
Half of the participants were teaching in rural secondary schools and half in urban settings.
A representative 10 ofthe 18 survey participants ww-e also given an in-depth intervicw.
Data analysis is not a simple description of the data collected but a proccss liy which the
rescarchcr can bring interpretation to the data (Povmey and Watts, 1987).Thc themes antl
coding categories in this study emerged from an examination of the data rathcr than k i n g
determined beforehand and imposed on the data (I3ogdan antl Biklen, 1992). [. . .]
Results
The South Korean tcachcrs \vcrc interested in the methods thcy used in teaching English.
Fourteen of the 18 participants rcportrd that they were w r y concerned, and the other 4
reported that they bvere fairly conccrncd. All reported that the grammar-translation
mcthod, the audiolingual method, or a combination of the two characterized their teaching.
However, 1 2 rcportcd having tried CI,T before attending thc tcacher education program in
Canada and having encountered difficulties in such attempts.
The difficulties reported liy the Korean tcachcrs fall into four categories: those caused
(a) by the teacher, (b) by the students, (c) liy the educational systcm, and (d) by CI,T itself.
Among them, difficulties falling into the first category were mentioned most often, almost
twice or three times as much as those in thc other three categories (seeTablc 13.1).
Tuhle 13.1 Krportrd difficulties in implcmcnting CLT
Source und (liff;c~ilt,i. .Yo. of’rnentionc”
Teacher 99
Deficiency in spokcn English 18
Deficiency in stratcgic anti sociolinguistic coinpctcncc 18
Lack of training in C1.7’ 18
F c ~ vopportunitica for rctraining in CLT 16
Misconcrptions about CLT 15
Littlc tinic lor developing materials for communicative classes 14
Students 50
I OLV tinglish proficirncy 18
Lack of motivation for de\ cloping communicativr coinpctcncc 17
Resistance to class participation 15
Educational systcm 61
18
Grammar-based examinations 18
Insufficirnt funding 13
I.ack of support 12
CLT 34
lnadcquatc account of LFL traching 18
I ack of rffrctivc and cfticicnt assrssmcnt instruments 16
“ The number of timer the rcscarch subjects referred to a thcmc in either the qucstionnairc or the
intervie\.\. as a constraint in using the CLT in their o n n contcxt. Thr maximum number of mentions
possible for each ofthc themrs included Lvithin thc four major categories i s 18.
154 DEFENG L I
Dificu1tie.s caused by the teucher
Deficiency in spoken English
All 18 participants considered that their own deficiency in spoken English constrained them
in applying CLT in their classrooms. As rcportccl by thc Korean teachers, the South Korean
governmcnt wanted CLT implemented I)ecausc o f disappointment about students’ oral
proficiency in English.The governmcnt as \vel1 as the teachers hopcd that CLT would help
students develop lxtter oral English. Although the tcachcrs gcncrally felt that they were
highly proficient in English grammar, rcatling, and writing, they all reported that their
abilities in English speaking and listening were not adequate to conduct the communicative
classes necessarily involved in CLT. ’l’he following comment was typical.
1 . I am good at English grammar, reading, and lvriting. Rut my oral English is very
poor. Since 1 can’t speak English \vcll, how can I teach it to my students?
(Dong-Soon, July 3 1 , 1995)
Surprisingly, even respondents who spoke English fluently and communicated well
thought thcir English was “too poor to use communicative language teachings” (Jin-Kyu,
July 17, 1995). Deficiency in spoken English apparently prevented some teachers from
applying CIrr, but for others lack o f confidencc was more likely to have been the reason.
Deficiency in strategic and sociolinguistic compctcncc
All 1 8 participants reportctl that thcir low strategic and sociolinguistic competence in
English would limit their use of CLT. As teachers’ sociolinguistic antl strategic competence
must lie much greater in a communicative classroom than in a traditional grammar-focused
classroom, the participants gcncrally felt incompetent to conduct a communicative class.
2. Studcnts askcd more qucstions in the class. I was happy when they asked m e
questions related to the English grammar. Rut those questions that are related to
thc sociolinguistic aspccts of English arc really hard for me. . . . In Korea, when
you can’t answer all of the students’ questions right a n y , you can’t be a teacher.
(Young-Chcol, July 26, 1995)
The fear of losing face hccausc of not Iwing ablc to answer students’ questions all the
time discouraged teachers from using CLT.
3. I once tried communicative activities with my Grade 10 kids.The kids enjoyed it.
In tact I cnjoyctl it too, cxccpt they asked so many questions related to the English
culture.They kvere interesting questions. Some of them I could answer, and some
of them I could not. That made me very much embarrassed. . . . If your kids find
that you cannot always answer their questions very confidently, you arc going to
lose thcir respect antl finally lose them. In our culture, teachers are supposed to
know everything and be always correct.
(Jin-Kyu, July 17, 1995)
Because of their deficiency in sociolinguistic competence in English and fear of losing

the respect of their students for being unable to give prompt ans\vers in class, teachers
“chose to stick to the traditional grammar-centred, text-ccntred and teacher-ccntrctl
mcthotls so that [they] always had a good idea about what was going to happen in every class
and made adequate preparations for it” (Dong-Soon, July 3 1 , 1995).
I ack of training in CLT
All 18 participants named lack oftraining as one ofthc main obstacles they faced in applying
CLT. As reported by the teachers, thcy had learned about CLT in different hvays in
~
university methods courses, English teaching confcrcnccs, antl English teaching journals ~
but thcy all agreed that they had not practiced it much.
4. Like many of us, I Icarncd CLT when I \vas studying at uni\-crsitv. But it \vas taught
as a piece of knowlcdgc for us to remember, not to use. I did not practice using it
while at university, though I did try it a f e ~timcs
. latcr when I became a teacher.
(f..om-Mi, July 25, 1995)
5. I learned the term CLT at a teachers’ conference. To be honcst, I did not quite
understand hov it norks.
( M w n g Sook, Julv 30, 1995)
This lack of systcmatic training led to a sketchy antl usually fragmented understanding
of CI,T and made it difficult for the teachers “to leave thc sccurity of the traditional methods
antl take thc risk of trying new unfamiliar methods”(Tack-Soo, July 20, 1995).
Fc\v opportunitics for rctraining in CLT
Sixteen teachers reported that fe\v in-scrvicc opportunities for retraining in CL‘I’ lvere
available. Most o f the respondents hac1 not had such opportunitics t)cfore the teacher
education program thcy \vert attcnding at that time. Mi-Ju cxpressed her frustration whcn
asked about her in-service education.
6. This i s the first time I participatc in an in-service teacher cducation program. It

took me 18 years to gct such an opportunity.
(Mi-Ju, July 28, 1995)
Even after the publication of the government’s ncw communicatiw curricula, feiv in-
service tcachcr education programs offered training in CLT. Without proper retraining,
teachers will inevitably misunderstand some elements o f CLT.
Misconceptions about CLT
Fifteen respondcnts referred to teachers’ misconceptions about CLT as one of the principal
obstacles. A typical misconception was that by concentrating on appropriateness antl fluency,
CLT docs not teach form at all and thus totally neglects accuracy.
7. Before attending this tcachcr education program, I thought that communicati1 e

language tcaching does not teach grammar antl only teaches speaking. I did not
156 D E F E N G L I
think that \\as a good ma> to teach our kids Engli5h. I think grammar should be
part of it, at least for our kitis After all, thcy ha\e to pass a lot of exam4 antl there
i \ a lot of grammar in them
(Myong-Sook, July 30, 1995)
Such misunderstantlings led thc teachers to Iiclic\ c that CLT contradicted thcir beliefs
about language learning and did not allon them to prepare students for the harious exams
that arc critical to their future careers. For that reason, the teachers refused to accept CLT.
Littlc time tor antl cxpcrtiw i n material tlc\clopment
Fourteen tcachcrs reported that lack of time for and lack of cxpcrtisc in tlcveloping
communicative materials had been constraints for them. All thc English textbooks availalile
(before the publication o f the ncw series of textbooks accompanying the publication of the
communicative curricula) had lieen developed under thc influence of‘ the grammar-
translation and audiolingual mrthods, so teachers had hatl to write their own materials and
design thcir oxvn activities if they wanted to use C1.T. [. . . ] This prohlcm was particularly
serious for female teachers liecause they also hatl to deal with housework.
8. I teach in a high school. I haic to hc at school from 8:00 in the morning to 6:3O in
the afternoon. When I go homc, I hale to take care of my tmo kidr. Because m j
husband teaches ana) from our home in Seoul, I hale to take my kids there at
\Teekends to see him. I really do not h a l e time for an> extra work.
(In-Ran, July 24, 1995)
Lack of expertise in designing communicati! c actii itics \vas also a concern among the
tcachcrs.
1. . I
’
L o n tngli\h proficiency
All 18 respondents reported that one important difficulty preventing them from using CLT
\vas their students’ low English proficiency. Korean students do not start to learn English
until after thcy cntcr middle school (Gradc 7), antl thcy haw only four 1 -hour English classes
each week, making progress slow.Thcy usually have a small English vocabulary and a limited
command of English structures. Recause students did not have the necessary proficiency in
English, the teachers found it hard to do any oral communicative activities with them.
9. Thc avcragc secondary school students have a very small English vocabulary. They
know limited number of English structures. So thcy haw great difficulty to express
themselves in English when they are assigned to do communicative activities.
Gradually they lose interest in trying to speak English and liecome too discouraged
to spcak English any morc.
(In-Ran, July 24, 1995)
As pointed out earlier, the Korean teachers believed that CLT necessarily involved
speaking activities. Therefore, Lvhcn oral activities were not possible or appeared to he
difficult, the teachers became frustrated with CLT and in most cases galc it up.
10. In such activities, I often see the kids struggling to express themselves in English,
only to make each other more confuscd. . . . I do not know whether I am doing
thc right thing with thc kids. To be safe, I prcfcr to use the method I am l‘amiliar
\vith to help the kids icarn.
(Eom-Mi, July 25, 1995)
Little motivation for communicativc compctencc
Seventeen participants identified students’ lack of motivation to work on their commu-

nicative comprtence as a great limitation. Although an increasing number of pcoplc in
South Korea have realized how important it is to be able to communicate in English rathcr
than to know English grammar well, students in secondary schools still care much morc
about grammar.
1 1 . My students know it is wry important to learn to use English for communication.

But since their goal is to enter the university, they prefer to work on English
grammar because thc National University Entrance Exam is grammar based.
(Joon-Suk, July 26, 1995)
Because grammar still plays a dccisive role in all English examinations in South Korca,
“tcachcrs who teach communicativc competence arc not liked as well as thosc who tcach
grammar” (Mi-Ju, 28/07/95), Students complained that “they [were] not learning anything
if they [did] not learn nebv words and grammar in a class” (Na-Yun, July 26, 1995).
Rcsistancc to class participation
Fifteen respondents cited the students’ resistancc to class participation as a primary

constraint in trying CLT. As students have already been in school for at least 6 years by the
time they enter middle school, they haw become accustomed to the traditional classroom
structure, in which thcy sit motionlcss, take notes while the teacher lectures, and speak
only when they arc spoken to. After so many years of schooling in traditional settings,
students rely o n the teacher to give them information directly, making it very difficult to
get thc students to participate in class activities.
The inconsistencies among teachcrs in their expcctations of studcnts also discouraged
students from participating in class activities,
1 2 . Especially when English class is thc only place whcrc participation is encouraged,
it can bring about confusion for the students as most tcachcrs of other subjects will
probably ncvcr toleratc, not saying encourage class participation.
To play it safe, students usually chose to behave traditionally in English class. When students
were not willing to participate in class activities, teachers saw little chance of fulfilling their
goal of using CLT, rendering it pointless to adopt CLT in their class.
158 DEFENG L I
D@culties caused ty the educational ystern
Largc classcs
All 18 respondents referred to large classes as one of the principal constraints on their
attempts to use C1.T. In South Korea, a sccontlary school class usually contains 48-50
students.The teachers found it very difficult, if not entirely impossible, to use CLT with so
many students in one class hecause they Iielieved that oral English and close monitoring of
class activities Lvere essential in CLT.
1 3 . With that number of students in one class, first of all, it is very difficult for class
management if UT use the communicativc method. For example, when everyone
starts to talk, the class can be very noisy.Tcachers and students in nearby classrooms
will complain ahout the noise in the English class. Secondly, it is not possible for
the tcachcr to give cach o f them [individualized] attention as required by the
communicativc method. Thirdly, \vith so many students in one regular classroom,
there is not even enough space for the students and the teacher to move around to
carry out the communicativc activities. Especially when the desks and stools arc
fixed to the floor, you cannot even move them.
(Jin-Kvu, July 17, 1995)
Grammar-basctl cxaminations
Grammar-based examinations were namctl Iiy all 18 rcspondents as another important

constraint. Among the many English cxaminations in South Korea, the National University
Entrance Examination (the English section) is thc most important one because other formal
and informal English cxaminations are motlcled on it. Until 1994 it consisted mainly of
grammar, rcading comprehension, and translation items. Now it has an additional part called
“Listening Comprehension,” Iiut its grammar-hased nature has remained unchangcd.
Teachers, under pressure to make their students do well on such tests, often devote valuable
class time to teaching test-taking skills and drilling students on multiple-choice grammar
items.
14. This exam [the National University Entrance Examination] has had tremendous
influence on the English teaching in South Korea. As soon as students start middle
school, they have a clear goal in mind to pass the National University Entrance
-
Examination.Teachcrs also have a clear goal in mind to help students succeed in

-
the Examination. Because it only tests students’ grammar knowledge and reading
ability, both students and tcachcrs are interested in grammar and rcading in English
classes.
(Young-Cheol, July 26, 1995)
Such an attitude leaves little room for CLT for 110th tcachcrs and students. As Savignon
(1991) observes, many curricular innovations have been undone by a failure to make
corresponcling changes in evaluation.
T H E C O M M U N I C A T I V E A P P R O A C H I N S O U T H I<OREA 1 5 9
lnsufficicnt funding
Thirteen rcspondcnts mentioned insufficient funding as a constraint.To use CLT in tcaching

English, certain equipment and facilities must be in place. Extra funding is nerdcd to obtain
resource books and materials for communicative activities. When the funding is not there,
using CLT is hard.
15. For example, we will need a photocopier to copy materials for students.That means
we need extra money which is not always there. It’s ahvays more difficult than you
plan and imagine.
(Eom-Mi, Julv 25, 1995)
Lack of support
Lack of support \vas cited by 1 2 respondents as a constraint. Although some of the teachers
had learned aliout CLT in univcrsity mcthods courscs, “applying it was yet another thing”
(Dong-Soon, July 31, 1995).
16. When I had qucstions about mhat I was doing, I talked with mj fcllov teachers,
hoping to get help from them Often t h q could not help m e Horn I n ished therc
v a s a CLI expert for questions and support
(Joon fuk, Jul) 26, 1995)
Teachers also found lack of support from administration frustrating.
17. It’s difficult to get help from our administrators. Particularly before the new
curriculums \vcre published the principal in my school didn’t carc about the
method I used. He \vas only interested in the scores my students got in exams.
kven now after the publication of the new curriculums, hc still carcs mostly about
the students’ scores.
(In-Ran, July 24, 1995)
The respondents also intlicatctl that they scldom got support from fcllow instructors
teaching other subjects in the samc schools.
18. Also, sometimes 1 needed cooperation from teachers of other subjects; but, for
some reasons, they showed little intcrcst in what I was doing.
(In-Ran, July 24, 1995)
Teachers generally found this lack of professional, administrativc, antl collegial support
discouraging. Often they lost interest in coping with the challenges of introducing CIATin
their classes.
1 9 This [lack of support] 1%

as extremel) diScouraging It M as 40 hard when e\ cr) thing
was on your shoultler. Finally I had to gixe up CI T antl return to the peaceful and
easy traditional method of teaching English
(Dong-Soon, Jul) 31, 1995)
160 DEFENG L I
CLT’s inadcquatc account of EFL teaching
All 18 participants reported that CLT has not given an adcquatc account of EFL tcaching
dcspitc its initial growth in foreign languagc teaching in Europc.The teachers saw important
differences bctwccn teaching EFL and teaching ESL. Thcy expressed frustration at the fact
that the research community, cspccially many Western language education rcscarchers, has
rarelv differentiated EFL from ESL.
20. In my opinion, EFL is very tlilfci-ent from ESL. But many people tend to
confuse them and often ignorc the special clcmcnts of EFL. situations. I think that’s
why w c EFL teachers usually find Western language teaching methods difficult
to use.
The significant differences that thc teachers saw bctwccn EFL and ESL included the
purposes of learning English, learning environments, teachers’ English proficiency, and the
a\-ailability of authentic English materials.
[. . .I
2 1 . For cxamplc, in ESL situations, studcnts usually h a w a very supportive learning

environment outside school. Thcy have many chances to hear and speak English
outside class, which can reinforce VI hat they learn in class. Resides, they have
the motivation to work on oral English txcausc they need it in their lives. In
our situation, the classroom is the only place hvhcrc studcnts can hear and speak
English.Thcy d o not nccd to usc the language in their livcs but only in pretended
situations.
Lack of effective and cllicicnt assessment instrunicnts
Used to traditional discrete-point tcsting o f grammatical knowledge, the teachers found

it disconcerting that there \vcrc no prescrilied, ready-made assessment tools for commu-
nicative competence and that they would have to design their own. The Korean teachers
believed that one ofthe liest \vays to test students’ communicative competence was to give
the studcnts oral tests. In general, they each taught four classes of approximately 48 students.
Finishing even one round of individual oral tests would take a long time, and there was
nobody to supervise the other students while the teacher was conducting the tests.
22. When you teach four classes and each has nearly 50 students, you are dealing with
200 students. If I have to do oral examinations to assess their communicative
competence, it would take me dozcns of days to finish just one round.
(Mi-ju, July 28, 1995)
Resides, the Korean teachers generally did not support these sulijectivc tests.
23. There is no way that my collcagucs and I would use the same criteria in the test.
Even I myself probably cannot use the same criteria all thc time. I would probably
use different criteria when I am tired after long time of testing.
The teachers also found it difficult to balance content and languagc when scoring oral
exams.
24. About a year ago, for the final cxam, besides the writtcn tcst, I did an oral cxam
for thc students in one o f t h c classes I taught. Giving them a score \vas so difficult
compared with grading the written tests. My biggest problem was how much I
should assign to the content of their talk and how much to the language they used.
Even before I finished the test, I knew that I used different criteria. I did not like
the results of the test because they were not reliable.
(Myong-Sook, July 30, 1995)
Implications of the study

Much of what the Korean teachers said about EFL teaching in their country and about their
difficulties in using C1,T is common to many parts of the world. The following discussion,
although it particularly addresses EFI, teaching in South Korca, thus extends to other EFL
countries as well.
A conflict apparentlv exists between what CLT demands and what the EFL situation in
many countries, such as South Korea, allows. This conflict must hc rrsolved before EFL
teaching in these countries can hcnefit from CLT. To resolve the conflict, attention should
be givcn to the following areas.
Educational values and attitudes

The fundamental approach to cducation in Korea needs to change before CUI‘ can hc
successful there. The predominance of text-centered and grammar-centered practices in
Korea does not provide a hasis for the student-centered, flucncy-focused, and problem-
solving activities required by CLT. As Price (1 988) points out, reform of education is not
simply reform of the school system but reform of the behavior and thinking of the widcr
social tcaching-learning process that guides moral-political ideas and behavior. Far-reaching
curriculum innovation involves funtlamental shifts in the values and beliefs of the individuals
concerned (Brindlcy and Hood, 1990; Burns, 1996). If CLT is to be implemcntcd in a
previously traditional classroom, teachus, students, parents, administrators and other
stakeholders must shift their conceptions of what constitutes good English teaching (Enright
and McCloskey, 1985; Markee, 1997; Penner, 1995).
However; such a fundamental change takes time. “Changes in the \vay pcople think
usually lag behind changes in social structure” (Ting, 1987, p. 49). Therefore South Korea
and other EFL countries with similar situations should adapt rather than adopt CLT into
their English teaching. Rather than simply jumping onto the CLT bandwagon by mandating
its use, the government and EFL teachers of South Korca and other EFL countries should
carefully study their TEFL situations and decide how CLT can best scrvc their needs and
interests.
162 D E F E N G L I
Reading
Because the main purpose of learning English for many people in South Korea and other
EFL countries is to be ahle to read antl translate into their mothcr tongue scientific, medical,
and technical documents written in English, Korcan teachers should continue their emphasis
on developing students’ rcxding ahilitics. However, instead of spending much precious time
on intensive reading and grammatical analysis, teachers might introduce some ideas from
CLT, such as extensive reading and reading for meaning.
Oral skills
Recause the demand for people \vho can communicate orally in English has increased as the
result of international tratlc and globalization, English classes should include listening and
speaking activities. Teachers antl administrators must be ahvarc of the shift in societal needs
and make conscious and persistent efforts to introduce morc CLT into English tcaching.
With globalization, smaller classes, a better cconomy, and more compctcnt tcachcrs, a lietter
undcrstanding antl acceptance o f the philosophical underpinnings of the CLT arc possible.
South Korea and other EFL countries may thcn hc aldr to use morc CLT or, better still,
lop their o\vn “locally appropriate vcrsion of the communicative approach” (Tomlinson,
1990, 13. 36).
Grammar
Contrary to a common misconception, CLT docs not exclude the tcaching of grammar.
Thc litcraturc abounds with arguments for including grammar instruction in L2 teaching.
Howcvcr, tcachcrs must also hear in mind that the purposc of teaching grammar is to help
students lcarn the language, antl teachers must be \vary of making grammar the end of their
teaching. [. . .]
Students’ attitudes
In introducing CLT to students \vho have previously studied foreign language in a traditional
fashion, teachers arc likely to encounter some initial reservations. Thus, teachers will need
to consciously reorient students to “the basic function of the classroom, the role of the
student and the nature of language” (Dcckcrt, 1987,p. 20).
Teachers’ attitudes
Teachers should have assistance antl cncouragcmcnt in trying out nc\v ideas and materials.
Continuing support for teachers who may need further help \vith CLT along the hvay is also
important. [. . .]
Preservice teacher education
The tleli\cry of EFL methods courses in preservice teacher education programs should
change. CLT should not be lectured about but tlcmonstratcd. Novice teachers should have
opportunities to get hands-on experience Lvith antl gain confidence in using CLT.
More importantly, considering the dynamic nature of EFL teaching, preservicc teacher
education should focus on dcvcloping student tcachers’ autonomy and their decision-making
and problem-solving ahilitics as well as their ability to be reflectivc practitioners (Richards

and Lockhart, 1994; Schon, 1983).
Local educational growth

Inasmuch as many teaching methodologies developed in the West are often difficult to
introduce into EFL situations with diffcrcnt educational theories and realities, in thc long
run EFL countries may b e better off developing methods in their oivn contexts. Rather than
relying on expertise, methodology, and materials controlled and dispenscd by Western ESL
countries, EFL countries should strivc t o establish their own research contingents and
cncourage methods specialists and classroom teachers to d lop language teaching methods
that takc into account the political, economic, social, antl cultural factors and, most
important o f all, the EFL situations in their countrics (Daoutl, 1996; Phillipson, 1992). In
this way, thcy will he able to d e teaching methods “appropriate to thcir lcarncrs, their
colleagues and thcir societies” (Edgc, 1996, p. 18).
Conclusion
Curriculum innovation involvcs multiple and interrelated factors that may influence it at
different stagcs and at different lcvcls (Shamin, 1996). “As a socially situated activity, its
success is affected by ethical and tcmic constraints, the personal charactcristics of
potential adopters, the attributes of innovations antl the stratcgics that are used to managc
change in particular contexts”(Markre, 1997, p. 41 ). In an! attempt t o improve education,
teachers arc ccntral t o long-lasting changcs (Frymier, 1987; Fullan, 1993). How teachcrs
as the end users o f an innovation perccivc its feasibility is a crucial factor in the ultimatc
success or failurc o f that inno\ ation.
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Appendix: questionnaire
Please complete the following question\ as appropriate.
1 Age
2 sex
3 How many years have you lieen a tcachcr of English?
4 Are you teaching in a middle school o r high school?

0 Middle School 0High School
5 Which grade(s) are you tcaching?
6 Are you teaching in an urban or rural middlc/high school?
0Urban Rural
7 Are you concerned about the methods you use in tcaching English?
DYES 0N O
8 What methods are you using now?
9 H a w you tried Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)?
DYES 0NO
10 Why did you o r why didn’t you try CLT?
11 Hoiv did you like using CLT in your classroom?

12 The following are some difficulties that other EFL teachers had in adopting CLT.
Did you comc across thcsc difficultics or do vou think thcv might lie difficulties for
you in adopting CUI’ in South Korea?
1 Teachers’ deficiency in spoken English? UYES O N 0

2 Teachcrs’ deficiency in strategic and sociolinguistic
competence in English?
3 Tcachers’ having little time to hvritc communicative
materials?
4 Students’ low English proficiency?
5 Students’ passive style of learning?
6 Lack of authentic tcaching matcrials!
7 Grammar-hased examinations!
8 Large classes?
9 ‘l’he differences hctwccn EFL and ESL?
PART T H R E E
Planning and implementing

curriculum change
C h a p t e v 14
Adrian Holliday
ACHIEVING CULTURAL CONTINUITY I N

CURRICULUM INNOVATION
Introduction
I N T H I S P A P E R I A M G O I N G T O L O O K A T thc issue ofcultural continuitv

in curriculum innovation. My major point will be that a major obstacle to true cultural
continuity is our own professional discour. which prevent us from seeing the real worlds
of the people we work with. We therefore need to be critically aware of ourselves as cultural
actors antl learn how to see the people wc work with in their own terms instead of in our
terms.
I shall begin with the principle of cultural continuity and why it is important both in
the classroom and the wider domain ofthc curriculum and curriculum projects. I shall thcn
demonstrate how professional discourses create obstacles to cultural continuity, and how
this might tie avoided.
The principle of cultural continuity

Cultural continuity is achieved when meaningful liridges are built bctwcen the culture of‘
the innovation and the traditional expectations of the people with whom w-c work. The
notion of ‘cultural continuity’ is taken from Jacob (1 996), who is interested in the way in
which the teacher mediatcs hcthveen a ‘foreign’ lesson content and the ‘local’ orientation
of her or his students. Homever, it can be used to refer to a broader aim which has become
common inTESOL in the last ten years to be sensitive to the cultural expectations of the
~
‘rccipients’ of innmation, whcther they bc students or tcachcrs encountcring new tcaching

methodologies, or stakeholders in curriculum projects. Phillipson (1 992) antl Pennycook
(1 994) havc drawn our attcntion to the dangers of cultural o r linguistic imperialism \\hen
dominant forms of professionalism in TESOL arc transported from one place to another,
as has my own work on how to make classroom and curriculum project methodologies
‘appropriate’ to social context (Holliday, 1994). The now influential phrase, ‘appropriate
methodology’ was introduced into TESOL by Rowers many years ago (Rowers and
Widdowson, 1986).The plea for more attcntion to the sociopolitical environment of TESOL,
w-as made by Swales several years earlier ( 1 980). Coleman’s (1 996) work on the influencc
of socicty on what happens in the classroom is a more recent part of this movement, as is
recent critical thinking about how the paradigms of TESOL profcssionalism h a w been
170 A D R I A N H O L L I D A Y
socially constructed (Beaumont and Wright, 1998). The basic idca of cultural continuity is
that a particular innovation is adjusted to enable the hcst possiblc fit with a host environment
(Figure 14.1). It is a two-way process in that the innovation needs to be informed by data
from the host environment.
INNOVATION
a t t c m p t o fit ho\t ~ t i l t i i r c
c.g. needs muL\ms, act ion rcsenrch. cthnogruphj,
inioli.ing ‘insiders’, CI alriulion
f 1 0 S T ENVIRONMENT
(classroom or institution; stucicnts,
tcachcrs or othcr stakeholdrrs)
Figure 14./ Cultural continuit!
The dominant discourses of teaching

There is a strange iron); here, which involves the prolhmatic nature of learner-ccntredncss
and skills-based education. At first sight, lrarncr-ccntredncss and the teaching of skills would
scem to support the possibility of cultural continuity in that they follow the principle that
tcaching should connect with the perceptions antl needs o f the student. Indeed, lcarner-
centredncss reprcsents an admirable attcmpt in cducation, sincc the 1960s, to allow students
a more interactive, participant role in the classroom. A t t h r same time the teaching and
learning of skills implied that the content of education had to be useful to the needs of the
learner and the environment in which she o r he \vas to operate.
However, with deeper analysis, various kvritcrs in education, such as Usher and Edwards
(1 994), following thc critical sociology of Foucault, are Ileginning to argue that Iearncr-
centredncss and skills-based education might lie having the opposite effect. The 1970s and
1980s brought an increased need for accountability; and a skills-based education lent itself
well to the measurement of stutlcnt progress through the achievement of discrete learning
objectives. The breaking down of skills into compctcncies was instrumental in this. The
outcome is a bureaucratisation of lcarner~ccntredncss.Usher and Edwards (ibid.) argue that
in swing the student in terms of a set o f pre-defined, mcasurablc compctcncies anti skills,
she or he is reduccd t o a learning automaton. Thus, the ‘learner’ at the centre of learncr-
centredness is no longer a real person, but a product of mcasurablc educational technology.
T\vo things are going on here. First, what claims to bc a sensitivity to the ‘learner’ ~
learner-centredness has liecome a lircaking up of the student into teachable skills. Second,
~
the terminology with which education speaks about the ‘learner’ has become highly
technical. Hence, learner-ccntredncss becomes what Fairclough (1 995) calls a
‘technologiscd discoursc’ which appears ideologically neutral but in fact reprcsents the
bureaucratic and idcological needs, not of thc ‘learnrr’ , but of a particular professional
group. Clark antl Ivanic assert that: ‘ “Skills” [. . .] suggests a set of neutral technologies or
techniques that are somehow separate and separable from the social context. [. . .] I t has
led to the vieiving of language and language activities as consisting of discrete, apparently
A C H I E V I N G CU L T U R A L C O N T I N U I T Y 171
manageable and “teachable” components, and so appears to facilitate teaching and learning.
I t implies a normative and prescriptive view of communication’ (1 997: 84).
This perception is bcing confirmcd in research into the ideological basis for TESOL
professionalism . Raxter (in process) has noted that in teacher training programmes, despite
the liberal rhetoric of learner-centredness, the real concern is with the technology of
teaching, which is presentcd as ideologically neutral, in which the ‘learner’ becomes an
accessory for the purpose of accountablc professionalism.
~
concern IZ ith learning need5 ant1 o b ~ e c t i ~ c s ,

skill\, cornpetencec and u c c o u n t a b i l i ~ ~
tcchnologisrtl
someit here else profcssional discoursc
Figure 14.2 Profcssionally constructrtl imagc of ‘the learner’
Hence, although we might claim learner-ccntrcdness, we construct an image of ‘the

learner’ within our own powerful, technical discourse of professionalism.This is illustrated
in Figure 14.2. If the innovation is a new classroom rncthodology claiming ‘learner-
ccntrcdness’ , the surface implication is that there will therefore be a concern with thc needs
of ‘the learner’. However, the tcchnologised professional discourse of learner-centredncss
takes attention away from the real student. Learning needs and objectives, skills and
competencies serve the accountability required by the discourse rather than the real student.
The outcome is a control of ‘learning’ through planned tasks, again, serving thc technical
needs of the discourse rather than the rcal student.
The dominant discourse of project management

I will now move on to the morc macro issue of curriculum innovation and arguc that a
similar process is taking placc. Thc problem here concerns the way in which the so-called
recipients of curriculum innovation are perceived, accommodated and managed.
There has been much rcccnt concern that curriculum innovation should hc scnsitive to
the local setting. This has resulted in what has been called a more person-sensitive process
approach to curriculum project management. The process project claims adaptation to
situational needs. And in what might be called a stakeholder-centred approach, groups of
local people arc quite rightly identified as representatives of these needs; and strategies
arc dcveloped to satisfy their intcrcsts and maintain their ownership of thc innovation.
Stakeholders can be broadly defined as all the people who have a stake in the innovation.
Several examples of this can be seen in Hayes (1 99711). In projects in Indonesia andThailand,
Amlirosc-Yeoh reports how eighty-scvcn secondary school teachers a r r consultcd ‘in a

fcasibility study’, antl in the resulting training:
A generally friendly and interactive style \vas adoptcd to counter any sense of isolation.
[. . .] To pcrsonalise the materials and to cstalilish rapport ivith the teachcrs, passive
language was generally avoided and there was also deliberate choice of pronouns such
as ‘we’, ‘1’ antl ‘you’ over pronouns such as ‘they’ or ‘he’ or ‘shc’.
(1 997: 89-90)
In Malta, Jarvis and Cameron ( 1 997) monitor the changing roles of teachcrs as they adopt
and interpret innovation. Also, Martin antl Ralahanis (1 995) describe how in Egypt, ‘working
parties’ are set up to involve senior rqx-escntativcs from USAID, the Ministry of Education
and the language centre where the innovation \vas to take place, and ncgotiate conscnsus.
Similarly,Weir and Roberts (1 994) tlcscribc ho\v ‘insitlcrs’ Iiecomc involved in the evaluation
of the innovation process, in, for cxamplc, the cstahlishmcnt of ‘liasclinc’ data, and how
formative evaluation liecomcs integratcd with self-directed tcachrr development.
er a problcm \vith this stakeholder-centred approach, similar to thc
arncr-centred approach which I have already described. As with the
classroom, there is a strange irony. As bvith learner-centrcdness, a tcchnologised professional
discourse has bccn created. Weir and Roberts ( 1 994) rightly note that as the concept of
formative evaluation inTESOL maturcs, it takes on the role of quality control. Indeed, it
falls in line with the growing dominant ideology of late modern society in which everything
has to be accountable to the client. Even the pro project has to lie commodified along
with the other aspects of cducation ant1 other institutional practices such as medicine noted
117 Usher and Edlvards ( 1 994) and Fairclough (1 995). Thus, we have a professionally
constructed image o f t h c ‘stakeholder’, as lvc d o of the ‘learner’ (Figure 14.3).
As with the technologised discourse of learncr~ccntredness,the technologiscd discoursc
of stakeholdcr~centrednesshas an emphasis on control (right hand bubble). Here the control
is situated in a prolifcration of highly technical project documrnts, at the centre of which
are the current log-frame and time-lines for resource input. Although these documcnts are,
quite rightly, intended as the product of ‘agreement’ with key stakeholders, thcy are very
control ol‘ participation

nc\v curriculum itcm through plans and
I
attempts to bc ‘stakcholtlcr~ccntretl’~’
concern with institutional needs, oiimmhip, I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
documcnts
I
management ckr /Is undo c a rin t u h i /i<v I
I
tcchnologiscd
profcssional tliscoursr
wmewhere elte
Figure 14.3 Professionally constructed image 01‘ ‘the stakrholticr’

ACHIEVING CULTURAL CONTINUITY 173
much the product of the technologised discourse itself. This is w r y clear whcn stakeholders
who do not belong to this discourse find them incomprehensible.
In my experience, therc is an interesting puzzle here. Thrrc is often the appearance of’
n the various parties with regard to project documentation. The
hyperrational project discourse takes this as evidence that there is real agreement.
Stakeholders coming from different discourses of their own might see the situation
differently, and be prepared to go through the motions of agreement for their o\vn ulterior
motives.This type of phenomenon is \vel1 documented in Holliday ( 1 994), where I describe
the operation of informal ordcrs and deep action within the host environment, which have
stakeholders pursuing their o\vn ends in their own ways. The following hvarning by Taylor
against naive notions of mutuality rings true:
Establishment and maintenance of sustained dialogue between all those involved

[. . .] [is] not casy [. . .]There arc barriers antl inequalities of language, culture and
education, and frequently even the need for such dialogue is not recogniscd by either
sidc. There is unfamiliarity on both sides with the use of common management tools
for the sharing and analysis of information (from project frameworks, analysis, tables,
grids and diagrams to statistical methods and computrr programmes).
(1997: 116-17)
Something similar was found by Smith ( 1 991 ), w h o noted that notions o f ‘control’,
‘predictability’, ‘generalisation’ and ‘objective’ \vert constructed differently by different
parties in educational innontion in a numhcr of scenarios.
An important extension of the discourse of stakchO1dc.r-centretlness is the equally
technologiscd discourse of evaluation, \vhich bases itself very much on the carefully
measurcd and verified consensus of stakeholders. If this consensus is only apparent, then
the technology of evaluation cannot be as sound as it appears. According to Fairclough
(1 995),a political, though tacit antl pcrhaps unconscious motivc, of tcchnologised discourses
in late modern societies is to create a false image of consensus as \vc find ourselves gradually
consumed by thc hchavioural technicalities which they demand. As we try to get our hcads
around the discourse of quality control \ve find ourselves more and more taking part in it,
eslxcially as the tliscoursc takes on the appearance of’lnr’ltlng us to participate in our o\vn
cvay. I do not somehow think that the local participants in many curriculum projects are
taken in in this way. They haw other tliscour of their o\vn to get on with.
Empowerment and ownership

This statc of affairs throws an intcrcsting light on the tray in which the behaliour of
stakeholders is perccivcd and constructed by the tcchnologised discourse of stakcholdcr-
ccntrctlness. In much o f the literature on stakeholtlrrs, there is a tacit polver distinction
n those parties who somehow instigate, manage, fund, design, and possess the
technology of innovation, antl those who do not. InTESOL projects this distinction can be
expressed easily in terms of expatriate, ‘nati pcakcr’ ‘experts’on the one hand, and ‘local’
personnel on the other. This also corresponds \vith the ‘insider-outsider’ distinction, where
cxpatriatc agencies antl pel-sonncl comc from outside in every sensr of the kvord, antl
insiders arr local not onl! to the innovation scenario but to thc country within which it
takes place.
It is important to stress that I am talking here about perccptlons created within the
discotirse of a particular innovation methodology, which constructs the reality of inno\-ation
scenarios in a particular way, rather than the r e a l i v . I t is also important to stress that the
writers of literature within the discourse might themselves he unaware of the itlcological
principles they are perpetuating. Fairclough (1 995: 36) makes the point that people arc
often ‘standardly unaware’ of the itlcological meanings which have hecome normalised
within their own language. Clark antl Ivanic ( 1 997: 176) confirm this lvhcn they cite a study
which shows that many people are often not aware of the tlccpcr ideological meanings of
what they rcad.Thus, it is the discourse, rathcr than individual actors within it, which reveals
an ‘us’-‘them’distinction found in the litvraturc.
Clark and Ivanic (1 997) make the point that the act of writing is itsclfa struggle within
a world where competing discourses vie for hegemony. Such a struggle can be seen in the
way in wrhich Smith (1 995) lvritcs about a kcy stakeholdcr group Lvhich falls into the local-
insider category of ‘counterparts’ the people who work alongside ‘expert’ cxpatriatc
curriculum developers hvith whom thcre is somc form of transfer to enable the innovation
to continue after the ‘expert’ has left.
Smith suggests that it cannot lie denied that there may lie a pohver diftercnce in many
developing world locations, \vhen thc expatriatc ‘expert’ has lhe ‘privileges [ . . .] granted
to (or assumed by) the foreign gucst’ which enable access to budgets, key locations, events
and people, and the counterpart docs not, and is then expected ‘to sustain project impact
after the aid has been withdrawm’ on ‘ U S $ 2 5 pcr month’ (1995: 67- 8). Discussion of
whether or not this is altvays thc case involvcs looking more deeply at the whole rclationship
between insiders and outsiders; but here one can suspect that thc problem might not so
much be one of power per se, but of the nature of the technology which the counterpart is
expected to carry on. Might it bc that what thc ‘expert’ is considered to be expert in is not
sufficiently compatible, o r too ethnocentric to thc discourse ofscukeholder~cencrednessfrom the
outset? Smith acknowledges that a morc ‘humanistic approach’ to project ‘sustainability’
must get ‘closer to the ways of the rccipicnt’ antl that the po\ver required to sustain the
innovation may not be something thc counterpart simply docs not have, hut something
which she or he might ‘refuse to accept’ ( 1 995: 67). Here, as in so much of this literature,
there is a concerted e@rt to get to grips with and understand the viewpoint of the ‘local’,
but the outcome, the insistence that ‘empowerment’ of the ‘local’ is the answer, is still deeply
rooted in the ‘us’-‘them’perception, in which ‘they’ ‘don’t know the technology’ antl are
‘easily dominated’ .
Although analysts do try to get under the surfacc at the deeper social issues, and really
do try to understand the viewpoints antl predicament of other partics in innoyation contexts,
they tend to consider large cultural factors as the overriding issuc. Hence, Smith puts
‘cultural’ at the top of his list of ‘ohstacles’ to empowerment. Speaking about Cambodia
he suggests that local personncl:
will have to push hard to bring about any changcs.This will tie difficult where culturally
one defers to and is not assertive towards someone higher in the hierarchy. [. . . ]
Othcrs have noted the ‘cultural nature of management’ [. . .I antl the ‘differing cultural
concepts as to the appropriate roles for professionals employed in the public sector’.
(1995: 71)
I IC continues to state the ‘need for a thorough understanding ly outsiders ofthe host culture
into M-hich the innovation is k i n g introduced’ (ibid.: 7 4 citing Leach). He thus alludes to
the model of cultural thinking seen in Hoftstetle, who looks at ‘the consequenccs of national
cultural differences in the way people in a country organisc themselves’ and how ‘organi-
sational practices and theorics arc culturally dependent’ (1 991 : xiii).
A C H I E V I N G CU L T U R A L C O N T I N U I T Y 175
The rational, systematic nature ofthis national culture model fits \vel1 with the technical
needs o f the discourse of stakcholtler-ccntretlness, as it does with many activitics, such as
management, which seek to commodify human difference efficiently. Follohving this line of
thinking, Flew sees ‘counterpart training’ as essentially an ‘interpersonal interaction across
cultures’. She quite rightly shrinks from the perception of a one-kvay transfer from culturally
superior rxpatriate curriculum developer to culturally inferior countcrparts as ‘potentially
patronising’ ( 1 995: 76) and recommends ‘mutual learning between people from tliffercnt
cultures ( 1 995: 81). One Lvondcrs, however, whethcr ‘trust and esteem (1995: 78) \vi11 he
sufficient to lircak the ‘us’-‘them’paradigm and stand in the Lvay of a potentially damaging
of mutual othcrisation. O n the onc hand, one would not nowadays
recommend a professional exchange of virws on the hasis of a sharing of gender or racial
difference. O n thc other hand, the headings ‘training’ and ‘empowerment’ under which the
exchange takes place seem to indicate the ideology of only one side.
Overall, the literature on stakrholders seems to crcate the ‘us’-‘them’distinction in a
very particular way (Figure 14.4). O n the one hand, ‘they’ are deficient, mainly in tcrms
ofthe technologised discourse itself; on the other hand, they arc classified as such vcry much
in the same way, perhaps regartllcss of their so-called national culture. O n r implication here
is that the major agent of difference is not the national culture at all, but the power of the
tcchnologiscd discourse. A colleague of mine in a project in India commented that the
project created thc notion of ‘all Indians together’. Perhaps it is not just Indians, but anyone
who docs not conform to thc discoursc. Again, an important implication here is what does
it all mean if the ‘Indians’ do not really want to conform to thc project after all?
S’I‘A K E H 0 L1)k J<S
1
‘
‘US’ ‘TI IEM’
1 ‘cxpatriatrs, nativc spcakrrs, 1 ‘local, insiders, nun-nativc
cxpcrts’ speakers’
2 ‘prohcicnt in thc tcchnolog: ’ 2 ‘don’t kno\v thc technolog!,
3 ‘<.an: managc, rcscarch, plan, casil!, (1ominatc.d’
evaluate, organi.;c, train’ 3 ‘ncctl to be: trainccl, trcatcci
4 ‘hayc the po\vrr’ srnsitivcly, untlrrstood,
in\ olvcd, given ojvncrship,
em pori rrcti ’
4 ‘culturallv clill.rcnt: c.g.
hicrarchical, c u i Icctivist ,
uncritical, undrmocratic’
5 ‘all Indians togcthcr’
F i p r e I-! 4 ‘U\’ - ‘thrm’ configuration
Alternative ways of looking

There needs to be an alternative way of looking at the people \vc work with in innovation
scenarios in their own tcrms rather than ours. There is some litcrature developing in
~
TESOI, which begins to do this. Hayes attempts to do this as he rccords personal accounts
of what it is like to be a teacher. Thus:
One teacher recorded hcr experience. ‘When you spcak English everybody will (say
to you) “What language you do?”O t h e r teachers (will say) “You arc strange . . . you
try t o show off like this” ’. [. . . ] It is in relation t o their position in society, the culture
and traditions of thcir schools and accepted n o r m s of behaviour within their
classrooms that teachers in Thailand have t o ‘re-interprct (INSET activities) in their
own tcrms’.
(Hayes, 1997a: 80)
Similarly, Barmada, revisiting the curriculum project at Damascus University in which I was
involved in the carly 1980s, reveals an insight unnoticed by m e in five years of project-
motivated investigation:
But sometimes I feel as i f 1 represent the West in the classroom and as if1 were telling
my students that o u r methods of learning and thinking are not good and should lie
replaced by those o f the West I. . .] ‘unpaid soldiers of the West’. This made my [sic]
very nervous. I should pay attention t o what I say in the classroom.
(1994: 175)
Understanding ourselves
Something else ~ v need e t o do is t o liccomc aware ofthc fact that what we do as profossionals
is n o t ideologically ncutral, b u t that it is p a r t of a pomuful, dangerous, ideological
technologised discourse. We must come t o tcrms mith the fact that o u r discourse makes us
see o t h c r s in o u r o w n t e r m s , antl not in thcirs. We m u s t not be naive to assume that
technologies of investigation, cvaluation, quality control and management created within
o u r o w n discourses arc equally meaningful t o other people. Wv must c o m e t o t r r m s with
the fact that thc l,i-idgcs \ve build t o rcach other cultures might only Iic meaningful t o o u r
culturc. T h e concepts of Icarncr--ccntre(lncss and stakeholtler-centi-edness arc products of
o u r o w n discourses, and may not ticlong t o the differently constructed worlds of those we
wish to reach. We thus need t o look tlccply and critically at our ohvn discourses beforc
judging those of others.
Bibliography
Ambrose-Yeoh, A . ( 1997) ‘LXstance education and in-scrvice language teachcr devclopment’,
in Hayes, D. (et].) 86 89.
Barmada, W. (1994) ‘Ikveloping an institutional self-cvaluation scheme in an ESP Centre in
the Arab world: rationale, experimentation and evaluation’ , unpublished PhL) thesis,
Department o f Linguistics, University of Lectls.
Baxter, A . (In process) ‘The reproduction o f professional culture through teachcr education for
ELT’, unpublished paper, Department of I.anguagc Studies, Canterbury Christ Church
University Collcgc,.
Beaumont, M. antl Wright,T. (1998) ‘ELT and paradigm shifts: in from the cold or out on a
limb’, unpul,lishcd paper prcscntctl at thc IATEFL conference, Manchester.
Bolvers, R. and Widdo\vson, H. (1 986) ‘A tlcbatc on appropriate methodology’ in Alhott, G.
antl Beaumont, M. (ctls) The Jcrrlopmenr ELT. the Dunf;ird Seniinur.~I978 I993, ELT
Kcviebv, Hcmel I Icmpsteatl: Prcntice Hall antl thc British Council 141-5.
Clark, R . and Ivanic, R. (1 997) The pollrics ofwriting London: Koutlcdgc.
Coleman, H. (etl.) ( 1996) Sociey m d the Ionpage classroom Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
ACHIEVING CULTURAL CONTINUITY 177
Crooks, T. and Crcwes, G. (cds) ( 1 995) Language and deidoprnent Bali: 1AI.F.
Fairclough, N. ( 1 995) Critical discourse anab.sis: the critical stu+ ?flanguage London: Atltlison
Wesley Longman.
Flclv, A. (1 995) ‘Counterpart training and sustainability: effecting an exchange of skills’ in
Crooks,T. and Crewcs, G. (eds) 76-82.
Hayes, D. (1997a) ‘Articulating the context’ in Hayes (ed.) 74- 85.
IHayrs, D. (ctl.) (1 99713) In-rervice teacher development: international perspectives ELT Revielz
London: Prenticc Hall.
Hofstctle, G. (1 9 9 1 ) Cultures and organisatlons: s.ftivare oj‘thc mind Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill.
Holliday, A. R. (1 994) Appropriate methodology und social conrext Cambridge: Cambridge
University Prcss.
Jacob, G. ( 1 996) ‘The CDS co-ordinator’, unpublished paper, Department of English,
University of Punc, India.
Jarvis, J. and Camcron, L. ( 1 997) ‘Kole shifting in INSET: an exploration of a primary English
project’ in Hayes, D. (cd.) 37 4 9 .
Martin, W. M. and Balabanis, L. P. (1 995) ‘Team dcvclopment in ELI- projects: a caxe study’ in
Crooks,T. antl Crewes, G. (ctls) 16 30.
Pennycook, A. ( 1 994) The cultural politics of English as an international language London: Addison
Wesley Longman.
Phillipson, R. ( 1 992) Linguistic imperialism Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Smith, H . (1 995) ‘Power antl sustainability in language-related development projects’ in
Crooks,T. and Crcwes, G. (cds) 65-75.
Smith, N. L. ( 1 991) ‘Evaluation rcflections: the context of investigations in cross-cultural
evaluations’ in Studies in Educational Evaluation, 17, 3-2 1 .
Swales, J. (1 980) ‘The educational environment and its relevance to ESP programmc tlcsign’ in
Projects in Materials Design, ELT Documents Special. London:The British Council, 6 1 70.
Taylor, G. (1997) ‘Management issues in INSET: a practical perspective’ in Hayes, D. (cd.)
1 1 6-1 27.
Usher, R. and Edwards, R. (1 994) PostmoJernism and etlucation: djifcrent voices, djffcrent worlds
London: Routledge.
Weir, C. J. and Roberts, J. (1 994) Evaluation in ELT Oxford: Rlackwell.
Chapter 15
Kathleen Graves
A F R A M E W O R K OF C O U R S E
D E V E L O P M E N T PROCESSES
C U R R I C U L U M DES I G N S P E C I A L I S TS have developed various frameworks

that break down the process of curriculum and course development into components
and subprocesses (see, for example, Dubin and Olshtain 1986; Hutchinson andwaters 1987;
Johnson 1989; Nunan 1985, 1988a, 1988h; liichards 1990; White 1988). A framework of
components is useful for several reasons: I t provides an organized way of conceiving of a
complex process; it sets forth domains of inquiry for the teacher, in that each componcnt
puts forth ideas as well as raises issues for thc teacher to pursue; it provides a set of terms
currently uscd in talking ahout course tlevclopmcnt and thus a common professional
vocabulary and access to the ideas of othei-s.Thc fi-amcwork described hcre, while drawing
on the work ofothcrs, is cast in terms ol’my own work with teachers. It is not a framework
of equal parts: Each individual’s context clctermincs which processes need the most time
and attention. Furthermore, the proc cs are not necessarily secjucntial hut may be carried
on in the planning, tcaching, and rcplanning stages ol‘course development.
InTalile 15. I , each componcnt is identified and rephrased in question form to clarify
its meaning.
Needs assessment
What are my students’ needs? HOM.
can I assess them so that I can address them?
What is nccds assessment,’ and whv does a teacher undertake it? At its most basic,
nccds assessment involves finding out what the Icarners know and can do and what they
need to learn o r do so that the course can bridge the gap (or some part ofit).Thus nccds
assessment involves seeking and interprcting information about onc’s students’ nceds so
that the course will address them effectively. However, how one defines a student’s needs
is a complex issue open to interpretation. One \vay o f conceptualizing needs is to distinguish
bet\veen “ohjectivc” and “subjective” needs (Richterich 1980). Rrindley (1 989: 70) defines
objective needs as “derivable from different kinds of factual information about learners, their
use of language in real-life communication situations as well as their current language
proficiency and language difficu1ties”and subjective needs as “the cognitive and affective needs
of the learncr in the learning situation, derivable from information about affective and
cognitivr factors such as personality, confidence, attitudes, learners’ wants and expectations
COURSE DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES 179
Table 1 i 1 brame\\ ork component\
Needs assessment: What arc in) stutlcnts’ nectls? I lo\\ can I asscss them s o that I can adtlrcsa
them?
Determining god5 and objectives: What are thc p u r p o w and intcntlctl outcoinc< of thc
coiirw’ What \\illin! students ncctl to do or lcarn to athic\c thew goal\/
Conceptualizing content: What 13 111 l x the backhone ot hat I tcac h, What \I i l l I inclutlc in m\
\\ llal)u<?
Selecting and developing materials and activities: Ho\\ antl \\ ith \\hat \\ill I teach the
courw) What I\ m\ iolc’ What a i ( m\ \tutlcnt\’ roles?
Organization of content and activities: Ho\\ \I i l l I oigani/c thc contcnt and act11IticQ What
:
9$tern\ 111 I (le\ clop’
Evaluation: Ho\v \vi11 I assess \\hat students have Icarnctl? Hoiv \vi11 1 ~ S S C S Sthe cffcctivcncss o f thc
course?
Consideration of resources and constraints: What arc the gi\cn\ ot in! situationi
with regard to the learning o f English and thcir individual cognitive style antl learning
strategies.”
In assessing objective nccds, one can include information about students’ backgrounds
~ country and culture, ctlucation, family, profession, age, languages spoken, and so on;
students’ abilities or proficiency in speaking, understanding, reading, and writing English;
and students’ nccds with respect to how the> will usc o r deal with English outside of the
classroom. In assessing subjective nccds, one can include information about students’
attitudes toward the target languagc and culture, toward learning, and toward themsclws
as learncrs; students’ expectations of themselves and of thc course; students’ underlying
purposes or lack thereof- in studying English; antl students’ preferences \vith rcspcct to
-
how thcy will Irarn.

Different students have diffrrent needs, and the information gathered through needs
assessment can help a teacher make choices as to what to teach antl how to teach it. For
example, students who xvish to attend universities in knglish-speaking countries will have
needs related to academic tasks antl academic discourse. Objective information about their
prior experience in academic settings, their level of English, and thcir field of study can
contribute to the teacher’s decisions about her course.Their suhjcctive needs may lie related
to concerns about adjusting to the univcrsity setting and to a new culture, their lewl of sclf-
confidcncc, or their expcctations regarding what and how they will bc taught. Subjective
needs arc often as important as objective needs. Teachcrs may find that unless subjective
needs arc taken into account, objective nccds may not IK met.
Who provides information about needs?Who determines the needs?A nccds assessment
can include input from students as \vel1 as from the various people connectcd to the course,
such as teachcrs, funders, parcnts, administration, antl employcrs. In a univcrsity FSL
sctting, for example, information from the studrnts’ future professors regarding what thc
studcnts mpill be cxpccted to read, research, and present can help the teacher shape her
course (Tarone andYule 1989; see also Hewings and Hewings, p. 71 this volumc).‘Ikachcrs
180 KATHLEEN GRAVES
may have to work with a conccption of nccds dctc.rmincd by their institution or other party
and conduct their assessment accordinglv.
When does one conduct a nccds assessment? I k p c n d i n g on one’s context, needs
asscssmcnt can lie conducted in stagc 1 , the planning stagc; in stagc 2 , thc teaching stage;
and also in stage 3, the rcplanning stagc, if one determines that the assessment must be
modified in some \.ray. Teachers \vho have contact with their students prior to teaching the
coursc can undertake a precourse nectls assessment. In many cases, however, a formal
prccoursc ncctls asscssincnt is neither necessary nor appropriatc. Some teachers arc able
to make fairly accurate assumptions ahout their students’ nccds with respect to the coursc
on the basis o f prior cxpcricncc \vith the coursc or with thosc particular studcnts. In many
cases, precourse asscssmcnt is simply not f m d i l c l x ~ a u s the
c ~ tcachcr d o c s not have contact
with the students until the first day of class.
Another important factor in tlcciding \vhcn t o assess needs is the teacher’s view of the
p u r p w of nccds a mcnt can also IK a teaching tool because it can
help students bccomc more aware and more purlioseful in their learning. Many teachers
see it as an ongoing part o f teaching, o n the one hand, because it may take time to establish
the kind of rapport with students that allo\vs fbr a clcar understanding of needs and, on the
other, because they view it as a teaching tool that enables thcm t o \vork in partnership mith
thcir students t o determine ncctls antl ensure that the course mccts thosc nccds. lcachcrs
who use nccds assessment as an ongoing part of their classes develop activities that help
students clarify and focus their needs. Such activities can include mindmapping (crcating
\vortl maps liascd o n , for cxxamplc, the \vortl rvritrng) antl student-generated questionnaircs
(Grant and Shank 1993). [ . . .]
How docs onc conduct a ncctls ssmcnt? Teachers use a variety of methods.
Questionnaires are a common needs a mcnt tool. They can bc written in English or,
when appropriate and feasililc, in thc native languagc of thc students. O n e of the challenges
in tlcsigning a questionnaire is choosing qucstions that will t)c interpreted correctly and will
provide the information sought, especially if one is seeking subjective data. Interviews with
students antl others (such as employers or professors) arc another common way o f finding
out students’ needs. Other means include observation o f or, in some cases, participation in
the situations in kvhich students will use English. Teachers may obtain samples of written
materials, such as manuals or tcxtlmoks, that students will have to use. Stern ( 1 992) cautions
against gathcring so much data that one cannot analyze and put it to use.
Tests and intcrviclvs that mcasurc proficiency arc also a part o f needs assessment
because they help dctcrmine what students already know and where they are lacking. Many
institutions administer proficiency tests for placement purposes. Teachers ma? also design
in-class activities for the first days of class that mcasurc stutlcnts’ proficiency in reading,
xvriting, speaking, o r listening.
Hutchinson antl Waters (1 987: 54) make a distinction hctivccn target needs (“what
the learner needs to do in the target situation”) antl /earnin<yneedy (“what the learner nccds
t o do in order t o learn”). Nccds assessment is clearly a sensible undertaking when studcnts
ha\c target needs real-lift. languagc nccds and a context for using thc languagc skills gained
~
in class, as for immigrants t o an English-spcaking country, students studying o r planning to

study in English-spcaking schools, or p c ~ p l c\vho use English in thcir work. However, even
\Then nccds arc clcar, as \vith immigrants learning to function in a n r w culture, they may IK
so general that the tcachcr has t o find hzays to assess antl define them so that thcy can be
translated into realistic goals.Thc challcngc becomes focusing thc nccds assessment so as to
provide adequate h u t not ovenvhclming data on which to base d
In other contcxts particularly, but not only, EFL contcxts teachers face a different
~ ~
problem because many of their students have no target needs, n o clearly anticipated use for
the skills gained through study. English may be a requirement for an exit o r entrance cxam.
It may lie viewed as a subject like math o r science, o r it may be a social undertaking like the
study of music. For these students, thc notion of needs outside the classroom is tenuous.
The focus of the needs assessment shifts to the learning needs o r subjective needs of the
studmts so as to increase motivation and to help students find purpose antl interest in what
they are doing in the coursc. For example, Gorsuch (1 991) dcscrilies a technique for helping
students in a conversation class in Japan articulate thcir needs antl set periodic antl achicvablc
goals to meet those needs.
Issues
Needs assessment is not a value-free process. It is influenced by the teacher’s view of what
the course is about, thc: institutional constraints, and thc students’ perceptions of what is
being asked o f them. For example, one teacher of immigrants might ask thcm to list
situations in which they us? o r expect to use English, with the aim of providing instruction
in the language and behavior necessary to deal Lvith those situations. Another teacher might
ask the same students to articulate o r enact problems they face in adjusting to the nmv
culture, \vith the aim of helping thcm exert control over the acculturation process.
For many students, needs assessment is an unfamiliar procedure, and they may ha\-c
difficulty articulating their purposes or nerds. The process itself may cngrnder uncertainty
in the students, as knowing thcir nceds is presumably the responsibility of the teacher o r
institution. Questions may be interpreted differently by different students or may not elicit
the anticipated answers. Studcnts’ perceptions of needs may not match those of the teacher.
The teacher’s view of the students’ needs may conflict with those of the institution.
Thc content and method of needs assessment should he e\ aluatcd as to appropriateness
antl effectiveness in achieving thcir purpose of identifying the nccds of the students. It may
ral tries to dcvc>lopef‘fectivc needs assessment tools. Those tools should not he
viewed as “one time only” pro ’es. Needs asscssment should he 1,icwctl as an ongoing
process, both in its development antl in its use.
Determining goals and objectives

1Vhat arc the purposes and intentled outcomes of.the coiirxe?IVhat n,ill m,r’ students need to c/o or leurn
to achieve these goals? What arc goals and ohjcctives antl what is the relationship betwcrn
thcm? Goals arc general statcments of the overall, long-tcrm purposes of the course.
Objccti\es express the specific \.rays in xvhich thc goals \vi11 be achieved.Thc goals of’a coursc
rcpresent the dcstination; the objectives, the various points that chart the course to\vartl
the destination.To arri\-c at thc destination, one must pass each of these points. [. . . ]
Why sct goals antl objectives? Setting goals and chjcctives pro\-idcs a scnsc of direction
and a coherent framework for thr teacher in planning her course. Breaking goals down into
objectives is very much like making a map ofthc territory to be explored. I t is a Lvay for the
teacher to conceptualize her coursc in terms of teachable chunks. Clear goals and ohjcctives
give the teacher a basis for determining which content antl activities are appropriate lor her
course. They also provide a framelvork for evaluation o f the effectiveness or worth of an
activity : Did it help students achieve o r make progress to\vard the goals and objectives?
Clearly, thcre are many routes (objcctives) to a givcn destination, some more circuitous than
others, and the length antl nature of the route will depend on one’s departure point.
How does one choose appropriate goals and olijecti There is no simple ans1vc-r to
this question. To arrive at the goals, one asks the question, “What are the p u r p o s t ~and
182 I<ATHLEEN GRAVES
intended outcomes ofthe course?’ Thr ans\vcr may he influenced by an analysis of students’
nccds, the policies of the institution, antl the \vay the teacher conccptualizcs content, among
other factors. Stern (1 992) pi-oposes four types of goals for language learners: proficiency
goals, cognitive goals, affective goals, antl transfer goals. Proficiency goals include general
competency, mastery of the four skills (speaking, listening, reading, and writing), or mastery
of specific language behaviors. Cognitive goals inclutic master); of linguistic knowledge and
mastery of cultural knowledge. Affective goals include achieving positive attitudes and
feelings about the target language, achieving confitlcncc as a user o f the language, antl
achieving confidence in oneself as a learner. Transfer goals involve learning how to learn so
that one can call upon learning skills gained in one situation to meet future learning
challcnges.Thus goals may address not only the attainment of kno\vletlge and skills but also
thc development of attitude and arvarcn
Goals should also be realizable. Richards (1 990: 3) gives the example of a goal stated
as “Students will tlcvclop favorable attitudes to\vartl the program.” Hci gocs on to point out,
“However, while this goal might represent a sincere wish on the part oftcachers, it should
appear as a program goal only if it is to be atltlrcsscd concretely in the program.”
The formulation of objectives provides the chcck as to whether the goals will be
addrcssctl.To arrive at objectives, one asks, “What do students need to learn or do to achieve
these purposes?” One of the challenges in formulating objectives is thinking of objectives
that arc congruent with thc goals antl that arc not so narroxv that they enmesh the teacher
in an unnecessary level of detail.
How does one state objectives? As Nunan ( 1 9881,: 60) has pointed out, “Olijectives are
really nothing more than a particular Lvay of formulating or stating content and activities.”
Thus how one conceptualizes and states objectives dcpentls on how one conceptualizes the
content of the course. Content as knowlcdgc might lie stated as “Students will know . . . ,”
“Students will learn the . . .,” or “Students \ \ i l l learn that . . .” Content as skill might be
stated as “Students will hc able to . . .,”“StucJents will know how to . . .,”or “Students will
develop the ability to . . .” I’erformancc or behavioral objectives arc most often associated
with content as skill; hokvevcr, this rcprcscnts a narrolv view as they specify terminal
behavior rather than the development of skills, such as those nccclcd to read, write, listen
antl speak effectively (Richards 1990). Content as attitudc antl a\varencss \voultl be stated
as “Students \vi11 be axvarc that . . .,""Students will develop an awareness o f . . .,’“‘Students
will develop an attitudc of . . .,” or “Students will cxplorc their attitudes towards . . .”
Objectives stated in this way can help teachcrs address affectil e aspects of learning.
The examples given suggest what students will know, know how to do, or be aware of
as a result of the coursc. Objcctivcs may also be statcd in terms of what students will do in
the course. Saphier and Gowcr (1 987) list five kinds of objectives, all interrelated.Thc first
three concern what students will do; the last two, what they will have mastered.
1 Coverage objectives articulate what will be cowrctl. Example: l4k will cover t h e j r s t j v e
units of the course hook.
2 i l c t i v i y objectives articulate what the students will do. Example tudents will write six
d e t kinds ofparagraphs. Students i2,ill do paragraph derzlopment exercises.
3 Involvement objectives articulate how to maximize student involvement antl interest.
tudents will engage in discussions about n.hich paragruphs they like best. Students
Li.ill brainstorm lists of interesting topics to write about.
4 /Mastey objectives articulate what students will be able to do as a result of their time in
class. Examplc: Students will be able to write an interesting puragraph that contains u topic
sentence and supporting detuils.
5 Critical thinking objectives articulate which lc-arning skills students 1% ill develop.
Examplc: Sttidents will he able to determine characteristics of u good paragraph and .say why
the). think a paragraph is good.
Tension often exists between coverage objectives and mastery objectives hccausc thc
timc it takes to master skills or knowlcdgc or to develop awareness may not corrcspond to
the timc allotted in a syllabus.This tension can create dilemmas for teachers Lvho must cover
antl test the material in the syllabus yet wish to ensure that students ha\c mastered thc
material prior to moving on. The tension can also put tcachcrs at odds with their students
o r the institution if thc teacher believes that success is achieved through demonstrated
mastery but the studcnts cxpect coverage to mean mastery.
Issues
The main issue is that many teachers do not formulate goals and objcctives at all o r do so
only after having thought about what they will teach and how. Studies on teacher planning
undcrscore this fact (Clark and Peterson 1986). My own work xvith teachers has shown that
they consider the setting of goals and objcctivcs a valuablc process but one that they find
difficult to articulate and organize.They feel that they must first be clcar about what they
arc teaching and how they vicw thc content.They report from expcricncc that they cannot
clearly formulate their goals and objectives until after they h a w taught thc course at least
oncc. (Returning to the map analogy, one cannot map a route until onc has traveled it.)
Thus for many teachers, this is n o t thc entry point into the process of course d
Another issue involves clarity with respect to students’ nccds. It is easier to set goals
in situations where these needs are clcar; otherwise, the goals of the coursc may shift and
be redefined as thc course progresses. Finally, goals and objcctives are a statement of intent,
subject to reexamination and change once the course is under way.
Conceptualizing content
Izl’hhat will he the backbone ofwhat I teach? What will I include in my yllahris?
When a teacher conceptualizes content, she is figuring out which aspects o f language
and language learning she will include, emphasize, and integrate in her course. This is not
the relatively simplc pro ’ it once mras.Two dccatlcs ago, language tcaching was still heavily
influcnccd by a structural vicw of language (Richards and Kodgers 1986). This influcnce
resulted in a“one size fits al1”approach to content and methods, meaning that, for example,
an EFI, teacher could use the same textbook and the samc drills or pattern practice for
factory workers, college students, and housewives. There \vas not much question about
content: It was grammatical structures and vocabulary.
Much has changed in rcccnt w a r s in the ficlds of applied linguistics antl language
acquisition and in approaches to language teaching. The proficiency movement, the concept
and various modcls of comrnunicativc competence, the advent of ESP (English for specific
purposes)),the proliferation of methods of language teaching, and the diversification of the
population of English learners have all provided the teacher with many more options to
consider in deciding what will be the backbone of her course (Canale 1983; Hutchinson
and Waters 1987; Omaggio Hadlev 1993; Richards 1990; Savignon 1983;Yaldcn 1987).
Now the choices a teacher makes are much more contcxt-dependent antl so involve a
number of factors such as who the students are, their goals and expectations in learning
English, the teacher’s own conception of what language is and what will best meet the
students’ needs, the nature of the course, and the institutional curriculum. A course for
184 K A T H L E E N GRAVES
immigrants in an English-speaking country will likely stress different content than a course
for high school students in their own country.
Let us look at somc ways of conceptualizing and categorizing content. The boundaries
lietween categories arc permcablc; they ovcrlap conceptually antl are not exclusive of each
other.The teacher’s challenge is to figure out \vhich ones are appropriate for her course antl
how she will integrate thcm. They \vi11 he described and then outlined in a syllabus grid,
lvhich \vi11 be adtlctl to with each successive component. In my experience, teachers do not
usually use syllabus grids t o la! out the content of a coursc but a grid is a graphic way to
illustrate possible categories.
The traditional w y of conceptualizing content, which many teachers have experienced
in thcir own learning o f languagc, is as grammar structures, sentence patterns, and
vocabulary. These aspects of language arc relatively . tcmatic and rulc-govcrncd and arc
often the basis of content found in tcxthooks. Th includc rules of word formation
(morphology), rules of pronunciation (1’ nology), antl grammatical structures and
relationships among \vortls at the sentence IC 1 (syntax). A syllahus grid that includes these
aspects of language might look likc this:
Grammar Pronunciation Vocabulary
For language teachers, the possibilities for \vhat t o include in a syllabus opened up cvith
the advent of what has come t o I)c called the communicative approach (Larsen-Freeman
1986).Thc work of sociolinguists such as Hymcs ( 1 972) antl Hallitlay ( 1973, 1975) antl of
applied linguists such as Wilkins ( 1 976) and Van Ek ( 1 975) has helped reorient thinking
about the nature of language.‘l’he communicativt, approach is liased on ideas about language,
on the one hand, antl about the purposes 01‘ languagc learning, on the other. Language is
used in a context, hvhich clctcrmincs and constrains the choices that language users make
with respect t o purpose, stvle, register, antl topic. Learners must use the language and have
pui-poses for using it. From the point of view of‘conceptualizing content, the communicative
approach added s ral dimensions. First, it adtlctl the dimension o f language functions,
such as to apologi t o persuade, to con\ information. I t also atltlcd the dimension of
notions, kvhich form a continuum 1rom general concepts such as time, space, and
relationship t o specific topic-related notions such as house and home, \veather, antl personal
identification (Van Ek 1975). Language was sccn as being used for communicative purposes
in situations lvith other people, which call on the learner to pay attention to both the content
o f the languagc and its appropriatcncss tvith respect t o formality, non-verbal behavior, tone,
antl so on. Communicative situations might include ortlcring food in a restaurant, buying
stamps at the post office, extending an invitation t o a social cvcnt. Thus \.re can add these
catcgorics t o our syllabus grid:
I bunctions I Notions antl topics I Communicative situations I

Thc proficiency movcmcnt antl thc dcvclopmcnt of proficiency guidelines have

c m p h a s i d a four-skills-based approach to syllalius tlcsign ( C h a g g i o Hadley 1993). For
somc teachers, these skills arc a g i v m , as studcnts have to use some combination ofspeaking,
listening, reading, and \vriting in class. However, because hecoming proficicnt in each o f
these skills cntails mastery of a set of subskills and processes, many teachers choose t o
emphasize certain skills or find ways t o integrate them. For example, to become proficicnt
in writing, a student must l e a r n ho\v to structurc paragraphs, holv to use cohesi\e &\ices,
the rhetorical styles o f w r i t t e n English, editing techniques antl s o o n . Thus bvc can add thc
f o l h v i n g categories t o o u r syllabus grid:
Listening skills Speaking skills Reading skills I Writing skills
Functions Notions and topics Communicative situations
I Grammar I Pronunciation I Vocal>ular! I

The emphasis o n communicative competence as based on antl brought almut by
interaction has prompted a vielv of language as not just something one lcarns hut something
o n e tlocs.Thus teachers may conceive o f t h e i r s);llal)us in terms of what thc students will do
in the classroom as activities or tasks.Tasks ha\e been \ariously defined. Prabhu ( 1 987: 24)
defines a task as an activity that requires learners “to a r r i \ e at an o u t c o m e from givcn
information through some process of thought,” such as deciding on an itinerary based on
train timctablrs or composing a telegram to send to soincone. Tasks have also been defined
as projccts in which learners Lvo1-k together to ~-)roducc. something, such as a putting together
a ncLvspapcr or conducting a survey (Hutchinson 1984). Nunan (1 9 8 9 ) proposes a task
continuum, lvith r e a l - i z o r l d tasks at one end and pedagogic tasks at the othcr. Real-world
tasks ask students to use languagc in ways that they might outside thc classroom, such as
listening to thc radio, reading the ncn.spapcr, o r using a train schedule. Pedagogic tasks arc
ones that \vould not occur outside ofthc classroom hut help stutlcnts tl lop skills necessary
t o function in that world, such as information gap actiyitics.
Thc competency-bascd approach t o syllabus design was dc lopcd in the Unitctl States
in response to thc influx 01’ immigrants in the 1970s antl 1980s. It is a comlination of the
communicative and task-lmctl approaches antl has bccn used in courses for teaching
immigrants, who have immediate ncctls with respect t o functioning in English in thc
community and in the workplacc. Competencies are “task-oriented goals written in terms
of behavioral objecti\ es that inclutlc langu Ixhavior” (Center for Applied 1,inguistics 1983:
9).Thcy arc the language antl Ixhavior nc x - y to function in situations related to living in
the community antl lintling and maintaining a job. Competencies related to living in thc
community h a w also been called ljfi-skilf.7. Those related to jobs have been called r m m i o n c d
skills. (See, for example, the California ESL Model Stantlards for adult cducation 1993.)
However one dcfincs them, tasks can 1)c gcarcd to one’s spccific g r o u p of learners. For
liusiness personnel, tasks might include giving a business presentation or lvriting a report;
for university students, tasks might include \vriting a rcscarch paper or preparing a report
from notes takrn at a lecture. We can add t \ v o othcr categories to our spllahus grid:
Tasks and activitics Compctcncies
I Listening skills I Speaking skills I Reading skills I Writing skills I

I 1,unctions I Notions and topics I Communicative situations 1
Grammar Pronunciation Vocabu 1ai.)
186 I < A T H L E E N G R A V E S
The role of culture in language learning i s receiving increasing attention. Culture

provides a broader antl deeper context h r hob\ one knows or tlctcrmincs what is valued,
appropriate, or cvcn feasible and why. Damcn (1 986) calls culture the “fifth dimension of
language teaching.” Kramsch ( 1 993) asserts that culture is not just a fifth skill or even an
aspect of comrnunicativc competence but the underlying dimension of all one knows and
does. Thus a teacher who views culturc as an integral part of a syllabus might include thc
development of awareness of thc rolc culturc plays in human interaction, how to understand
and interpret the cultural aspccts of language antl behavior, antl the development of skills
in behaving antl responding in culturally appropriate ways in addition to knowledge of the
target culture.
The learning of language through or in conjunction with suhjcct matter can also lie the
focus of a language course. Such courses h a w hccn called content-based because they integrate
“particular content with language teaching aims” (Brinton, Snow, and Wesche 1989). Such
content may lie school- o r work-related for example, history, economics, o r computer
technology. A content-based course may teach the subject matter directly o r use subject
mattcr as the basis for language-learning lessons. Thus the target language can be both a
means for and a by-product of learning the subjrct matter. Content-based approaches play
a critical role in bilingual programs for childrcn as well as in ESP courses and, increasingly,
in EAP courses. We can add culturc antl content to our syllabus grid:
Content
Culture Tasks and ac ti\ ities Competencies
I Listening skills I Speaking skills I Reading skills I Writing skills I

I Functions I Notions and topics I Communicative situations I
I Grammar I Pronunciation I Vocabulary
Another major change in hmv teachers conceptualize content has come about because of
the view that one teaches learners, not just language. The emphasis on the learner has
introduced other important elements into a teacher’s conception of what she will teach:
the learner’s affect, which includes attitudes, self-confidence, and motivation, and the
learner’s approach to learning, which includes both uncierstanding and developing one’s
learning skills. HOWto improve learners’ self-confidence or helping learners become aware
of thcir attitude toward the target culturc may lie cxplicitly included in a syllabus, as may
activities that help learners become aware of their strengths and ovcrcomc thcir weaknesses
as 1earners.The development of definitions, taxonomies, and methods of developing learning
strategics is onc way in which thc cmphasis on helping learners bccomc self-aware has
influenced syllabus design (O’Malley and Chamot 1990; Oxford 1990).
For somc tcachcrs, enabling studcnts to participate in determining the content of their
course so that what they do in class gives them the tools to cope with and change what they
will encounter outside of the classroom i s thc focus of thcir course. Thus they ask the
learners to engage in participatory processes that help them understand the social context
of their problems antl take control of thcir personal and professional lives through work in
the classroom (Auerbach 1993; Auerbach antl Wallerstein 1987). We can now add two more
categories to the syllabus grid, learning strategies and participatory processes. The
completed grid i s shown in Figurc 15.1 .
Participatory processes Learning strategies Content

Examples: problem Examples: self-monitoring, Examples: academic
posing, experiential problem identification, subjects, technical
learning techniques note taking subjects
Culture Tasks and activities Competencies

Examples: c uIture Examples: information Examples: applying for a
awareness, culture gap activities, projects, job, renting an apartment
behaviour, culture skills or topic-oriented
knowledge tasks such as giving a
speech or making a
presentation
Listening skills Speaking skills Reading skills Writing skills

Examples: listening Examples: Examples: Examples: using
for gist, listening for turn-taking, scanning for appropriate
specific information, compensating for information, rhetorical style,
inferring topic, misunderstandings, skimming for gist, using cohesive
choosing using cohesive understanding devices, structuring
appropriate devices rhetorical devices paragraphs
reponse
Functions I Notions and topics Communicative

Examples: apologizing, Examples: ti me, quantity, situations
disagreeing, persuading health, personal Examples: ordering in a
identification restaurant, buying stamps
at the post office

Examples: structures Examples: segmentals Examples: word formation
(tense, pronouns), (phonemes, syllables), (suffixes, prefixes),
patterns (questions) suprasegmentals (stress, collocation, lexical sets
rhythm, intonation)
F ~ p r eI:. 1 ’l’hc complctctl syllabus grid
Issues
Teaching involves making choices. I t is not possible to teach a syllalius that cxplicitly
encompasses all the areas mentioned here so teachers must tlccidc lvhich catcgorics make
sense to them for a givm coursc. The categories also overlap, both conceptually antl in the
classroom. For example, pronunciation is an important part of speaking skills. Vocabulary
development is a part of notions antl topics. Ixarning strategies can bc linked to specific
skills. Some of the categories arc vast and can lie divided into several subcategories. Many
rcatlcrs will find that they ~ v o u l dlabel or define the categories differently o r that certain
categories are missing. For example, some teachers conceptualize content thcinatically.
Teachers of courses whosc content has already hcen specified will face different issues.
They may find that thr breadth of content is unrealistic for the amount of time they have t o
teach it o r that the way content has been defined is inappropriate, in their view, for the
purposes of the coursc. The ovcrlapping nature of the categories may be an aid in finding
ways to adapt the existing content to their vision of the coursc.
Selecting and developing materials and activities

Hopi ant1 crith nhut w i l l I tcuch the coiirrc~LYhuti r mj ro1eiVVhat lire my \tutlent\’rolec~
For many teacher\, coui \c dc\ clopment \tarts not with determining objccti\ e\ o r
conceptualizing content but with ideas about the course in action.Thc-y think about material
they will usc, activities their students will do, techniqucs thcy \vi11 cmploy.They think about
the Ivay thcy want their students to lcarn and their own role in the classroom.
For many teachers, the rnatcrial thcy use forms the lmckbone of the course. I t is
somcthing concrete that students use, and it provides a focus for the class. Choosing material
may mean development o f new material when teaching a course for which there arc no
suitable materials, collecting a variety ofmatcrials, or adapting existing materials.Teachcrs
consider a variety of factors in developing, choosing, or adapting matcrials.T\vo of the most
important arc their cffvctivencss in achicving the purposes of the course and their
appropriateness for the students ~~ antl t h r teacher. Appropriatcnrss includes student
comfort antl familiarity with the material, language level, intercst, and relevance. Some
teachers incorporate instruction in ho\v to use unfamiliar materials as part of their course
design. Feasibility and availability arc also important to consider.
Developing new materials and activities for using them rcquires time and a clcar smse
ofwhy thcy will he used, ho\v, and by whom. Because ofthc lack of time, teachers arc often
constraincd or prefer to adapt existing mattw-ids. Experienced teachers often devclop a set
of core materials antl activities that they adapt each time thcy teach a course.The materials
themselves are flexible and can lie used in a number of ways, depending o n the target skills
or competencies. For example, ncwslxipcr articles can he used as a basis for developing
reading skills, expanding vocabulary, or discussing culture. Pictures can be used as a focus
for learning grammar or as a starting point for a writing assignment. Core activities are
related to the way the teacher conceptualizes the content. A teacher may have a repertoire
of activities for teaching pronunciation or for- having students lcarn to understand cultural
differences. For some teachers, materials antl activitirs are integrated into a mcthod, such
as the “language expericncc”approach (Rigg 1 989) .Thc emphasis on proficiency and lcarn-
ing language in context has led many teachers to use as much authentic material as possible
in their classes (Omaggio Hadley 1 993). For contcnt-Inset1 courses, authentic matcrial is
the foundation.
For teachers who arc required to use a certain text, course development i s thc
adaptation of the text, for the contrnt o f the text determines the content o f the course.
However, the text is not thc coursc; rather, kvhat the teacher and studcnts do with the text
constitutes the coursc. Textlmoks arc tools that can be figuratively cut up into component
pieces and then rearranged to suit the needs, abilities, antl interests of the students in the
course. The material in a textbook can lie modified to incorporate activities that will
motivate students antl move thcm l>cyond the constraints of the text. Das (1 988: viii) points
out that matcrials should not “pre-specify learning outcomcs or attempt to control o r
substantially guide learning: their function is primarily to provide opportunities for learning
through interaction.”
The question “How will I teach?” also encompasses a teachcr’s approach and how she
iievvs her role and that of the learners. How much initiative will the students be expected
to take, and toward what end? Ilow will the students be asked to interact?Thc emphasis on
learner awareness and concern for extending learning beyond the classroom have made the
role of the learner a central focus of how a course is taught. Teachers design courses with
activities and materials that have the students take a more active role in reflecting on their
learning, determining the content ol’the course, antl pursuing projects of interest to them.
Such an approach ma! tacilitatc the search for materials in that the emphasis is not on the
materials themselves hut on what the students (lo with them.
Issues
For some teachers, the lack of materials is a challenge; for others, it is an opportunity.
loping materials requires time before, during, and aftcxr the course for preparing,
~
using, antl modifying them, rcspcctivcly. Yet having to use certain materials may produce
the dilemma of coping with a tcxt that does not meet students’ nerds or docs not promote
the teacher’s view of the roles of learners antl teachers. Other aspccts of course
devclopmcnt, such as needs a. ment antl objective setting, may help thc tcachcr .
to adapt unsuitahle materials and to what extent. Evcntually, all materials arc adapted or
modified in some \vay. Even materials that have been d r v e l o p d h y teachers for specific
courses \vi11 be modified o \ e r time.
Organization of content and activities

How will I organize the content anti activities? What ystems will I ckidop?
Regardless of whether one follows a fixcd sequence or adopts a morc fluid approach to
the order in which one teaches the content, part of course de\elopmcnt is figuring out
tems lor organizing the course. Systems can focus on the lesson level (the organization
o f each lesson) antl on the course Icw.1 (thc ovcrall organization of the course). We will look
first at specific considerations in sequencing inatcrial and then at eonsiderations of the overall
organization o f the course.
Two general, complcmentary principles of sequencing are building and re
deciding ho\v to sequence material, one considers h i l t l i n g from the simple to the complex,
from more concrete to morc open-ended or so that unit or activity A prepares stutlcnts for
unit or activity B. Building fi-om the simple to the complex in a writing course may mean
learning how to write narratiw prose before developing an argumentative paper. In an
introductory language course, it may mean learning the nurnlicrs 1 to 9 to use telephone
numbers antl then learning the numlxrs 10 to 60 to tell time. Ruiltling froin morc concrete
to niore open-ended in a writing course may mean that students first unscramhle and discuss
a sample paragraph before writing their o\vn paragraph. In an introductory language coursc,
it may mean talking about a family in a textbook picture using prescrihetf ocahulary I d o r e
talking ahout one’s on-n family.
Conceiving o f activities as Iiuilding Mocks puts them in a “leeding” relation xvhcrc one
activity feeds into another “if it provitles something that is needed for the second onc . , .
or the second exercise could not be donc unless thc first had already heen completed” ( 1 . o ~
1989: 145). For example, in a reading unit, students predict the content from pictures or
headings that accompany the tcxt before actually reading thc tcxt. Or prior to a rcstaurant
role-playing activity, students learn mcnu itcms antl the language for ordering f(~od.
The principle of recycling matcrial means that studcnts encounter previous matci-ial in
ne\\ w y s : in a new skill area, in a differcnt type o f activity, or with a new focus. For example,
material encountered in a listening activity may lie recycled in a 1% riting exercise. Matcrial
encountered in an individual reading acti\ity may be rccyclcd in a role play with other
students. Material about the target culturc may be recycled in an activity about one’s o\vn
culture. This approach to recycling material assumes that each n e w encountci- with the
material provides a challenge to students, therely maintaining thcir interest and motivation.
Recycling has the effect of integrating material and thus augments students’ ability to use
or understand it.
1. . .I
Two complementary ways to approach thc overall organization of a course arc as a cycle
or as a matrix. Both approaches suggest a core of material to be learned and activities to be
190 KATHLEEN GRAVES
conducted within a givcn time frame. In the cyclical approach, a regular cyclc of activities
f'ollo\vs a consistent sequrncc. In a matrix approach, the teacher xvorks with a set o f possible
activities for a givcn time frame and, as thc course progresses, dccides which activities to
lvork with. For an E A P course, I3lyth ( 1 996) dcscrilm such a situation, in which she
compiles a list of possible activities and materials and then tlccidcs which to use, depending
on her studcnts' interests as \vcll as the availability of the materials.
The cyclc and the matrix arc not mutually exclusive; inany teachers use elements of
both. Certain features in a course ma! lie predictable, augmented b y other elements drawn
fi-om a matrix, dcpcnding on the situation. Teachers who work with a fixed syllabus, such
as that in a textbook, may nevertheless follow a cjclc in thc way they lvork with the material.
Adapting material oftcn means approaching it as a matrix from which to select, depending
o n onc's students. Many teachers also set u p certain tlaily or weekly rituals. For example,
somc teachers hegin cach session \vith a \varm-up or review. Some tcachrrs liegin each
week with a student presentation or end cach \vcck with an oral feetlback session. All of
thcsc methods of organization permit a teacher to g i \ c a s h a p to her course.
Issues
Although thc order in \vhich thc content and materials arc taught may hc determined prior
to teaching the course, it ma! also bc dctcrniinctl antl modified as the coursc progresses.
For some teachers, a negotiated syllabus, in which teacher antl students decide togcthcr
what they will learn, is prcfcralile. In such c a ~ , a predetermined scqu'nce is seen as a
handicap as it docs not a l h v teachers to takc into account the particular group of' students
in thcir course. In such a course, the sequence is not dctcrminetl beforehand. Rather, the
teacher has a map of the possihlc tcrritor! antl \vorks \vith the students to dctcrmine where
it is most useful for them to go and in bvhat order. Whet-c a syllabus is provided, achicving
flexibility is an issue.
Evaluation
How will I u.s.sc.ss ithat stiitlents have learned? Him. iv711 I assess the $fictivcnc.s.s of'the course?
For most teachers, evaluation tncans evaluation ivithin the course; assessing students'
proticiency, progress, or achie\micnt. Ho\v proficient arc students in listening?Arc students
improving their \\.riting skills? Have the); Icw-iied to I'unction in English in the workplace?
Teachers liuild in some form o f studcnt evaluation when developing a coursc, ranging from
formal tests to informal mcnts. Hughes (1 989) tliscu ' four purposcs for testing: to
measure proficicncy, to ose specific strengths antl w csscs, to place students in a

course or program, antl to assess their achicvvment in a course o r program.Thc same testing
instrument may be used for- more than one purpose. For cxamplc, thcTOEFL test is used
by graduate programs in the United States as a proficicncy test, but it is sometimes used as
an achievement test ifstutlcnts show a gain on a7'OEFL posttcst. Ho cr, tests are not the
only means teachers have to assess their students. Tcachcrs may structure their classroom
activities so that they can assess their students whilc the students participate. They may use
a portfolio approach, in which students put togcthcr a portfolio of their work (Fingeret
1993).They ma); involve their students in deciding what should be assessed and how (Hull
1991).
Evaluation in course development also includes evaluation of the course itself'. Was the
course effective? In what ways? Where (lid it fall short? Such an evaluation may not be
directly linked to assessment of student progrcss, although student evaluation and test results
can provide feedback on the effectiveness of the course. I f the students do \vel1 on tests or
arc judged to have made progrcss, presumably the course has been effective. R u t if students
do not make progress or do not demonstrate a certain level of achievement, the effectiveness
of the course may be questioned. Finding \vhcrc the fault lies \vould lie onc of the purposes
of course evaluation antl could involve having students suggest why they did n o t make the
progress expected.
Why docs one evaluate? Gcncrally speaking, a course is evaluated to promote and
improve its effectiveness.This may be an internal matter, as when the teacher is concerned
with developing the best course possible, in \vhich case the evaluation is done largely for
the Ixncfit of the students and the tcachcr. However, courses are also evaluated to provide
documentation for policy reasons, such as continued funding or retention in the curriculum.
In such cases, evaluation is an external matter, and the teacher may he rcquircd to use certain
methods of evaluation or to document the effectiveness ofthe course in a manncr prcscrihetl
by an outside party. This in turn may influence the development of the course.
What can be evaluated? Any part ofthe process of course development can lie evaluatcd,
including thc assumptions about antl analysis of students’ needs or backgrounds, goals antl
ohjcctivcs, materials and activities, means of ing students’ pi-ogress, student
participation, student roles, and the tcachcr’s role. each element of the frame\vork is
itself subject to evaluation. Was the needs assessment cffcctivc? Did I seck the right input,
antl did it enable m e to make appropriate decisions about the course? If not, \vhy not?Wcrc
the goals and objectives appropriate and achievable? Should they be changed? Did students
find the material appropriately challenging, or was it too easy or too difficult? Wcrc t h r
activities appropriate? I>id all students participate easily? Did I find suitable \rays to evaluate
students’ progress? Did the tests test what had heen learned?
When does one rvaluatc? In curriculum design, a distinction is usually made bctwcrn
fbrmcitivc ei.uluotion, which takes place during the development antl implementation of thc
curriculum for purposes of modifying it as it is Iieing developcd, antl summutire evaluation,
which takes place after thc curriculum has heen implemented, for purposes o f evaluating
its success antl improving it for future implementation (Brown 1989). A teacher \vho is
involved in each stage of coursc design can think o f cvaluation as an ongoing part of the
entire proccss.’l‘hus evaluation can occur in the planning and teaching stagcs of the course,
after it is over, and \vhcn it is replanned and rctaught.
W h o evaluates? A t the course IC\ el, the teacher a n d thr students are the principal
r, administrators, funtlers, parents, and clients may h a c a role in
cxvaluation, antl thcir role may influence the shape or existence of the course.
How does one evaluate? A variety of ways arc available. A tcachcr’s most important
means is close observation of’what students do in class and how they do it. If’students ha\?
great difficulty performing certain tasks, on<’might lie \ to question the appropriatrncss
of thc objectives or the acti\ itics. Informal chats hvith students can often pro\ idc as much
information as responses to formal questionnaires. Teachers can also provide time for
students to give written or oral input regarding specific aspects of the course. For example,
somc tcachcrs hold rcgular oral fccdhack scssions with thcir stutlcnts; and others h a w
students write in journals. The teacher’s own reflection and self-questioning play an
important role in evaluation.
Issues
Teachers tend to avoid extensive evaluation because they feel inadequate to a task in what
they considcr is thc domain of“cxperts,” for which special training in sytematic analysis is
192 K A T H L E E N GRAVES
necessary. Teachers must become familiar with thc various purposes and types of tcsting,
but thcy must also tlevisc their own systems and arcas of inquiry. As with needs assessment,
teachers must experiment kvith different methods ol’evaluation and monitor the success of
each so as t o maximize the effectiveness of thcir courses.
Consideration of resources and constraints

What are the girwx ofmy situation.?
Resources and constraints arc thvo \ y a y of looking at the same thing. A required coursc
liook may bc a constraint for one tcachci- and a resource for another. A class of fe\ver than
ten students may be a rcsource lor one tcachcr antl a constraint for another. Though these
givens may seem secondary to the processes just descrihcd, in fact thcy play a primary role
in the devclopment o f a coursc because it is in considering the givens that a teacher begins
t o makc sense of processes such as ncctls assessment and material selection. I have referred
to this elsewhere (1 996) as prolilematizing: defining the challenges of one’s situation so that
one can makc decisions about what t o do. In the absence of prohlcmatizing, a teacher may
seck to graft solutions appropriate t o another unique situation onto her situation. This
hecamc clear t o me in the case of an EFL tcachcr who faccd an extraordinary challenge:
designing a conversation class for 140 studcnts in a space meant for half as many. She felt
that having examples o f nccds analysis questionnaires \vould lie a key t o drveloping her
coursc.To me, this was an example o f a tcachcr seeking answcrs from outside without having
first specifically defined the challcngcs of her o\vn situation. Such prolilematizing could
eventually result in an examination o f hou. others approached needs analysis as an aid in
developing her owm. Hci-c is a skctch o f one Ivay of prolilematizing this teacher’s situation:
This is a coni-ersation class, brit there are 140 students in u .space thnt.fi:ts 70. I nccd to look
at \vays of hvorking within t h c constraints of the classroom such as ways t o group or
rotate students.
Il’hut kinds o_f‘coniwsationscan 1 4 stridcnts possib[r hare? I ncctl t o assess their language
ability (At what I c i d can t h y c a r y on a conrersation?) antl find out about thcir hackground
and interests (Il’hat can the), haiz coniw-sations about?). Ho\v will I go about doing that?
What kinds of questions should I ask them? If thc assessment shows that their ability
is lo\v, I nccd to focus on the kind of prqm-ation and foundation work necessary for
conversations to take place.
How cc7n I get them to work together ro hare these conversations? Classroom managcment is
an issue. I need to look at available matrrials \vith carefully structured activities as a
means of classroom management. Or perhaps I could ask other teachers what has
worked for them in this situation.
How can I monitor their u c t i r q ? I nccd to examine my rolc in the classroom. I also ncctl
to think almut thc types of monitoring antl evaluation mechanisms I will u s r in the
class.
Il’hut has worked in the post? I need to think allout thc acti\ ities or classes in which I felt
that things went wcll. Why did they gc) wcII?Wliat can I takr from thosc succcsscs and
huild into this coursc!
Thcsc arc questions that I propose. Were thc tcachcr to go through a similar process,
shc might ask different ones or respond to the same ones in different ways becausc of her
intimate knowledge ofhcr context antl her rolc in it. For cxample, how students arc graded,
whether there is a required text, and attendance patterns \vould all influence the kinds of
questions she would ask. I inclutletl the question about past succcsscs because tcachcrs
carry their experiencc ovcr from one context to the next, and being able to understand
what has been successful antl why can provide a foundation for planning a coursc. In the
context under discussion, the teacher had already taught the course and thus could be
realistic in her expectations about lvhat she could hope to accomplish mith this group of
students.
‘The constraints and rcsourccs of one’s situation take many forms, some tangible, others
not. Teachers work with or without physical antl material resources such as lmoks,
technology, a classroom, and furniturc. The lack o f physical rcsourccs may cncouragc a
teacher to use available resources in creative ways. The availability of technology may allow
a teacher to have groups of students work indcpcntlcntly. Time is another important
consideration in designing a course. How often, how long, and o \ e r what period of time
will the class meet? How much time is available to the teacher to prepare for the course
antl the classes? A teacher may adjust her teaching priorities according to the length of the
course. The kinds of activities she designs may bc affectcd by the amount of timc shc has,
hoth in class and before class.
The institutional philosophy, policy, and curriculum are important givens. Having to
work within existing curricular guidelines is both a constraint antl a resource; so is ha\ ing
to devise one’s o w n syllabus. The type of administrative antl clerical support provided by
the institution affects a teacher’s choices. For example, lack of clerical support will suggest
streamlining paperwork and materials. Support from the administration for innovation will
encourage experimentation.
The numbers, levels, antl cultural backgrounds of the students are both a constraint
antl a resource. For example, a large class may cause a teacher to focus on classroom
management. A multile\d class may influence the teacher’s selection of material or activities.
The teacher herself is the most important given. Her background, experience, and
belicfs play a significant role in the choices she makes. For example, one teacher will focus
on certain content becausc she dccms it csscntial to successful language learning, while
another will ignore the same content. A teacher who usually devclops hcr own materials
may choose to use published materials whcn teaching a course' whosc contcnt is new to her.
The givens of a situation cover a broad range of factors and affect
teacher makes. Teachers plan antl teach courses not in the abstract but in the concrete of
their constraints and rcsourccs. For cxamplc, an ESL teacher hvho teaches in an intensive
English program, whosc students change from one program to the next, may need to
investigate the background antl proficiency of her students, whcrcas for a high school EFL
teacher, this may be a given because she knows the students. The teacher in the intensive
English program might begin with a question such as “ I I o w can I find out the cultural
background and needs of my students so that I can address those needs effectively in thc six
weeks of the coursc?”Thc high school teacher’s initial question might be quitc different,
say, “How can I keep my students motivatcd in a rcquircd course?” Course development,
like teaching, is not a neatly organized process t a complex one in which teachers arc
constantly considering multiple factors and pro ding on many fronts.
Issues
The givens of one’s teaching situation, both tangible antl intangibly, cannot lie ignored.
Effecting change rcquircs both recognizing what can be changcd and accepting what cannot.
The“If only . . .”syntlromc (if only \ve had the technology, if only we had quieter classrooms,
if only our students were more motivatcd) can obstruct change as firmly as the “Yes,
194 K A T H L E E N G R A V E S
hut . . .” 5>ndrome (Yes, hut that \ \ i l l rimer mork in m> wtting.) Problemati/ing enables
a teacher to tlecidc \that shc can changc, \I hat she can’t, antl cc hcrc to start
Conclusion
The components discussctl in this chapter and summarim-d in Table 1 5.1 should serve not
as a checklist for thc teacher b u t rather as a set o f tools for talking about, understanding,
antl directing thc process of course tlc lopmcnt. Each component is contingent on every
other component. For cxample, assessment dcpcntls o n how one conceptualizes content or
on how. she interprets students’ needs. Conccptualizing content in t u r n influences the course
goals antl objectives. Thus whcrcvcr o n e starts in t h r Ixocess, each c o m p o n e n t will
eventually c o m e into play. Each componcmt is, in many respects, one \vay of\vorking with
the whole.
Note
1 The tcrms needs tina$,.si.i antl nerds usicrsmcn~arc often used intcrchangcabl!. Rut as Susan
Pomcroy oncc suggcstcd to me, thcy rcfcr to separate processcx: Asscssmcnt involves
obtaining data, \vhercas analysis involves assigning value to those data.
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Chaptev 1 6
David Nunan
ACTION RESEARCH I N LANGUAGE

E D U CAT10 N
Introduction
I N T H I S P A P E R , I H O P E T O P R O V I D E A R A T I O N A L E for the uw of
action research in recond and torcign language education Quc\tions a d d r c w d in the
paper include
What is action research in languagc education?

Is action rcscarch 'real' research?
What arc some of thr problems confronted by teachers doing action research?
What are somc of the solutions to these prolilcms?
What arc the views of the tcachcrs on the action research process?
The palier 11 ill lie illustrated \z ith data from a longitudinal action rewarch project.
Action research: description and rationale

Until comparatively recently, the focus of concern in much of the writing on sccontl and
foreign language cducation was at the level of method. Mcthodological prescriptions \vcrc
gcncrally argued logico-tletluctivel>. and prescriptions fbr practice wcrc gcncrally devoid
of data.'l'his tcndcd to reinforce the gap hctwccn theory, research and practice, a gap which,
according to van Licr, is due in part to the obstacles which pre\ent teachers from doing
rcscarch:
Thosc of us \\rho hvork in teacher education knoxv that one of the most difficult things
to lialance in a coursc is the tension between theoretical and practical aspects of the
profession. . . . Theory and practice arc not perceived as integral parts of a trachcr's
practical professional life. . . . This situation is the rcsult of communication gaps
caused by an incrcasingly opaquc research technocracy, rcstrictiw practiccs in
cducational institutions and liureaucracics (c.g. not validating research time, or not
granting sabliaticals to tcachcrs for professional renovation), and ovcrhurdening
teachers \vho cannot conceive of\vays of theorising and researching that come out of
daily work and facilitate that daily \vork.
(van Lier, 1992: 3)
198 D A V I D N U N A N
Despite the difficulties referred to by van Iier, thcrc is some evidence that the picture is
beginning to changc.The changc has Ixxn prompted in part hy a grokving sensitivity on the
part of many researchers to the complexities of the tcacher’s task. I’ractitioncrs, on their
part, seem to have grown tired of the s\vings and rountlabouts of pedagogic fashion, antl are
looking for evidence before cmlx-acing the latest tt-end to appear in the educational market
place. This is not to suggest that a revolution has taken placc, however.
While position papers, and logico-tlcducti\ c argumcntation have not tlisappcared from
the scene (antl I am not suggesting l~ora inomcnt that thcy should), thcy are
counterhalanced hy empirical approaches t o inquiry. I believe that these days, \vhcn
confronted liy pedagogical questions antl I)roldcms, researchers and teachers are more
likely than \vas the case ten or fifteen !cars ago, to seck relevant data, rithcr through
their own research, or through the rcscai-ch of othcrs. IXescarch activity has increased
to the point whcrc those \Tho fa\mur logico-dctluctivc solutions to pedagogic problcms
arc lieginning to argue that thcrc is too much i-cscarch.
(Nunan, 1992)
An important concept underpinning action rcscarch ( A R ) is that ot reflcctilc practice

In his exccllcnt liook on rcflcctne teaching, Wallace (1 991 ) argues that rcflectilc teaching
pro\ ides a \T a! of de\ eloping prolcssional c otnpctcncc 11) integrating two wurces of
kno\i ledge, rcccxi\ cd k n o n lctlgc antl cxpcricntial kno\z lctlgc, \\ ith practice Wallace’s
conccption I \ captured in Figurc 16 1
Trainee’s
existing
conceptual
schemata COMPETENCE
or mental Experiential
constructs knowledge
‘Reflective cycle’
STAGE 1: (Pre-training) STAGE 2: (Professional education/development) GOAL
He links this with action research, arguing that:
‘action research’ can he attractivc for two reasons:

1 It can havc a specific antl iinmcdiatc outcome \vhich can I)(- directly related to
practice in the teacher’s o\vn context.
2 The ‘findings’ of such rcscarch might lie Iiriniaril? specific, i.c. it is not claimcd
that thcy are necessarily of general application, antl thcrcforc the methods might he
morc free-ranging than those of conventional rcscarch.
. . . ‘Kcsearch’ of this kind is simply an extension o f the normal t-cflcctii e practice o f
many teachers, Iiut it is slightly more rigorous antl might conceivahly lead to morc
effective outcomes.
(Wallace, 1 99 1 : 56--7)
As we can see from the selcctcd extracts presented a h v c , action rcscarch is justified
on the grounds that it is a valuable professional dcvclopment tool. I t rcpresents what I would
ACTION RESEARCH I N LANGUAGE EDUCATION 199
call an ‘insidc out’ approach to professional development. I t rcprcscnts a departure from

the ‘outside in’ approach (i.e. one in lvhich an outside ‘expert’ brings the ‘good news’ to
the practitioner in the form of a onc-off workshop o r seminar). In contrast, the inside out
approach begins with the concerns and interests ofpractitioners, placing them at the crntr-c
ofthe inquiry process. In addition to being centred in the needs and interest of practitionrrs,
and in actively involving them in their own professional development, the inside out
approach, as realiscd through action rcscarch, is longitudinal in that practitioners arc
involved in medium to long-term inquiry
I believe that the Ixnefits to professional d lopment are justification enough for the
ent of an action research agenda. However, I believe that a further rationale for
pmcnt of such an agenda comes from the research process itself, and I shall deal
with this in section three of my paper. First, h o er, I should like to look at the steps
involved in the action research process.
Steps in the research process

The action rcscarch process is generally initiated by the identification b y the practitioner of
something which they find puzzling o r problematic. This puzzle o r problem may, in fact,
have emerged from a period of obscrvation and reflection. Thc second step is the collcction
o f basclinc data through a preliminary investigation which is dcsigncd to identify what is
currently happening in thr classroom without trying to change anything. Rased on a rcvicw
yielded by the prrliminary investigation, an hypothc is formetl.The next step
lopment of some form of intervention or change to sting practice, along with
a way of evaluating the effects of this change.Thc final step is reporting on the outcomes of
the interaction, antl, if necessary, planning furthcr intcrvcntions.T\vo examples ofthc action
research cycle are prcsentcd inTahlcs 16.1 and 16.2.
Action research and ‘real’ rcsearch

In thc first part of this paper, I argucd that action research can IIC justified on professional
Table 16.1 ‘I‘hc action rcscaarch cyclc: an FSI example
Prob lcni / p u r ~ l c + A teacher identifies a Imhlcni/purzlc. ‘M Y students don’t sccni

intlcntitication intci-cstrd o r moti\ atctl.’
I
Preliminary + I
What’s going on7 Rccmrtling and oliscrving class o v e r sc\ cral
in\cstigation days.
I
Hypothesis +
I
Content doesn’t secm to stimulate students. Exclusive usr ot
I display questions.
I of .rctcrcntial
. . questions. Makc links bct\vccn
Plan intrrvrntion + Increase UYC
content antl learners.
I
Outcome + Morc complcx intrractions. Morc in\ ol\ cmcnt and interest
Morc ‘natural’ discoursc, c.g. students nominate topics,
Ss disagree \vith tvacher, S--S interaction.
I
Staff‘tlc\ clopmcnt session.
Table 16.2 ’l’hc action research cvc,lc: a h r c i g n language cxainplc
I I’rohlcm + A tcachrr idcntifics a p r o l A m in hcr classroom. ‘My stutlcnts

itlcntitication aren’t using t h c targct language [(;rrman].’
2
I
I’rcliminary -+ What’s going on? Ilcccirding a n d oliacrving class ovcr scvrral
in\ cstigation
I
in English.
I
4 Plan intc-rvcntion + Tcachcr incrmscs target Ianguagc iisc.
Tcachcr usrs ( k r i i i a n h r clasarooni managrmrnt ctc
I
dcvelopmcnt grounds. H o u t AK can also be justified o n research grounds.

In fact, I believe that there is s ntially patronising in the vimv that, Mhile AR
might be good for profcssiona , it hardl? counts as r arch. [,et us, t o use a
currently fashionable t e r m , ‘ his vie\v. First of all, \\.hat (lo \ \ r e mean by
‘research’?What is the functi
Elscw-here, I havc defined research as ‘a sjstcmatic proc ’ of inquiry consisting o f t h r e e
elements or componcnts: ( 1 ) a question, I m h l c n i , or hypc csis, (2) data, (3) analysis ant1
intcrprctation of data’ (Nunan, 1992: 3 ) . Action research incorporates these three clcments
antl thercforc qualifies as ‘rcal’ 1-csearch. For mc the salient distinction hctwecn A K and
othcr forms of research is that in .4K the I- arch process is initiated and carrictl out I,>. the
practitioncr. As l’ar as I am concerned, the opposition is not lict\vccn action research and
‘rcal’ research, but Iiet\vc.cn good rcscarch and bad rcscarch. A further characteristic,
pcrhaps differentiating A R from othcr forins o f practitioner rescarch, is that it incorporates
an clcmtwt of intervention antl change.
Fundamental to any discussion of‘ research is a consideration of t h e rcscm-cher’s
conception o f notions such as ‘truth’, ‘ohjcctivity’, and thc status of kno\vlcdgc. I recently
attemptctl t o deal \vith the tensions of objective antl subjective kno\vletlgc by suggesting
that they represent t\vo altcrnati\.c \vays o f looking a t thc world:
T\vo a h - n a t i v e conceptions o f t h c nature of research provide a point o f tension within

the book.Thc first view is that external truths exist ‘out there’ somewhere. According
t o this view, the function of rcscarch is to uncover these truths. The second vicw is
that t r u t h is a ncgotiablc commodity contingcnt upon the historical context within
\vhich phenomena arc observed antl interprctcd. Further ‘[rescarch] stantlards arc
subject to change in the light ofpracticc [lvhich] \vould sccm to intlicatc that the search
for a substanti\c universal, ahistorical nicthotlology is futilc.’ (Chalmcrs 1990: 2 1 )
. . . This second, context-bound attitude to research entails a rather differcnt role for
the classroom practitioncr than the first. If knmvledgc is tentative antl contingcnt upon
context, rather than alisolutc, thcn I liclicvc that practitioners, rather than being
consumers of o t h c r pcoplc’s rcscarch, should adopt a research orientation to their
o\vn classrooms.There is cvidcnctx that the tcachcr-researcher movement is alive and
mcll and gathering strength. Howcicr, i f the momentum mhich has gathered 15 not to
falter, and i f the teacher-researcher molement 17 not to becomr > e t another fad, then
5ignilicant numbers of teachers, gracluatc students, antl others \z ill ncctl skllls in
planning, implementing and e\ aluatmg research
(Nunan, 1992)
There are thosr hvho \vould arguc that my definition of research as a systematic process
of inquiry involving formulating a question, collccting relevant data, antl analysing antl
interpreting that data is inatlequatr, that in order to count as research, the process should
also meet the twin structures of reliability antl validity. Key questions for establishing the
rcliahilitv and validity of research arc set o u t inTable 16.3.
Tuh/e 16.3 Questions for establishing thr rcliahility and validity of a stud!
‘Ijpe k’cy YllCStlOfl
Internal reliability Would an intlepcntlcnt researcher, on re-analysing the

data, conic to the same conclusion?
Extcrnal reliability Would an indcpcndcnt researcher, o n replicating thc

s t u d \ , come to the same conclusion?
Intrrnal validity Is the rmcarch design such that \vc can confitlcntl> claim
that the outcomes arc a result o f thr experimental treatment?
External \alidit> Is thc research tlcsign such that \z c (‘an grneralisc I x y n t l

thc subjects untlcr inkcstigation t o a witlcr population?
Soirrcc: Nunan. 1992
While I would argue that any rcscarch needs to tic rclialde, the issue of validity is more
problematic. If one is not trying to establish a relationship Iwt\vcen variables, hut (for
example) to dcscribc and interpret phenomena in context, does the imperative to
demonstrate that one has safeguarded one’s research from thrcats to internal validity rcmain!
By the same token, if onc is not trying to arguc from samples to populations, then it would
not be unreasonable to a, r t that external validity is irrclmant. I would argue that as most
AR is not concerned mith arguing from samples to populations, external validity is not at
issue. (For an cxccllcnt discussion of issucs to do n i t h reliability and validity in qualitative
rcscarch, see LeComptc and Goctz, 1982.)
It is popularly assumed that the purpose of research is to test theories. For examplc,
‘That communicative language teaching is more Ffective than audiolingualisrn.’ Allwright and Bailey
h a w pointcd out that there arc problems mith this proposition. In the first place, some
theories are untestable (for example, Krashen’s attestations on ‘subconscious’ acquisition).
Secondly, classrooms are too complcx for us to control all thc variables in the manner
prescribed by experimental research. Thry propose an alternativc purpose for research,
namclj to try antl understand and deal with immcdiatc practical problrms facing teachers
and learners (Allwright and Bailey, 1991). If \vc accept this alternative purpose, M C art’
drawn immetliately into embracing AR, because it makes no sense for an outsider to arhitratc
on the practical problems facing teachers and learners. This does not mean that outsiders,
such as unhersity-based researchers, hahe n o role to play in practitioner-based research.

However, the role is one of collaboration and ad\ icc rather than direction and control.
Problems and solutions in doing action research

I would now like to reassure those who might feel that I am looking at teacher research
through rose-colouretl glasses. I t is certainly not the case that everything is rosy in the AK
garden.The principal problems identified liy teachers with whom I have Morked in a number
of different contexts include the following:
Lack of time
Lack of expertise
Lack of ongoing support
Fear of being rclvealcd as an incompetent tcacher
Fear of producing a public account of their rcscarch for a wider (unknolzn) audience
We have cxperimcntcd tvith a number o f solutions to the problems. I believe that thc
chances for an action rcscarch agenda to succccd will be maximiscd under the following
conditions:
There is somcwne ‘on thr ground’ to ‘okvn’ the project.

One or more individuals with training in research methods arc availablc ‘on tap’ to
provide assistance and support to tcachcrs.
‘Teachers are given paid relcasc time from face-to-facc teaching during the course of
their action research.
Collaborative focus teams arc established so that teachers involi et1 in similar areas of
inquiry can support one another.
Teachers arc given adequate training in methods antl techniques for identifying issues,
collecting data, analysing and interpreting data, and prcscnting the outcomes of their
research,
In order to facilitate the process, colleagues antl I haw del elopcd an in-service
programmc.This programme \vas initially devised for the IdPT project (Languages Inservice
Project forTeachers) in South Australia, antl has bccn further moditietl and refined in Sydney,
where a project has bccn establishctl h i n g i n g together mainstream teachers, ESL teachers,
and teachers of LOTE (Languages Other than English). InTalilc 16.4,l have provided a
summary of the professional development programme as it currently exists.
Evaluating action research

From what has already Iwen said, it is clear that action research is difficult, messy,
protilematic, and, in some cases, inconclusive. I t consumes a grcat deal of time, and often
strains the goodwill of the teachers invol\etl, as well as those with whom they work.
Ho\vever, evaluative data from teachers themselves suggests that teachers who have hccn
involved in action research are overwhelmingly in favour of it. For example, Mickan, who
collected data on the reaction of outside teachers to his LII’T project, writes:
Teacher4 hahe welcomed the article4 from LIPT. The) ha\e found them particularly
useful and r e l a a n t hcxausc the! depict the complex circumstances of classroom life
in an honest and direct way.They have found them a rich source of ideas and valuable
for informing their own practice. Thc warts and all descriptions (including failures
and successes), thc research techniques used, the analTsis of' results and the contextual
detail are all rlcments hvhich readers relate to and understand. As such they posscss
a validity which derives from the detailed narration of classroom ecology. The
cxpcriential reports giw other practitioners models and ideas for their ow-n practice.
They also suggest topics and procedures for classroom investigations in diffcrcnt
contexts.
(Mickan, 1 99 1 )
Table 16.4 The insen icc programme in outline
Session I An introduction to classroom olxc.rvation and rcscarch

a A series of reflective activities dcsigncd to gct tcachcrs thinking about their o\vn teaching stylr.
I) Rcllccting on the teaching of others: teachers examine anti critique cxtracts from a range of
classrooms identifying those aspects o l t h c extracts thcy liked and tlislikctl.
c Identification of ideological beliefs and attitudes underlying critiques.
Rctwccn session task: teachers record and rcllcct on their o\vn teaching.
Session 2 An introduction to action research

a Teachers I-cport back on the hetween wssion task.
I> Introduction to issues and methods in action rrsearch
c Introduction to thr action research pro'
lop a draft action plan.
Session 1 Focus groupc antl action plans

a Formation of focus groups antl appointment of facilitators.
I-, Sharing of draft action plans.
c Refining qucstions.
Brt%vc.cnsession task: baseline ohscr\ation, focus group meetings, preliminary data collection.
Session 4 Analysing data

a Participants devclop ways of analysing and making scnsr o f thcir (lata
Iictwcrn session task: ongoing data collcction antl analysis, focus group meetings
Session 5 Writing u p
a I'articipants rcccivc input on prcscnting their research.
h Development of draft rrporting outlines.
tlctwccn session task: production of draft reports
Session 6 R c h i n g reports
Participants rcccivc fccdback on anti discussion of their reports
Srssion 7 Ebaluation
Participants c\ aluatc thc LIPT process and provide fccdback on how their involvement changcd them.
An evaluation by Lewis (1 992) is also favourable. She reports on a study conducted

with a group of teachers of French immersion programmes in British Columbia.The focus
of hcr research was the effect on the professional practice of the teachers of engaging in
AK. She drew the following conclusions from her research.
1 ’l’hrough thc pro o f systematically iniplcmcnting thcir o\vn choice of action project
f the students in particular, each tcachcr learned more about thcir
o\vn thcories, or frames for teaching, antl motlifictl thcsc frames t o a ccrtain extent.
2 The frames for tcaching o f the participants in this study arc related to the bigger
questions of second language education antl education in general. Practice cannot lie
understood thoroughly n i t h o u t aplircciating how educational theory i s expressed
lvithin teachers’ frames and neither can theor? bc uscful without rccognising that
\\hat counts is how theory Ixwmies cxIircsscd \Tithin practice.
3 The ‘tcachcr as r archer’ o r ‘rdlcction in action’ approach t o tcachcr education can
lie a \ c r y powcrtul \vav of facilitating changc in curriculum.
In elaluating the last o f t h c I IPT proicct\, \\e asked teachers to complete the folio\\ ing
statements:
Action research i s ................................................................................
Action research i s carried out in order to ...................................................
Wc also a\ked thcrn t o respond t o thc folio\\ ing:
I What are the most significant things you have lcarncd in carrying o u t your classroom
research?
2 What qucstions/issucs has y o u r classroom research raised for vou?
3 What further arcas/itlcas arc you interested in pursuing?
Sample responses to the til-st of thcsc prolxs o n the most significant outcomes for the
participants arc set o u t in Appendix 1 . It can be sccn that thcsc are ovcrwhelmingly
favourable, the participants choosing t o focus either o n the sulistanti\c content outcomes
(‘By collecting antl a n a l y i n g data o n ni! children, I found that they wcrc m o r e highly
motivated than I had given thcm credit for’), learning procrss outcomes (‘The active
involvement o f the children in t h c learning process facilitates learning.’ ‘I discovered that
kids know ho\v to learn the project taught me t o listcn to thcrn’), or reflections on the
~
research process itself (‘In norking through the action research ~iroc‘ess, I discovcrctl \vhich
methods of data collection arc most suited t o my research question next time I will hc
~
lietter prcparctl as I \vi11 lic more awarc of\vhat I am looking for, and \ \ i l l be hettcr able to
match my questions antl data.’). The enthusiastic validation of learner-ccntrcd approachcs
t o instruction, cvcn though this \\‘as not a primary aim o f most research, i s also Lvorth noting.
Finally, participants \\‘crc asked to complete a chccklist t o indicate how thcir traching
had changed as a result ofthcir involvement in the projcct. I k s u l t s are set o u t inTablc 16.5.
It can Iic sccn from thc sur\.ey that, if sell’-rcports are t o lie believctl, the expericncc \vas,
for most teachers, an over\\ hclmingly positi\.e onc.
Conclusion
In this Ijalier, I have argued that the atloption o f an action research orientation can bc justified
lopmcnt terms antl rcscarch terms. Despitc thc Iw-caucratic difficulties
and obstacles Ivhich arc placed in thc \vaT of t c a c h c r s , thc clitism of a certain cadre of
researchers (somc of 1%hom ~ v c r conce classroom teachers themselves!), and the suspicion
which i s sometimes directed at academics Lvho arc trying t o promote a closer rrlationship
‘ruble / 6 . 5 How has your tcaching changeti? Complete the follo\\ing: ‘Since I havr hecn doing action
research, 1 tint1 that\\ hen I tcach I no\\ . , .’
Mot-c About LtY\

the ,amc
I tcntl to be &recti\ c 1 14 10
2 try t o itsc a greater \aricty ofI)cha\ iours 16 6 0
3 praise students 15 10 0
4 criticise students 0 11 13
5 am axvarc of studrnts’ teeling.\ 18 h 0
6 gi\ c directions 4 16 5
7 ani conscious of mv n o w \ crbal communication 11 14 0
8 use the targct language in class 19 6 0
9 am conscious of non-verhal cuc\ of students 12 12 0
10 tr\ to incorporate student itlcas into my teaching 20 5 0
11 spend more class time talking mysclf 1 9 15
12 try to gct students \\-orking in groups 15 8 0
13 ti-! to get tiivcrgcnt, open-cndcd student responses 14 10 0
14 distinguish I)ct\vc.cn cnthusiasm and lack o f oi-dcr 9 I5 0
15 t r \ to get \tutlcnt\ to participate 18 7 0
bet\ccen theory, rcscarch, antl practice, there is c\ idence that things are beginning to change
I can otter no more fitting conclusion to this paper than the follo\sing extract from the v o r k
ot t n o ot the prolession’s foremost adlocates of the dc\clopmcnt ot hai-monj bct\\ccn
theor), rcwarch and practice, ~ h h oa c strixen in thcir OM n teaching, Lcriting antl research,
to enhance thc status ot both practitioner and r archer \\ ithin language cducation
\lo\\ I>, thc profcs5ion as a \\ hole is reahsing that, no matter hou much intellectual
cnergj is put into the inicntion of ncv methods (or of ne\\ approaches to s!Ilahus
dcsign, antl so on), \\hat rcall; matters is \\hat happens 1%hen tcachcrs antl learners
get together in the classroom This 4hitt in emphasis from concentrating on
planning decisions t o concentrating on looking a t M hat actuall) happens in the
cla\sioom, has led r archers to h a c much greater respect for c l a w o o m tcaching
I he more m e look, the more \\e find, antl thc moic \\e rcahw hov complex the
teacher’s 101) is And tcachcis, in thcir turn, faced a t last 111th rrsrarchcrs mho ha\c
at least some itlea ot the cnoi mous complexit) ot e \ e r j d a j clas\rooni l i t c , arc
heginning t u he more r pti\c to thc \\hole research enterprise Bcing a gootl
classroom teacher means being all\ e to \z hat goes on in the claswoom, all\? to the
problems ot rorting out \\hat matters, momcnt bj momcnt, from \I hat tlocs not Ant1
that 15 \\hat classroom rcscarch is all about gaining a better undcrstanthng of \\hat
good teachers (and lcai ncrs) do instinctncl; as a matter of course, so that ultiinatelj
all can hcncht
( A l h r i g h t antl Railej, 199 1 )
Appcndix 1
What are the most significant things j o u ha\c lcarned in carr)ing o u t !our cla\woom
research!
The active inyol\ emcnt of the chiltlrcn in the learning process facilitate5 learning.
Children have differcnt learning prcfcrences antl teachers nccd to allow for this in
their instructional practices.
.. Children find it difficult to express feelings and opinions on papcr.

It is casy to ‘spoon fectl’ children, but this leads to ineffcctive learning.
Teaching problems only go alvay if they arc recognized and tackled.
The most important outcomc for mc was that I learnctl how to do action research,
To benefit, I thcreforc have to do it again!
Working with the children together (c.g. finding their thoughts/feelings and acting
. on them).
In working through the action resrarch process, I discovered which methods o f data
collection are most suited to my research question ~ next time I will be bctter
prepared as I will be morc aware of what I am looking for, and will be bctter ablc to
. match my questions and data.

The process removcd my tunnel vision to teaching.
It helped me to make links xvith other teachers o f Mandarin, as well as parents antl
. the community.
The proccss dramatically cnhanced my rapport with students.
I found that by careful, step-by-step direction o f students, I was able to give them
tools to manage their oivn learning.
Ry collecting and analyzing data on my children, I found that they were morc highly
. motivated than I had given them credit for.

The most important outcome for me was that I tliscovered the children enjoy (and
respond well) to bcing consulted about their learning and tieing given some say in
what they learn.
There \vas a negative outcomc for me I’ve learned not t o expect children t o
havc complctcd tasks or to value something just because they’re important to
mc.
I found thatyear 7 learners still need lots of structure and guidance, even when
. independent skills arc cncouragcd.

I was disappointed. I expected too much in my initial project book flood! Only book
~
. trickle is possible in such a short time.

The most important discovery for me \vas that my students nccd morc time and
opportunities to work in groups as they need to learn to work on their own without
. teacher directed lrssons all the time.

The need for informed input in this proccss one ncctls to read ctc., recent research
~~
and thinking in order to maximize value of one’s obvn research, and move beyond
. one’s own ‘lilinkercd’ vision.

The positive bcnefit of concentrating o n one particular area because the attitude/
. approach of opennrss and inquiry carries ovcr into one’s teaching in gencral.
I have learned that students with a very limited knowledge of the target language are
prepared to try to hvrite morc than I expcctcd, and that in future I should try to foster
this willingness in my classes.
Contrary to my exprctations, I found that the chiltlrcn lverc keen to be part of a
. ‘project’.This led to increased motivation (maybe Hawthorne Effect?).

I have learned that one ncctls to undcrtake classroom research. One needs to intervene
observation alone isn’t a good enough indicator of how much children are
. Icarning.
In my research, I tlelvctl into how my lessons were arranged and the effectiveness (or
not) of my teaching. I looked closely at my learning strategies. I t allowed m e
t o construct a unit that mas tlesigncd for junior primar: 5tudent5’ needs and intercsts
and m) research allowed m> to construct strategic’s accordinglj.
I disco\cred that kids kno1.r ho\t to lcarn thc project taught m e to listen to thcm
~
Acknowledgements
Grateful acknondcdgcment is made t o thc British Council for financial support. Figurc 16.1,
‘Reflecti\-e practicc model o f professional cducation development’ from Training Foreign
Language Teachers:A Rcjlectlve ,4pprouch ( M . Wallace, 1 99 1 ), is reproduced h v kind permission
of Cambridge University Press.
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Unpublished monograph, Monterey Institute for Intcrnational Training, Montcrey :
California.
Wallace, M . 1991. Training Foreign /.anguage Eachers:A R$ecrive,Ipproach. Cambridge: CUP.
C h a p t e r 17
Susan Feez
CURRICULUM EVOLUTION I N THE

AUSTRALIAN ADULT MIGRANT
ENGLISH PROGRAM
1 Introduction
1 . 1 The Adult Migrant English Program
T H I S C H A P T E R T R A C E S T H E D E V E L O P M E N T OF curriculum and syllabus

design in the Australian Adult Migrant English Program (AMEP). The AMEP is a n
English-languagc p r o g r a m m e offered by the Australian government to all immigrants
of non-English speaking background. Many people believe that the AMEP has hccn an
important e l c m r n t in the succcssful integration of the thousands of peoplc from diverse
Inckgrountls 1%-hohave migratctl to Australia sincc thc Sccontl World War.
1.2 F i f y y e a r r of curriculum development

Oler t h e fift) )car\ ot t h e AMEP, teachers h a c interpreted d c \ c l o p m c n t s in applied
IinguistiLs in order to customisc the curriculum to thc need5 ot non-tnglish 5pcaking
immigranta '1 heir intcrprctation5 ha\ c rcflcctcd thcii- bchcfs about language and languagr
learning, both conscious and unconscious Thew I,clict\ ha\c shaped the \x a) tcachera in the
AMEP ha\ e di\ idcd language up into chunky ot content and then sccIucnLcc1 the w n t r n t
into claw-oom act11 ities L)c\clopmcnt\ in applied linguistic5 olcr the last hft) ycars h a c
resulted in three distinct \xa\es of tcac hing a p p r o a ~ h c sin the AMFP These arc.
I structural approache\
2 lcarncr-centrccl, ne b a d , conimuniati\c approa~he\
3 trxt-bascd approaches
2. I Structural approaches
2. I . 1 The origins ofstructural (ipproachec
At the bcginning of the tlvcnticth century the learning of a foreign language in formal
educational settings was limited t o the privileged fen,. Students learnt t h e language by
studying grammar rules and using thcsc rulcxs to translate literary texts, a method known
AUSTRALIAN ADULT MIGRANT ENGLISH PROGRAM 209
as grammar-translation. As the century unfolded antl more people had the opportunit? or
need to trawl, there was a demand for approaches which taught people how to communicate
in a wider range of contexts n i t h speakers of other languages. Applied linguists in Britain
antl Amcrica responded to this demand in different ways. British applied linguists developed
situational language teaching, lvhilc in America audiolingual methods \\ere d
an account of these devclopments scc Howatt, 1984; Richards and Rotlgers, 1986).
The AMEP looked to British situational language teaching, \vhich linked structures ‘to
situations in which they could be usctl’ (Richards and Rodgcrs, 1986: 35). British situational
language teaching had emcrgctl becausc a group of British linguists, in particular Firth and
Halliday, \yere rxploring holv structure and meaning were relatcd to contrxt and situation
(see Richards antl Rodgers, 19x6).
2 I 2 Srr irctirrcil upproat he\ and hehai roural eclucatronal py rholog
Teachers using situational/structural approaches taught Icarncrs the component parts of

language. They used tcchniques dcvclopetl liy hchavioural psychologists to teach ‘correct’
language habits and accurate forms. Words and structures \vci-e taught in a fixed sequence
through response, rcpctition and mcmorisation using, for example, imitation drills and
substitution cxcrcises.
Situational language teaching \vas used in the AMEP becausc non-English~speakingmigrants

needcd to be alile to use ‘real-\.vorld’English as quickly as possible on arrival in Australia.
All learners in the AMEP mw-e taught the samc dialogues in a fixed sequence from a common
textbook. These dialogues \vert ‘situated’ within an everyday ‘setting’ such as a restaurant
or a railxvay station. The dialogues introduccd lexical items antl grammatical structures
which were then practised by the learners in follow-up activities. The dialogues used at the
time no\v seem very contri\-ccl and inauthentic nrvcrthcless, they drew learners’ attention
to language use in
The linking of structures to situation in the AMEP curriculum was an earl) examplc of
the close link \vhich continues to this day between the academic discipline of applicd
linguistics antl the de\ elopmcnt of curriculum and expertise in the AMEP When comparcd
with equivalent language learning approaches of the day, thc situational approach stands out
for its responsiveness to the needs of learners. Through this syllabus AMEP trachers \vcrc
tlevrloping expertise in linking thr language learnt in the classroom and the language
learners nccdcd to use in rcal life. This expertise became the foundation on which future
tlevclopmcnts in AMW curriculum were based.
Other innovations during this period no\v taken for granted everywhere asTESOL Iwst
practice includc:
a concern with all the macroskills of language listening, speaking, reading and writing
~
the usc of thcmcs antl topics as a basis for coursc design

classroom management stratcgiex in\ olving clicitation techniques, pair antl group
lvork
presentation and practice techniques \vhich incorporated rcalia, concrete and visual
materials, gcsturc and mime
the identification of teaching ohjcctives in tcrms of \\.hat thc Icarncr should bc able
to do with English at the enti of the course.
210 S U S A N F E E Z
2.1 .-! The challenge to structural u p f r @ i ~ h e ~
Despite the innovations outlined almvc, t.hc situational approach retained the follotving
limitations:
Language forms \vert learnt in isolation antl in a fixed progression irrespective o f the
learner’s necds and goals.
Language learning was f,roduct-orientecI, teacher-centred, concerned with accuracy
more than fluency, antl atomistic, that is, concentrating on individual isolated phrases
and structures.
Grammar and vocabulary \\ere taught in isolation from thc \vay language \vas used in
real life situations (sccYaltlen 19873).
2.2 Leaner-centred, needs-based communicative approaches

From the end of the 1970s the AMEP l q a n to move akvay from a ccntraliscd, structural
approach towards an indivitlualiscd syllahus in \\-hich classroom teachers were responsible
for syllabus dcsign. Teachers constructed their syllahuscs from a diverse repertoire of
syllabus elements and methodologies. These can be roughly grouped according to whether
thcy were informed by:
1 second language acquisition antl progrcssiw pcdagogies

2 communicative and social theories of languagc. antl language learning.
2.2. 1 .\aturn1 longtiage learning i7nd progrewre pcclqogie.s
Approaches Lvhich were d c s c r i l d as more ‘natural’ lvays of lcarning a language cmerged

after thc American linguist Chomsky claimed that language use was ‘not imitated bchaviour
b u t . . . creatcd anew from untlcrlping kno\vlctlge o f alxtract rules’ (Richards and Rodgers,
1986: 59). Following Chomsky, sccontl language acquisition (SLA) theorists began to
describe language learning as a proccss in lvhich learners actively test their emerging
interpretations of the new language.
Influenced by SLA, AMEI’ teachers began to understand that a learner’s non-standard
approximation of the target languagc,, or interlanguage, was not mcrelp ‘incorrcct’ but rather
revealed how the learner \vas progressing (Corder, 198 1 ; Sclinker, 1991). AMEP teachers
felt that, if language learners were in an environment rich in language input just beyond
what thcy 1vei-e able to produce themselves in a stress-frcc cnvironmcnt, they would acquire
the target language unconsciously, effortlessly and flucntly (Krashcn, 1 988).
A stress-free learning environment m-as achicved by drawing on the progressive
pedagogics which had emcrgcd in Wcstcrn education by the end of the 1960s. Progressivc
pcdagogies cncouragcd teachers to abandon their traditional authoritarian role in ordcr to:
tlcvclop more equal antl respectful rclationships with learncrs

facilitate humane, interesting and interactivc educational settings
recognise and respond to the individual needs, interests antl motivations of
learners
encourage learners to takc responsibility for their omm learning, to takc risks and to
discover knowledge as they need it.
AMEP teachers were especially concerned with learning principles appropriate to adults
including, for example, self-directed antl contract learning (Kno\vlcs, 1 990). Some AMEP
teachcrs also became intrrested in approaches which highlighted social justicc, and political
and personal freedom (for example, Freire, 1972).
By the end of the 1 980s many AMEP teachers had developed the following Iiclicfs about
language learning:
Fluency is more important than accuracy.

Intervention in thc learning process is countcr-productive because it diminishes the
individual's motivation, self-expression and personal development and takes
rcsponsibility for learning avay from the learner.
Learners should 'own' thcir learning so teachers should negotiate the curriculum with
learners based on learner need.
Classroom materials should he based o n authentic languagc use and tcachcrs should
dra\v on a wide range of methotlologics. -
-- -. -.-,.______
r :
,.(. , * -7"
, - '
I .
..
'
' ,.,,,/ ,"<L j
2.2.2 Hjmes, Hollida?; connn~micationand discourse '
I
,
,,,J,.,
, . A/,',
, 9 ! - . ,L -
L',,f-l~,,$
. .,-.
,
Communicative and social thcories of language and language learning emcrgPd-fi-m-tht. ~- - ' -
work of linguists who w e r e concerned with meaning, function and social context, in
particular Hymes in the United States and Halliday in the United Kingdom (sccYalden,
1987a). Hvmes (1 972) used thc tcrm 'communicative competence' to account for the two
kinds of knowledge successful language users apply. These arc:
knowledge about languagc

knowledge about the appropriate language to use in particular social contexts.
Research into the nature of communicative competence lead to the development of a range
of approaches to language teaching known collectively as communicative language teaching.
(See the following for accounts of these approaches: Brumfit, 1986; Richards and Rodgcrs,
1986; Melrosc, 1991 : 1-1 6; Yalden, 198717). By the end of the 1980s the communicatiw
language teaching methodologies had liecomc the basis of the AMEP curriculum.
Meanwhile Halliday (1 975; 1976; 1978) was developing a comprehensiw, systematic
way of describing language in terms of:
the meanings people make with language

what people do with language
the social contexts in which language is used.
The work of Hymes and Halliday influcnced the English language teaching syllabus documents
prcpared by the Council of Europe in the early 1970s (van Ek and Alexander, 1980).These
documents were based on stretches of meaningful language with a real communicative
purpose rather than on isolatctl sentences, grammatical structures or lexical itcms. Wilkins
( 1976) categorised these units of meaningful language in terms of t\vo general hcadings:
functions: units of meaning identificd on the basis of their communicative purposc,
for example greeting, persuading and suggesting.
notions: the language used to express a general area of meaning such as time, quantity
and emotion.
Increasingly AMEP teachers provided learners with opportunities to use extended chunks
o f language, or discourse, to achieve communicative purposes in context rather than simply
providing opportunities for memorising isolatcd grammatical structures and vocabulary. In
addition language proficiency in the AMEP began to be assessed against scales which
describcd what learners could do with language at different levels in terms of extended
stretches of meaningful language, as \vel1 as in tcrms of grammar and vocabulary (Ingram

and Wiley, 1984).
As the 1980s progre d, AMEP teachers Iiccamc increasingly aware of criticism being
levrllcd at inventories of notions antl functions, for example hy Candlin (as cited in Mclrose,
199 1 : 19- 20) and Widdo\cson ( 1 979: 248 as quoted in Yaldcn, 1987a: 77). These critics
pointed out that, although these \vcrc lists of units of meaning rathcr than lists of words and
structures, they remained inventories of isolatctl components and so were of questionable
value in de\ eloping communicative competence.
2.2.3 The challenge to learner-centrcJ, ncctlc-hacd comrnrrnicc7ti1.capproaches
By the mitlL1980s, for each new class they taught, AMEP teachers \vere cxpcctcd to:
analyse the nccds of learners (13rindIcy, 1984)
negotiate language learning objcctivcx with thc learners
use functional-notional inventories to select antl sequcncc syllabus elements
implement learner-ccntretl, communicative methodologies based on self-dircctcd
learning antl the development of fluency
provide opportunities for tlcvcloping thc skills antl strategies learners needed if they
werc to become effective listeners, spcakcrs, readers and writcrs.
In practice the task of designing coherent courses from all these componcnts proved to br
very difficult. As teachers tried to tlcvisc situations in which the studcnts could practise
different bvords and structurcs in ‘natural’ contcxts o f use, fluency \vas cmphasised at the
expensc of accuracy. Tcachcrs tended to sclcct and sequence syllabus elements according
to their perception of xvhat ‘worked’ in the classroom, forgetting that communicative
practice alonc \vould not dcvclop communicative competence. As Hymes had pointed out
from the Iieginning, learners also ncctlcd to dcvclop kno\vledge ahout language.
By the e n d of the 1980s AMEI’ tcachcrs hvere grappling with ‘the complexities of
designing intlivitlualiscd programs lvith little institutional support’ (Brindlcy and Hood,
1990: 2 2 3 -4).A consequence ofthis was that AMEI’ learners had little sense of progression
o r achievcmcnt (Brintllcy, 1985; Nunan, 1987).To ovcrcomc these difficulties, teachcrs
requested ‘non-mandatory curriculum guidelines to assist thcm in planning courses to meet
the nccds of commonly recurring Icarncr groups’ (Nunan, 1987: 59).
O n e commonly recurring learning group in the AMEP wcrc ‘stabilisecl’ lcarncrs nrho
had achieved a non-standard intcrlanguage xvhich allo\ved thcm to survive in Australia.Thesc
learners, howe\rer, did not progress to more standard forms of English. Ikcausc teachers
were focusing on fluency in classrooms and were trying not to intcrvcne in language
learning, learners were interacting with each other, not with the teacher. Consequently thc
opportunities for learners to engage with stantlard English wcrc limited and their
interlanguage hecamc established as the means of communication. Non-standard forms of
English limited students’ opportunities in Australia, especially in further cducation and
employment.
AMEP curriculum (Icvclopcrs realisctl that it \vas tiinc to 1-cvisit the idea of planned
intervention in the process of language Icarning, but this time from thc persprctivc of:
an interactive model of grammar and discourse, one that demonstrates the necessity
and importance o f both levels of languagc to the languagc learning process and to the
attainment of communicative competence.
(Celce-Murcia, 1990: 146)
Developments in the wider field of English-languagc teaching wcre supporting this shift.
Widtlo\vson ( 1 990: 164), for example, strongly challcnged the ‘natural’ approach to
language learning.
The early 1990s initiated a period of rapid social, economic and industrial change in
Australia. AMEP learners ncctlctl increased levels of English-language proficiency if thcy
were to access community services, find work or participate in further education in this
changing environment. If their English-language skills were to bc recogniscd in this environ-
ment, AMEP learners would have to demonstrate their language skills in tcrms of explicit
outcomes of a rccognised curriculum (for an account of this period, see Hagan, 1994).
The \\ riters of the AMEP curriculum were faced with sevcral challengcs.’I’he needs of
AMEP learncrs in the changing social environmcnt tlemandctl that the AMEP curriculum
comprise:
a flexible framework to accommotlatc thc diverse ncctls of learners across a \vide

range of tcaching contexts across Australia
a clcar learning pathwa?
a common language for describing learner n c d s and goals
explicit statements of what learners could do at the end of each stage of the pathway,
that is, explicit outcomes
a communicative approach which reflected real-life language use in tcrms of discourse
rathcr than isolated elements such as words, structures, functions or notions
an explicit and tematic approach to the tcaching of language structures antl
features.
ro meet the challcngey, the AMkP curriculum tlc\elopers again turned to the v o r k ol
Ilallida) They began with Hallida>’s itlea of a text being a n h o l c u n i t of language use
Working mith \\hole texts in real contexts of language use, AMEP learners nould h a c the
opportunit) to dc\elop communicati\ c fluenc) as well as accuracy in tc-rms ot tcxt structure,
grammar, lexis and surface features such as pronunciation and spelling The 4MEP
curriculum tic\ eloper? also turned to a petlagog> tle\elopcd t i ) Hallida! ’$ collcagues in
Australia Thi.; pcdagog?, the genrc approach, pro\ ided a model for explicit intcxr\ention in
the process of languagc learning
2.3 Genre-based approaches
2.3.1 Language ilc tcvt
The foundation ofthc gcnre approach is thc study ofn-hole tcxts in contcxt. A tcxt is a unit
of discoursc (spoken or written) in which related meanings are \vovcn togcthcr to make a
unified whole hvhich achicvcs a social purposc (see Halliday in IIalliday and Hasan, 1985:
10). Halliday has shown that there is a n a tcxt and thc contcxt in
which it is used. Systcmic functional ling s explore register variation in language; in other
\vords thcy explore the 1% tcxts \ ary from social situation to social situation. Considcr,
for example, the diffcrcn n the following tcxts:
a telephone I d 1 antl a lcgal bill

an exchange bctm n a parent and a child anti an exchange bct\vcen a tcacher and a
student
a story pulilishcd in a book antl a story told in casual conversation.
At the same time they look for the underlying patterns in texts which remain relatively
stablc in order to achieve similar purposes across registers and which makc texts culturally
and socially meaningful.
2.3.2 The genre approach
A group of educators tlra\ving on systemic linguistics developed a pedagogy based on the

notion of‘genre’. (For more detailed accounts o f the genre approach in schools, see Cope,
Kalantzis, Krrss and Martin, 1993; Krcss, I99 1 ; Martin, 1993; Rothery, 1996). A genre is
a relatively stable pattern which recurs in tcxts used to achieve the same general social
purpose. For example, linguists are able to describe patterns which recur when people use
language to:
build a relationship through casual conversation

recount a series o f events to share what happened with someone else
entertain liy telling a suspenseful story o r an amusing anecdote
explain how somcthing works
give instructions
persuade someone to your point of view
organisc information
makc a story newsworthy for the electronic or print media.
This information is vcry useful to language teachers and learners because it makes learning
to use language a much less hit-andmiss affair. I t makcs it possible to identify what people
need to lie able to do with language in order to be successful in education, in the community
and in employment. Learners work with individual tcxts which excmplify different genres
in order to learn:
the overall patterns of different genres of communication

specific language features used in examples of that genre most relevant to their
individual learning needs.
Genre pedagogy is a teaching approach in which students work systematically and

comprehensively w i t h the language of texts belonging to the genres relevant to their
educational goals. Genre pedagogy is usually presented to teachers in the form of a cycle
of teaching and learning. (For a diagram and tletailcd description of the teaching-learning
cycle initially used in schools, see Kothcry, 1996: 1014.)
2.3.3 A language-based theory of learning
The cycle of teaching and learning designed to teach about texts reflects Halliday’s (1 992:
19) view of learning as a process of ‘learning to mean and to expand one’s meaning
potential’. Research into first language dcvclopment hy Halliday and his colleagues revealed
language learning to lie a social process (for example, Halliday, 1975; Painter, 1985; 1996).
Halliday (1 991 ) describes educational learning as an organised social process in which the
construction of meaning takes place systematically.
2.3.1 Scaffblded learning
In a genre-based cycle of teaching and learning:
Lvhat is to he learned and assessed is made explicit to students

tcacher-learner interaction is valued as much as interaction between learners.
The design of the gcnrc-based teaching-learning cycle draws on the theories of the Russian
psychologist Vygotsky (1 934/ 1978; 1986). Vygotsky’s work suggests that instruction
preccdcs learning. Drawing on both Halliday’s and Vygotsky’s ideas, the genre approach is
used to construct a social context in which languagr learning can occur. In that context:
teachers and learncrs collaborate

tcachers interact with learners to guide them towards their potcntial level of
pcrformance
the ttxchcr’s role is an authoritative one similar to that of an cxpcrt supporting an
apprentice
language is used interactively to mediate learning.
The genrc-based cycle of tcaching and lcarning has two key characteristics:
scaffolding
joint construction.
Scaffolding occurs when the teachcr contributes what learners arc not yet able to do alone
or do not yet know.Teachers adjust, and strategically diminish, thcir contribution, support-
ing learncrs as they progress towards their potcntial level of independent performance.
Joint construction occurs when tcachrr and learner share the responsibility for
functioning until the lcarncr has the knowledge and skills to perform independently and
with sole responsibility. (For further discussions ofscaffolded learning scr Gray, 1985, 1987,
Gibhons, 1998.)
The genre-based teaching-lcarning cycle was initially del elopcd for primary schools,
but it has been adapted for ESL (see Burns, Joyce and Collin, 1996: 88; Cornish, 1992: 17;
Hammond, 1989; 1990; Hammond, Burns, Joyce, Rrosnan and Gerot, 1992; Hood,
Solomon and Burns, 1996; Joyce, 1992: 44). All variations of genre pedagogy, cspecially
those designed for more advanced students and adults, provide lcarnrrs with opportunities
to extend and customise their knowledge about text into spccific contexts which are
important to thcir own educational or personal goals.
2.3.5Critical litcracj
All variations of genre pedagogy also emphasise the tlevelopment in learncrs of a critical
approach to what they arc lcarning (see Rothery, 1996: 1 16--20). By making the language
patterns of different types of texts more visible, genre pedagogy also makes morc visible
the values and worldviews embodied in those patterns. Thew values and worldviews arc
then open for discussion, negotiation, criticism and challengr (Christie, 1991 : 1 1 ; Christie,
1995).
3 The Certificates in Spoken and Written English
3.1 A national curriculum framework

The genre approach provided the writers of the national AMEP curriculum with two key
design principle\:
1 a diqcoursc-oriented unit of language around which to write gencraliscd curriculum

outcomes
2 an intcractive pedagogy for intervening in and supporting language learning.
The writers of the curriculum used these principles t o develop a curriculum framework
called the Certificates in Spoken and Written English (CSWE).This frametvork was written
in terms of a pathway of language outcomcs organiscd across four levels:
1 Beginner
2 Post-beginner
3 Intermediate
4 Advanced.
Thc CSWE language outcomes arc written in terms o f genrcs t o make the language
descriptions general enough to lie a common language for planning courses and monitoring
and assessing learner progress across the AMEP. At the same time Halliday’s languagc model
allows teachers to use the notion of register to customisc the very general genre descriptions
of the framework in order t o m e e t the specific language-learning nccds of individual AMEP
learners.
3.2 From curriculum to syllabus
3.2. I D$ning tcrrnc
Thc \\ riters of the CSWF differentiated Iictn ccn t v o IC\ el\ of English-language provision,
, thc othcr spccihc, the syllabuy leic,l.
one gencral, the curriculum l e ~ e land
3.2.2 Genercil otrtcornes: the curricirlurn l e r d
The CSWE is written at the general Icvcl o f curriculum. 1.carners \vork through the CSWE
pathway at a pace related to their educational liackgrountl. As they movc from level t o level,
they n v r k in increasingly spccialiscd contexts, from a gcncral lcarning context at Iicginncr
and post-hcginncr 1 1 to morc spccialiscd contexts rcla to employment, further study
or community access at the intcrnictliatc antl atlvanccd 1
The discourse-oi-icntctl learning outcomes arc \vi-ittcn in tcxrms of \-cry general gcnre
categories, for example, description, rccount, instructions or information tcxt. These
categories are thcn linked to a macroskill listcning, speaking, reading or writing in order
~
to dcscrihc what a learner should he ablc to do with language at thc cntl o f a course of study
at that level, for cxamplc:
Can dcmonstratc understanding o f a spoken information tcxt

Can tell a recount
Can rcad written instructions
Can write a tlcscription.
The outcomes arc grouptd into language-learning domains:
listrning antl speaking

reading
hvriting.
This organisation makes it possihlc to Iircak the curriculum into smaller modules for
students t v h o need intensive \vork in listening antl speaking or rcading and writing lvhere
one of thcsc areas lags behind the other. The complctc lcarning path\vay is illustrated in
Figure 17.1.
ASLPR 0 to 01 ASLPR 12 to 1
1 *
General contexts for General contexts for

language learning language learning
Students may be Students may be

grouped by learning grouped by learning
pace (Bands A, B, C) pace (Bands A, B, C)
Modules Modules
Orientation to Learning Orientation to Learning

* Speaking and Listening * Speaking and Listening
Reading and Writing Reading and Writing
* Mixed Language Skills Mixed Language Skills
* Numeracy (optional) Numeracy (optional)
ASLPR 11 to 2 ASLPR 2 all skills +

1 *
Syllabus strands
I
Vocational Further
English study
Mixed focus
Modules
Orientation to Learning Orientation to Learning

Speaking and Listening Speaking and Listening
Reading and Writing * Reading and Writing
* Mixed Language Skills Mixed Language Skills
* Numeracy (optional)
F i p r c 17.I Ccrtificatcs in Spokcn

and Writtcn English: curriculum
structurc
1 Can untlcrtakc the roles a n t l rcsponsil)ilities o f a learner in a foi-mal learning cnvironment

2 Can use a range of learning strategies and resources
3 Can clrmonstratc untlcrstantling of a spoken intorination tcxt

4 Can provide personally relc\ant information using spoken language
5 Can request information/gootls using spokcn language
6 Can tell a short rccount
7 Can read rocial sight signs

8 Can rcad simple written instructions
9 Can rcad a short information tcxt
IO Can rcad a short narrativc/recount
11 Can complete a \implc formatted tcxt

12 Can w ritc a short clcscription
13 Can 1% ritc a \hart rccount
Figure 17.2 Outcomes for Certificate I in Spokcn and Writtc-ri English
The way curriculum outcomes arc organisetl into domains within a level is illustrated by
the list of outcomes for Certificate I in Spoken antl Written English, the beginners’ level,
in Figure 1 7.2.
Each outcome is written in terms of a gencralisrd tcxt type, or gcnrc.The key language
fcaturcs of each text type are written as clcmcnts of the outcome. Performance criteria for
assessment are based on the clcmcnts. Thus the performance criteria for each outcome draw
on what the gcnre approach tclls us almut thc prcdictahlc language features of that type of
text. The elements, and their related performance criteria, are organised, using Halliday’s
language model, into:
fratures relating to the structure and texture of whole texts

lexical and grammatical features
phonological or graphological featurcs.
(For overviews ofthc stratified systemic functional language model see Eggins, 1994: 1-24;
Fcez, 1998: 8; for an introduction to functional grammar see Butt, Fahey, Few, Spinks and
Yallop, 2000).
The number and complexity of the pcrformance criteria for each outcome depend on
the learner’s level. The range within which stutlcnts will be assessed against those criteria,
and an evidence guide, is also indicated for each outcome.
Figure 17.3 shows an example o f a writing outcome for Certificate 1 , the beginncr
level. Because the outcomes of the CSWE are explicit, learners studying within the
framcwork know what is expectcd of them at any point in the learner pathway. They are
also able to map their own progress. In addition, teachers working within the AMEP, and
in other contexts wherr the CSWE is used, share a common framework for course design
antl for assessment.
Elements Pcrformancr criteria Range statements €t idence quide
Discourse structure Sample task

1 can use appropriate staging uses appropriate staging, i.e. at least five clauscs Lrith Learners recount sequence
beginning, middle and end correct past tense forms of past cvcnts, for example
(orientation, sequence of went3 excursion, \reekend activities
and optional reorientation)
2 can use conjunctions joins simple clauscs with uses at least one conjunction
conjunctions, for example
‘and’, ‘then’, ‘bccauw’ familiar/rclc\ant topic
Grammar and vocabulary
rccourse to dictionary
3 can use vocabularv appropriate uses vocabulary appropriate to may include a fc\z
to topic topic grammatical, punctuation and
4 can construct simple clauses constructs simple clauscs spelling ci-rors, hut errors should
5 can construct simple noun constructs simple noun groups not interfere n i t h meaning or
groups and uscs adjcctivcb, for dominate text
example ‘I had a good weekend’, mav redraft
‘My Lvcckcnd \vas good’
6 can use action vci-bs in the uses action verhs in the past tense
past tense
7 can use pcrwnal pronouns uses personal pronouns as
required
8 can express time and/or indicates timc or location as required,
location for cxamplc b y using advcrhs and/or
prepositional phrases
Graphology
I t is assumed that:
thrre may be inaccuracies in letter formation, spelling and punctuation
teaching programmes \vi11 pay attention to graphological features
In CSWE I the punctuation focus \vi11 I,c on capital letters, full stops and qucstion marks
Figure 17.3 Compctcncv 1 3: Can Lvrite a short rccount

3.2.3 Spec!fic objectives: the .y~l/crbu.sleiel
The general CSWE framework is common t o all AMEP programmes. Teachers report
learner achievement at the end ofa course against the performance criteria of the common
framework. The design of indivitlual courses o f study, however, is carried out at the levcl of
the syllabus. A t this level teachers address the needs o f specific groups of learners.
Course objcctivcs arc statrments about \vhat is planned for a particular course of study.
They bridgc thc gap between the general outcomes and a specific learning context. Course
ohjcctivcs arc a distillation of an analysis of Icarncrs’ ncetls and goals and other variables of
the lcarning contcxt.
To design a systematic plan of course content customiscd to the learners in their class,
teachers kvork through the following steps:
1 Analysing lrarner nerd and set specific course objectives, including language-learning
objectives related to the immediate contexts where learners need to use English.
2 Linking the specific objccti\cs to the general curriculum outcomes, identifying the
immediate contexts in \vhich Icarncrs will be using tcxts hclonging to the genre of
that outcomc.
3 Identifying and selecting what nceds to I)c learnt to meet the course objectives.
4 Sequence the syllabus clcmcnts into an cffcctiw progression of teaching and learning.
5 Planning how to monitor learner progress during the course and assess learner
achievement at the end of the course against the specific course objectives.
6 Planning how to report learner achicvcment against the general curriculum outcomes.
3 . 2 . 4 From c u r r ~ c u / u mto s)illabu.s:f r o m genre to regi.stcr
We haw already scen that language outcomcs in thc CSWE framework arc based on
gcncraliscd text pattcrns, or gcnrcs. To customisc thc general curriculum outcome to a
specific course, teachers identify the immrdiate context of use in which these text patterns
will be used. In other words thcy identify the register o r variety of language learners will
be working with.
For the selected context of use, teachers identify the social activities and topics which
relate to the chosen situation of use (the field), as well as the role of those involved in the
situation (the tenor). Thc CSWE outcomcs arc already written in terms of whether the
tcxts will be spoken or written, that is, the role language is playing in the situation (mode).
For contcxts of use relevant to specific students, teachers may need to refine the mode
description of some outcomes. For cxamplc, thcy may need to teach a particular spoken
text in the context of using the telephone rather than speaking facc-to-face. (For more
dctailctl introductions to Halliday’s model of register see Eggins, 1994: 49 80 and Fccz,
1998:75 81).
If at the level of curriculum, lcarncrs arc working towards thc general outcome Can
write a short rccount (CSWE I, Competency 1 3 ) , they might work with tcxts such as thc
following:
a recount of an excursion to a place of interest (fcltl) for a class book (mode) being
prepared for visitors to the teaching ccntrc on open day (tenor)
a recount ofa traffic accident (field) onto an insurancc form (mode) as part of a claim
to an insurance company (tenor)
a rccount of a mishap with an clcctrical appliance (field) in a letter of complaint
(mode) to a manufacturer (tenor)
a recount of a visit to a tourist destination (field) o n a postcard (modc) to a friend

(t cn or) .
I f learners arc pi-eparing for employmcnt, they might work with this text:
a recount of an incident (ticltl) on a shift hantl-ovcr rcport (mode) for the foreman
(tenor).
Learners could produce any o f these texts at the end of a cycle of teaching and learning to
meet the requirements of thc competency.
The elements and performance criteria of each CSWE outcomc are listed in two catcgories
of language featurcs:
tliscoursc structure, lvhich relates to the rccognisable parts of the genre pattern and
are linked to construct a cohesive, uniticd tcxt
grammar and vocabulary.
As learners work with specific texts, the elements and performance criteria o f t h r outcomc
guide what thcy learn about the structural, grammatical, lexical and phonological o r
graphological language features of texts of that type. Each element is atldressctl within the
specific context of situation in bvhich the learners are learning to write the tcxt typc.
3.2.6lUni~ro/’rcork
The process of syllahus drsign also involves linking the tliffcrcnt types of texts bcing taught
in the course into related units o f work. For example, a unit o f work on lvriting a t r x t
lielonging to thc genre of recount at CSWE Level 1 can lie linked to units ofwork on spoken
accounts and written descriptions. ‘l‘hese units of \vork might he based on related contcxts
of use or students might lie shown how to transfcr what they have lcarnt to completely new
contexts of USC.
The approach to assessment which underpins the CSWE is described l i v Mackcn and Slatlc
( 1 993: 205-6, 207) in the folloxving way:
an eflkctivc language assessment program must IIC linguistically principled, explicit,

critcrion-refercnccd, and must inform different types of assessment, including
diagnostic, formative and summativc assessment. . . . Shared critcria based on a sound
kno\vledge of language and its varieties nil1 cnahle teachers to rcflcct on the strengths
and to diagnose \veakncsses in the texts Iiroduced by their students.
The gcncral curriculum outcomes of the CSWE provide general statements and related
performance criteria against which all AMEl’ teachers can assess learncr achievement within
a common framework. Specific course objectives providc a syllabus-lcvel focus for
assessment of individual learncr progress. Teachcrs can use the data collected at both Icvcls
to evaluate their course dcsign.
Instead of grading and ranking learners against \ague notions of general language
proficiency, assessment within the CSWE frame\vork enables learners to demonstratcx,
against the explicit criteria of the curriculum and syllabus, what they have learnt during
their course.
3.3 Text-based syllabus design

Texts, these stretches o f unified, meaningful and purposeful natural language, arc thc core
component of a text-based syllabus. Each t r x t is a single instance of language use in a
particular context of situation. lkxts, howcvcr, draw on prcdictablc gcncric text patterns,
o r genres, which relate to social purposes and thc tmiadcr cultural context. Syllabus
elements and syllabus design principles focus o n thc use of wholc tcxts in context.
3.3.1 Syllabur element\
The key elements o f a tcxt-based syllabus in the context o f t h c CSWE are:
texts, identified according to the type, o r genre, they belong to, and therefore, to the
curriculum outcome to which they relate
topics, organiscd according to whether they relate to community access, employment
o r further study
languagefeatures, related to the text type of the text in which they arc used
skills antl strategies, organisctl according to situation/registcr, especially macroskill
activities and tasks, including teaching activities antl assessment activitics, which
determine the materials antl resources recluiretl.
Figure 17.4 is an outline for a unit of’llork o n casual conversation to illustratc how syllabus
elements have been selected to customise a gcncral curriculum outcome to the needs of a
specific group of learners.
3.3.2 Design principles
labus is what Ur ( 1 996: 178) tlcscrilm as a ‘mixed o r multi-strand’ syllabus.

rent syllalius elements such as topics, tcxts, structures, Icxis, skills and
stratcgics ‘in order to be maximally comprehensive’ (Ur, 1996: 178). In summary, a text-
~
based syllabus is a mixed syllabus in which the organising principle is the study of lvholc
tcxts in context. In the context of the CS WE, coursc objectives, antl therefore learner nccd,
determine the selection of syllabus clcmcnts. These elements arc then incorporated into a
tcxt-based cycle of teaching and learning.
3 3 3 from yllubus to rncthodologj n teht bared y c l c of teaching and leorning
Genre pedagogy, and its intcractivc cycle of teaching and learning, provides teachers with
a framelvork for selecting, organising and sequencing the comprehensive mix of text-based
syllabus elements in a principled way, supporting lcarncrs as they gradually m o w to
increasingly independent language use.
The process of sequencing syllabus elements, that is, what is to be taught, involvcs
teachers in deciding how to teach them; in othcr words, it involves teachers in choosing a
methodology. The text-based methotlology designed to support learners working towards
CSWE outcomcs is rcprcscntcd graphically in Figure 17.4.
Figure 17.4 Mcthotlology to support lcarncrs Lvorking to\vartls CSWF outconics

Source: Fccz \ \ i t h Jo)-c.c,1998:28, atlaptctl from Callaghan antl I<otlici-)-, 1988; Cornish, 1992; G r w n ,
1992
This methodology is built around five phases of classroom interaction atlaptctl from the
original genre-based cycle of teaching and lcarning (Rothcry, 1996).
Phasc 1 : Building contcxt
Context- building is a critical phasc for second-language learners. In this phasc lcarncrs
experience and explore thc social context of the target text type, building cultural
knowledge and thc knowlcdgc of thc immediate context of' use. Once this knowlcdgc is
shared between teacher antl learners it can hecomr thr foundation o f suliscqucnt languagc
learning. Typical context-l,uiltling activities arc 111-ainstorming; listening antl talking to
others; guided reading of' relevant material; vicwing realia, pictures or video; taking part in
role-plays and discussions, cross-cultural comparisons, guided r arch or field trips.
For example, to Iiuild the context for filling out an insurancc claim, students might
engage in the following activities:
viehying a tclcvision advertisement for a car insurance company

build up vocahulary lists
research information about insurance written in their first languagc to identil). key
words and concepts they nccd to undcrstand in English
meet and interview, in English o r in their l'irst language, pcoplc who have played
different rolrs in the contcxt of car insurance in Australia
complctc a table comparing the nature of car insurance in their country of origin and
in Australia
survey the different typcs of texts which they may be called on to use in the contcxt
of car insurance in Australia.
Phase 2: Modelling and dccon5tructing tcxt
Phase 2 is teacher-directed. Learners arc introduced to model texts Ixlonging to the target
genre in the context they cxplorcd in Phase 1 . Lcarncrs use the model tcxts to study the
structure and language features ofthc tcxt typc.This is the phase in which second-language
learners learn the grammar ofthe target languagc, hut in the context of purposcful language
use.
For example, activities relevant to writing rccounts at lieginner level would focus on
thc structure of simple tlcclarativc clauscs with past simple tense forms of action verbs, as
well as the usc o f conjunctions and prcliositional phrases to scqucncc thc clauses in time.
Students would also learn the structure o f noun groups. Many traditional ELT grammar
activities can be effectivcl? uscd during this phase, although, in the context of Halliday’s
grammar, learners’ attention is always drawn to meaning as \vcll as form.
Phasc 3 : Joint construction
During this phase the teacher begins to hand over rcsponsiliility to the 1carncrs.The learners
contribute to the construction o f a tcxt helonging to the target tcxt typc with t h r teacher
acting as guide, antl if ncccssary, scrilic. Teacher and lcarncrs discuss and negotiate the
mcanings they are making as the! go.
Phaw 4 Intlcpcndcnt con\tr uction

During this phasc the scaffolding is taken ama) antl lcarncrs research the context and nark
\\ ith their 01%n tcxts intlcpcdcnth, consulting 12 ith othcr lcarncrs and the teacher onlj as
needed Achie\cmcnt asscssmcnt 15 carried o u t at thi5 stage of thc L ~ L I C .
Phase 5: Making links to rclatcd tcxts
le, links are niatlc to r-clatcd tc.xt typcs, s o learners have thc opportunity
y have lcarnt in othcr contcxts of use, comparing and contrasting
tliffcrcnt tcxts antl thcii- uses antl effectiveness. Some lcarncrs ma); bc ready to adapt the
tcxt type they have lcarnt to control to a specific IiurIiosc, adjusting thc stages antl the
language fcaturcs as necdcd.
3.3.4 dleeting thc ncccls ?f’clf;tfcrcnt Ictirncr~
Whenever necessary the teaching-learning cycle is modihcd t o suit the ncctls o f different
learners. Learners can cnter at an! phasc of the cycle, returning to an earlier phase for
review as needed or skipping phascs if thcy arc not ready or if they do not need them. In
most adult ESL classcs thc context-building phasc is essential. Some beginning learners with
minimal formal Icarning in their first language, however, may not go beyond the joint
construction phase for some more challenging tcxt typcs. In contrast, many tcrtiary-
educated adult lcarncrs with sophisticatctl study skills find the joint construction phase
unncccssarv.
3.3.5..I lun<qLqtrugcteuching rcpertoirc
A characteristic ofthc teaching-learning cycle which makes it so valuable to AMEP teachers

is that it allows thcm to draw on a variety of tasks, activities, classroom management styles
and asscssmcnt proccdurcs. Tcachcrs in thc AMEI’ draw on a sccond-language teaching
repertoire Lvhich has been built u p over fifty years. Text-liasctl syllabus design makes it
possiblc for teachers to selcct, modify and locate a mricty of mcthods in a principled antl
strategic way. In othcr words, they select from thc language-teaching repertoire mcthods
which make it possible to build the type of classroom intcraction required hy thc tliffercnt
phases of the cycle.
4 Conclusion
Overall the AMEP has bcncfitcd greatly from basing its new curriculum on genre pedagogy.
AMEP learners now can track thcxir progress against general descriptions of English
text patterns \vhile, at the samc- time, learning to customisc thcir own texts to mcct thc
demands of thcir immediate situations. Learners can consciously build the cultural and
linguistic knowledge which will help them make the most of the new community thcy arc
entering. The CSWE is a framework within which teachers plan courses antl map learning
pathways.
To support curriculum change in the AMEP, classroom materials antl resources
modelling a tcxt-based approach to syllabus design have been published (for examplc Brown
and Cornish, 1997; Clemens antl Crawford, 1994; Cornish, 1992; Dclaruelle, 1998; Fccz,
1998; Jovce, 1992; NSW AMES writing team, 1997). Professional development has included
cxtensive training in educational linguistics, course design and assessment. Sincc thc
implementation of the new curriculum framework, there has also been an ongoing cycle 01’
national classroom-based collaborative action rcscarch. The action rcscarch model provides
teachers with a useful tcchniquc for rellecting on and rrnovating classroom practice (see
Burns and Hood, 1995; 1997; 1998; Burns and Joyce, 1999).
Genre pcdagogy, like language pedagogy generally, is evolving and changing. The \vay
tcachers in the AMEP arc working with the pedagogy is also changing as different tcachers
intcrprct it in different ways. When teachers first applied genre pcdagogy, many s u p -
imposcd structural approaches onto the generic descriptions of text structure and languagc
fcaturcs.This resulted in teachers teaching text patterns as fixcd rulcs and forms rathcr than
in terms of meaning and function. I t also resulted in some teachers fceling that they had to
abandon the lcarncr-centred mcthotls developed as part of n e e d s - b a d , communicativc
approaches and return to teacher-ccntrcd classrooms. As tcachers have adaptctl to the
new curriculum environment, gaining knowledge, skill and confidcncc and adjusting thcir
bclicfs about language and language learning, they are increasingly integrating thc best of
situational, learner-centred antl communicative approaches into a text-based framework.
Teachers are also beginning to identify kvhich aspects of the text-bascd approach need
reviewing or developing.
Thc AMEP is currently experiencing a period of rapid change. Changing political and
economic ideologies are moving the AMEP away from being a stable, unified, public-scctor
programme to a more fragmented market-oriented programme. It remains to be seen
whether this new oricntation will bc able to dclivcr a service of’ comparable quality. It
ccrtainly is not clcar whether thc new environment will continue to support the principled
development of AMEP curriculum and cxpertise in tandem with dcvclopments in thc ficltl
of applied linguistics.
While the future for migrant education in Australia is unclear, it is clcar that text-hascd
approaches provide language educators with a strong foundation for further developments
in language teaching. The key clcments of this foundation arc:
an understanding of what constitutes a whole unit of language in the context of its

use
a methodology for providing learner? Lvith experience of whole unit.; of language use
in context while they are still only ablc to manage language fragments.
From this foundation, language educators havc thc opportunity t o develop increasingly
effective ways of‘ teaching explicitly and systematically about t e x t , g r a m m a r and lexis in
o r d e r t o makc it possible for learncrs t o build skills in spoken and written English which
they would not be ablc t o tlcvclop o n their owm.
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,‘. L. S. ( I 986) ThoLight and Lunguu‘qc, revised and cditcd b y A . Kozulin, Cambritlgc,
MA: MIT Prcss.
..
Widdowson, H. (1 990) Aspects of’longuuge Icciching, Oxford: Oxford Univcrsity Press.
Wilkins, D. (1 976) Notional Syllabuses, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Yalden, J. ( I 987a) Principles ?f’ Cowse Design , f i r Language Eacbing, Nen. York: Cambridge
Unilersity Press.
Yalden, J. (1 9871,) The Cornmunisatit.e S~~llahus: Evolurion, Design and Implementation, London:
Prentice-Hall.
Chapter 18
David R. Hall
M A T E R I A L S PRODUCTION: THEORY
AND PRACTICE
Introduction: learning a language
B E F O R E P L A N N I N G O R W R I T I N G M A T E R I A L S {orlanguage teaching, thcrc

is one crucial question \ve need to ask ourselves.Thc qucstion should be the first item
on the agenda at the first planning meeting.1hc qucstion is this: How do we think people [earn
la ng u a p ?
Nobody knows ho\v we learn language. O f course, thcrc arc plenty of theories around.
Many people makc: a distinction between first language learning and second o r foreign
language Icarning. Others distinguish clearly between “learning” a language and “acquiring”
a 1anguagc.Thcrc is a further distinction between “learning to spcak”, “learning to understand
spokcn language”, “learning to read”, antl “learning to write”, with some thinking that thc
arc similar proccsscs, others that they are clifferrnt but rclatcd proc Y S , and still others
thinking that they involve completely unrrlatcd skills. Some think that hvc learn by studying
and internalising rules, othcrs that xvc learn by rcpcatrd practice of common patterns, vet
othcrs that \YC learn by mcmorising hvords antl collocations, b y simulating real situations,
by negotiating, by hearing and reading things we can understand [. . . I‘l‘hclist is long.
No-one knows how \vc learn language, so the \vortls we think in the original qucstion
are very important. What is our own opinion?What can the writing team agrcc on? I t is our
view of how we learn language that will underpin wcrything else that we do in planning
and writing our materials. There arc, of course, other important considerations, some of
which will be mentioned here, and there are always constraints the straitjacket of a
ccntraliscd syllabus, the need for pupils to pass public examinations, the lack of lilirary
rcsourccs, a cultural prefercnce for the teacher being the holder of all knowledge, the need
for an orderly and industriously quict classroom, and so on. But thcsc should not govern
what we must do.Thcy should bc acccptcd as fcaturcs of the context in which \\-e attempt
to do what we think is the right thing to do.
tion of this chaptcr, I will put forward somc of my own liclicfs about
language learning and teaching, suggesting criteria liy which materials might lie evaluated.
The discussion is conducted under four headings: the need to communicate; the need for
long-term goals; the nced for authcnticity; antl the ncctl for studcnt-ccntrcdncss. In the
third and final section, I will examine materials from projects in which I have been involved
antl evaluate thcm in the light of the criteria.
230 D A V I D R . H A L L
Theory
The need to communicate

There are three things about language learning that arc fairly obvious and uncontroversial,
but which are not often enough stated together. First, just about everyone learns to
communicate fluently in at least one language. This is normally thc L1 or mother tongue.
Second, very few people learn to communicate fluently in a new language learned entirely
in formal language classes. Third, most people who learn to communicate fluently in a
language which is not their L1 do s o by spending a lot of time in situations where they have
to use the language for some real communicative purpose.
The conclusion I draw from thcsc three facts is that the need to communicate is at the
heart of learning a language. If lvc want our pupils o r students to learn English, we must
put them in situations where they ncctl to communicatc in English. For rcal communication
to take placc, there are three conditions:
1 We must haw something that Lve want to communicate.

2 We must have someone to communicate with.
3 We must have some interest in the outcome of the communication.
In most languagc-teaching materials, and in most languagc-teaching classrooms, thcsc three

conditions do not exist. It is, of course, unrealistic to expect that they could exist all the
time. A sccondary school class of forty pupils and thcir teacher cannot all have the need
to communicate in a forcign language for thcir owm purposes all the time. Nevertheless,
given the lack of success of conventional classroom teaching, it is perhaps worth making
the attempt to approximate as closely as possiible to the three conditions.
The need f o r long-term goals

In devising a syllabus, materials o r methodology for a language-teaching program, it has
always heen necessary to conduct some sort of needs analysis. This tends to concentrate on
aspects of language structure, language function, situational features, technical content, or
behavioural outcomes (competencies).
We should, however, look at the longcr-term ncctls of students. The language-teacher
operates within fairly tight limitations. What, in oliservahlc terms, can lie achieved in a
program of one school year when you see the students three times a week and they never
have to use thc target language outsidc those three hours? By the end ofthe year, the students
may be able to perform more o r less satisfactorily in a formal test, but only the really
cxceptional will have progressed to anything approaching fluency. N o matter what exciting
methodology you use, the results are always going to he disappointing.
I t is only in the longer term that some students will cxperience the need to com-
municate in the targct language and mill havc the chance to become fluent. In looking at
needs, perhaps we should look more closely at this longer term. If we are going to help our
students succeed in learning a language, M’C must prepare them for the opportunities which
will come outside the classroom. In other words, we must teach them how to learn. By
‘teaching horn to learn’, I do not mean t o refer to learning in classroom settings, where
considerable work has been done on learning styles and thcir applicability to the language
class (Hawkey, 1982; Willing, 1989), but rather to the ahility to take advantage of any
opportunity to learn outside the classroom.
MATERIALS PRODUCTION 231
If a tcachcr is to provide students with the tools to learn language outside the classroom,
the main aim has to be to give students confidence in their ability to communicate dcspite
difficulties, to the point where they can: (a) initiate communicative cvcnts, and (b) persist
with the attempted communication even when it becomes difficult. The use of gestures,
facial expressions, rewordings, questions, guesswork, and approximations is a crucial part
of such communication, and the ability to use such strategies becomes an essential feature,
in my view, of student needs.
I believe that in a natural setting, people learn language by having to communicate
something that they do not know how to say. While more elegant or more accurate o r morc
verbal ways of expressing the point may be developed as similar situations are repcatcd, the
real initial learning takes place when a solution has to be found to thc problem of not
knowing how to communicate something. I t is the long-term goal of our language teaching
to provide our students with the confidence and ability to do this.
The need f o r authenticity

In the light of the above assumptions about language learning and the long-term needs of
language learners, the question ofthc use of authentic materials can lie refocused. I t is not,
primarily, the materials themselves which have to be authentic. I t is, rather, the response to
the materials what is donc with them that should be authentic.
~
Many materials are impeccably authentic, by which I mean that they arc ‘found’
matcrials originally written for some other purpose than languagc tcaching. But because
they deal with topics from the students’ particular specialisation, they often deal with topics
which arc already very familiar to students. The reading of such rnatcrials becomes merely
an exercise, not involving an authentic need for reading it is neither thr seeking of
specifically needed information nor the exploration of a new topic. in many casc-s, it is
nothing more than the reading ofa text for the purposes of being tested on it through various
forms of comprehension tasks and linguistic manipulation.
An authentic response depends on thc existence of an authentic need. In the classroom
context, this need may only be an approximation and may be artificially created. It can be
helped, in ESP matcrials, by close cooperation with the content teacher, so that the kS1’
matcrials complement and support what is happening in the content class. At the very least,
an authentic response dictates the atltlressing of content rather than form, and discussion
for clarification o r expansion rather than for the mere checking of understanding. (I am not
saying that teachers should not check understanding. Checking can be donc just as easily
and is more natural during genuinely communicative events.)
Kenny (1 989) classifies student response to content into threc catcgorics:
thc empirical
the interpretational
the socially validated.
By ‘empirical’ is meant the addressing of the content as a context-free, isolated entity. The
empirical response involves working out the meaning of a text within the boundaries of the
text. The language tcachcr’s typical tools of comprehension questions, structure
manipulation exercises, summaries, vocabulary explanation, and mode-switching (e.g., text
to table, graph to text) all stay firmly at the empirical level of response.
An ‘interpretational’ responsr addresses the meaning of a text in relation to the indi-
vidual. It involves assimilating new knowledge into the structure of information in the
individual’s head. Learning styles arc obviously important in this area, as thcy rclatc: to the
2 3 2 D A V I D R. H A L L
way in which knowledge and experience arc storcd and retrieved. Thr content is examined
in relation to existing kno\vledge structurcs and belief systcms.Traditiona1 essays (“Compare
and contrast the vicws of x andJ”) might include interpretational responses to a number of
texts, as might examination of parallels and contradictions between different texts.
The ‘socially validated’ response involves exposing the individual’s response to a text
to group evaluation. In other words, it is not enough to assimilate new knowledge
individually. The undcrstantling of a text antl the validity of that understanding need to bc
tested through group interaction, and the intcrprctation defended in a process of critical
scrutiny. Public presentation of ideas through postcr sessions, tlcbatcs, presentations, and
so on, is an opportunity for socially valitlatctl responses. In this context, the opportunity
for cross-disciplinary communication in ESP classes with a heterogeneous student
population should be seen as an advantage rather than a disadvantage (Hall, 1994).
To put thcsc three categories of response anothcr Lvay: the empirical has a single
dimension the contcnt; the interpretational has two tlimcmsions the contcnt and the
~ ~
individual; while the socially validated adds a third dimension that of society, represented
in the classroom 1y the group. Combining the nccd for authentic response with the nccd
for drveloping confidcncc to initiate and pcrsist \vith communication, we can see that it is
desirable to aim for a socially validated response to materials in class. It is also clear that
most materials used in thc language-teaching classroom approach neither social validation
nor the prerequisites for communication. What sometimes looks like a social validation
activity is often no more than an exercise in which real beliefs are not cxplored, the contcnt
being dictated Iiy either thc tcacher o r the matcr-ials. A n example of this might be where
a student is given notes on arguments for better public transport and asked to “role-play”,
by giving a presentation as a lobbyist to a group o f other students playing the role of
policy-makcrs.
The need f o r student-centredness

The language classroom may bc thought ol’as ha\-ing thrcc components the teacher, the
~
learners, antl the materials. Traditionally, all of the actual contcnt of the class, i.e., \vhat is
talked about, comes from the teacher or thc materials. The potcntial for learners to
participate in generating materials has long been neglected. I \vould suggest that studcnts
themselves arc in a unique position to look for rclcvant resource matcrials.Thcy know what
their owm needs antl interests arc.
The process of learners searching tor materials and then bringing thc materials back to
class where they arc prcscntcd to other students involvcs morc than simple selection. The
process changes student status from passive receivers of information to active accountability
(see Kcnny, 1993). Their selection of materials not only has to be pi-<
defended. Where only tcachcrs and textbooks have previously been exposed to comments
about the repetitiveness, irrelevance, tedium, interest, varicty, or pertinence ofthc lcsson,
now cvcryonc becomes accountahle.
I do not mean h y this that ready-made or teacher-prepared materials and the teacher
h a w n o place. But materials writers might givc morc thought to the use they can make of
student invcntivcncss and energy, antl the advantages of allobving student participation in
resource gcncration. It is possihle to build opportunities for this into your materials: not
everything has to he specified in advance. You d o not hale to be operating in a resource-
rich cnvironment to (lo this. Even bcginning learners in an environment with fc-w samples
of targct language use can b e involved in content-generation, e.g., Clayton et al., 1993,
Kcnny and Laszebvski, 1993.
Sample materials
I have Iieen involvcd in a number of materials and curriculum development projects. I will
hcrc illustrate four of them and give an example of representative classroom activity from
each, analysing the activity in terms of the above discussion.
A notional-structural approach
The development of the materials which became the “Nucleus: English for Science antl
Technology” series arose out of the demands of the tcaching situation in the early scyenties
at the University of Tahriz in northern Iran. I’rachcrs and students alike Lvcrc unmotivated
by the general knglish textbooks then in use and wanted something more rclevant to the
actual purposes to which students were going to put their English.
Thc new materials were arrangcd under chapter headings labcllcd with scientific
“concepts” such as Measurement, Description antl Process (Bates, 1978; Dudley-Evans et
al., 1976), in a similar xvay to a Notional Syllabus (Wilkins, 1976). There is n o doubt that
the materials were very innovative in a numhcr of ways, b u t it is also clear that the ostensibly
notion-based framelyork for thc syllabus disguised an undcrlying structural approach
using pattern practice and traditional guided writing trchniqucs. The series proved to
be very popular when it was released commercially, and thc syllabus framework was
widely imitated, both in other commercially produced textbooks and, more significantly,
in hundreds of indi\idual materials-writing projects in different institutions around thc
world as ESP became the catchword o f the late 70s and earl! 80s. Hcrc is a rcprcscntativc
exercise
A quadratic cquation has two solutions, called roots. If the factors of’ a quadratic
equation can lie found easily, then \vc can find the roots by factorising.
Example: 1:aLtorisation o f x ’ + 1-1 2 0 gi\es (A ~ 3)(x + 4) = 0.

The roots of the equation arc therefore 3 antl 4.
No\\make similar rentences about thc follo\z ing:
a) x2 + 7x +
10 = 0
b) x’- 91r +
18 = 0
c) x2 100 = 0
ti) x2 + 5x 6 =0
(Hall, 1980: 51 52)
In tcrms of expected student responsc, it is clcar that thcrc is nothing here beyond the
empirical 1evel.The student may bc motivatctl by thc partial relevance of the subject-matter,
but thcrc arc no dcmands made on student inventiveness and nothing is contributed by the
student. All language production is controlled entirely by the textbook, to the extent that
conceptually correct answers that arc not in conformity with the prescriptiveness of the
textbook author are deemed to bc incorrect. In tcrms of the prerequisites for
communication, this text would only prowke authentic communication if students disagreed
on some aspect of the content and the teacher allowcd thc discussion to go beyond thc
dcmantls ofthc tcxt.The view of languagr learning is essentially behaviourist that learning
takes place through exposure to language patterns.
A communicative approach
The University of Malaya Spoken English Project of the early 80s (Hall, 1985; Khong, 1984),
set up with British Council help, used the Munby ‘communicative’ needs analysis approach
(Munby, 1978), and was perhaps thc only major project to attempt to do so with any rigour.
A major problem in the project \vas that the first 18 months of the 3-year project were
devoted to discussion of necds analysis and theoretical considerations, with the predictable
result that by the time it came to actualll; writing, the team members wcrc so entrenched
in different antagonistic theorctical positions that consensus writing had become almost
impossible. Despite the warnings in this chapter to consider theoretical positions seriously
before planning materials, writing should not be delayed too long. The acts of‘writing and
trialing cannot be delayed until a fully worked out thcorctical position has been established.
In fact, the dcvclopmcnt of theory and practicc go hand in hand. See Figures 18.1 and 18.2
for a representativc example.
1 You are looking lor a scholarship to stuly ovcrscas.

Complete this table with the dctails o f the scholarship you \voiild likc to gct
Amount pcr month
Ihration
Subject o f study
Country
Extra alloLvanccs
2 You have some accommodation to rent.

Fill in this table \vith thc details of the accommodation you can offcr
Nature of accommodation
Number o f rooms
Rcnt
Facilities
Location
Conditions
Figtire 18.1 Workshect 1 : stutlcnt A only

1 You are looking for accommodation to rent.

Complete this table \vith dctails of the accommodation you would like.
Nature of accommodation
Numhci- of rooms
I
kacilitics
Location
2 You have a scholarship to offer.

Fill in thr table with the details of the scholarship
Amount pcr month
Duration
Country
I
Conditions
I
Figtire 18 2 Work\hcct 2: \tudent B onl)
N o linguistic structure is prcscribcd in the example given, although the matcrials did
in fact include a language support section in each unit in an attempt to anticipate the languagc
needs of the activity. One consequence of using the Munby approach was that often
more time was devoted to setting up a situation than actually doing the activity. It \vas
not unknown for a couple of pages of input to produce only a line or two of linguistic
output.
The above excrcise is fairly typical of the sort of information gap cxercisc frequently
found in ‘communicative’ textbooks. Despite an outward appearance of social validation
(opinions have to be exchanged), roles are assigned, and content r e l a t i d y tightly controllcd.
The cxcrcisc docs not havc thc thrcc prcrcquisitcs for genuine communication. The content
is not the student’s own the role-play attempts to create ownership artificially and in
~ ~
the end it is a mattcr of indifference to the student whether the outcome of the financial
negotiations is advantageous or not.The student is not e n p g k , is not involved to the extent
of having a personal stake in the outcome.
A genre-based approach
The approach to reading and writing tcchnical texts tlcvclopcd at thc Asian Institute of
Technology inThailand in thc mid-80s can hc classified as a gcnre-liasetl approach (Hall e t
al., 1986) in that it attcmpts t o analpsc tcxt in t e r m s o f thc typical discourse featurcs and
language functions to I>(- found in tliffcrcmt kinds of technical writing, particularly those
relating to the research article antl the student dissertation. Unlike the approach takcn by
Australian g e n r e - t m c d theorists (Dcrclvianka, 1991 ; Martin, 1993), it tlors n o t attempt t o
assign grammatical fcatures t o particular functions. It aims, rather, to provide analytical
tools t o students so that they can approach rcatling in a critical \vay, transferring this skill
to a critical rcatling o f their o\vn \vriting. H c r c is an example of an activity, chosen more
because it is short than because it is rcprcscntativc. A more representative sample would
stretch to many pages and normally involvc thc analysis of p a r t of a text in the context of
a whole article or thcsis.
Predict how thc follo\z ing cxtracts might continue. All extracts arc takcn from the
journal “Solar Energ! Materials”,Vol. 19, 1 antl 2, 1989.
In fig. 6 the dependence o f thc optical transmission antl sheet resistance on the
annealing time at 620°C for t w o tlil’fcrcnt coatings are shown. The liehavior of
transmission T and shcxct rcsistancc R at this temperature in thc investigated timc
interval is different for diffcrcnt stabilizer matcrials. For Ni (see fig. 6) we oliservctl
at thc beginning an incrcasc o f the transmission and a decrease of the shcet resistivity.
Aftcr two minutes,
T\vo diffcrcnt unconstrained optimization approaches \\rere implemented to evaluate

layer thicknrsscs and Ag optical constants. In onc approach all unknmvns (three
thicknesses and 36 pairs o f n antl k) \vcrc evaluated simultaneously using the
Marguartlt algorithm [ 1 2 , 131.Thc merit function, F , \vas the following:
where the whscript I denotes ith mcasurcmcnt, the superscripts cxp and cal refer
to the experimcntal and calculated \ d u e s , rcspecti\elj, and rn i\ t h e numlier of
measurement\. We M 111 call this the “one shell” approach.
Fig4a shows that in the casc ofthick coatings (60 C/dm’ and more) the well known
cmission characteristics of intcrmcdiatcly absorbing dielectric media are obtained.
The dashcd curvcs wcrc calculated with the optical functions of fig. 3 and agree
satisfactorily with the emittance mcasurcmcnts.
This is a small part of a unit for students of Encrgy Tcchnology on sequencing. It

concentrates on using linguistic antl contextual clues for efficient reading. Students discuss
possible completions to the extracts in small groups, s o that there is a limited tlegrcc of
genuine interaction, provided that the texts are ones that arc of real interest to the students.
In terms of the criteria for communication and response to text, this third example seems
to me to lie approaching authenticity within the constraints of the classroom. In particular,
of text very often involved discussion of the intention ofthe authors and a critical
examination of their arguments, often cxtcnding to students’ o\vn knowledge and hence
involving social validation.
As the course developed, we began to rely less and less o uhlishcd texts antl to get
students to bring their own work to class. This appeared to lie> more motivating, given
that the aims of the Information-Structuring course were to help students develop their
own writing for immediate deployment in assignmcnts and a research-based thesis. In this
hvay, the course also fulfilled the criterion that it should provide students with the tools to
continue improvement after the coursc. Ncverthclcss, some of the tasks in the course still
looked like exercises designed for practice rather than the occasion for genuine involvement,
antl it is \vorth noting that the course for which these materials were originally developed
at A l l ‘ has itself now cvolved into something which integrates language and other skills \vith
the initial stages of carrying o u t research and writing a thesis.
A studen t-generated, experiential approach
The ‘Talkbase’ approach, also tleveloped at the Asian Institutc of Tcchnology in the 8Os,
(I Iall, 1994; Hall antl Kennv, 1988; Hall and Kenny, 1995), was devised for an intensi\,e,
full-time course. N o detailed timetal>le o r content is specified. Only a general syllalius
outline is given, Iiased on a repeatcd pattern of Plan, Do, Report Rack, Evaluate, and Plan
Again. Studcnts carry out a major piece of intlcpentlent Lvork during the coursc, using all
the resources of the immcdiatc environment including teachers and other students. Work
1 through a series of report-back sessions in various modes poster sessions,
tions, individual consultations, interviews, and so on.
‘l.he course, unfortunately for the purpo . of this chaptcr, does not use teaching
materials as such, so representative examples are difficult to find. The syllahus is a set o f
procedures rather than a set of materials or a set of linguistic, functional, Iiehavioural o r
situational categories. Hohvever, a description of thc first week of opcration may help to
give an idea ofwhat the course is like.
O n the tirst morning of the course, the only teacher-provided “material” ot’the first
wcck is given to studcnts.’l’his consists of a slip of paper, on which arc written the lvortls:
Wclcomc to thcTalklmw courw. We mould no\\ like > o u to lea\? the classroom antl
to Lome hack again this afternoon ready to talk for a fcn minutes aliout X.
‘X’ is a single wort1 or a phrase chosen by the teacher. Examples arc: Drying; Uncxpcctcd
Outcomes; Autonomy; Water; Technology ; Saving.
First presentations by students arc normally short anti not particularly coherent, b u t
they are discussed by the teacher and all the other students, normally in groups. A t the e n d
of this, students have to plan again, informed nolv hy feedback from others antl h y thcir
experiencc ol‘\vhat others hale tlone.They then go off and report hack a second time. 0 1 1
the third occasion, thcy report in writing, and writing is passcd around among the group
for comments. As the first lveek develops, students begin to find personal meanings in thcir
“word”and gradually the very wide area covered by the original word is delimited to a topic
which is of personal intcrcst to the student.
As the coursc develops, and students hcgin to analysc published and unpublished
academic discourse produced hy others, both form of presentation antl organisation of
content improve markedly, antl communication within the classroom, as well as outside it,
becomes committed and almost totally student-dominated. Except at a very few places,
such as the example from the first day of the first week, texts (recorded interviews, journal
articles, etc.) are found and brought to class by the students themselves, so that course
content is generated by students, not by teachers.
Students find themselves engaged in research in their own field of study, research which
many of them will go on to develop further as part of their Master’s or Doctoral dissertation.
They struggle to communicate their research not only to others in the class who share their
technical specialisation, but also to those \vho ncctl more detailed background information.
At the end of the course, students’ scnse of achievement at being able to present complex
technical information to various differcnt audiences givcs them precisely that confidence
mentioned in the section of this paprr on “The need to communicate” to initiate
communication and to persist with it when there are difficulties.
In terms ofthc prerequisites for communication, they are all present: there is a genuine
commitment to communicate, there is a genuine audience, and students care about whether
they have made their point. It is intercsting to watch the effect that this has on weaker
students, who in many language classes would never open thcir mouths unless forccd to by
the teacher. In this course, the desire to take the floor and to make a point does not depend
on linguistic ability o r a forceful personality; it depends on having something to say. In terms
of Kenny’s three categories of interaction with text, activities fall clearly into the social
validation category. Students present their work, their ideas and their opinions for public
scrutiny.
Concluding remarks
The principles and opinions given in this chapter are based on personal experience and
reflect my own development as a teachcr and materials writer.Thc ‘social validation’ of my
values has ultimately been through presentations in journal articles and conference
presentations, but initially they have been discussed in the hothouse context of materials
and curriculum development teams and tested in actual use in the classroom.
For materials writers, it is worth bearing this in mind.You do not write to conform to
somebody else’s model.You look at other people’s models and you read current theory, but
in the end your materials and the writing of the materials will not be the simple passive
implementation of someone else’s ideas.Thcy will be developed in the interaction between
the writcm, the teachers and the studcnts.They will contribute to the sum total of materials
writing experience. Both your own and other people’s beliefs about effective language
learning will be modified and enriched by your experiences.
References
Bates, M. 1978. “Writing ‘Nuclcus”’. English for Spectfic Pnrposes, ed. by R. MacKay and A .
Mountford, 78-96. London: Longman.
Clayton,T., Shaw, J., Le,T.T. M., Nhan, C. H. and Pham,T. 1993. “Discovering resources in Ho
Chi Minh City: preparing the ground”. L a n p a g e Programs in Development Projects, ed. by W.
Savage, 33 1-341. Bangkok: Asian Institute of Technology.
Drrelvianka, B. 1991. Explorin<q How Texts Morbrk. NcwtoLvn, NSW: Primary English Teaching
Association.
Dudley-Evans, A., Shcttlcsbvorth, C. antl Phillips, M. 1976. “The ESP materials of the
Uniwrsity ofAzarabatlegan,Tabriz, Iran”. Teaching Englishjbr Science antl Technology, ctl. I)?
J. C. Richards, 163-197. Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre.
Hall, D. 1994. “ l h e advantages for the LSP teacher of having different specialisations in the
samc class”. The Practice of l SI‘: Perspectlves, Programmes and Projects, ed. by R. Khoo,
209-2 17. Singaporc: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre.
Hall, D. antl Kenny, R. 1988. “An approach to a truly communicative mcthodologf. English./&
Specjfic Purposes 7: 19-32.
Hall, D. and Kenny, B. 1995. “Evolution of a language ccntrc: pursuing autonomy in a collegial
context”. Spreading English: E1.T Projects in International Development, ed. by A . Pincas,
2 6 4 2 . Review of English Language Teaching 5, 2 . Heme1 Hempstcad: Phoenix El II:
Hall, I). , Hawkey, R., Kcnny, B. and Storcr, G. 1986. “Patterns of thought in scientific writing:
a course in information structuring for engineering students”. Eng/ish for Spec?$c Purposes
5 : 147-160.
I Iawkey, R. 1982. “An investigation of interrelationships bet n cognitive/affective and
social factors and learning“. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of London.
Kenny, B. 1989. “Content and language learning”. Paper presented at the Fifth International
ILE Seminar, Hong Kong.
Kcnny, B. 1993. “Invcstigative research: how it changes learner status”. T E S O L Qiarter1, 27:
217 232.
Kcnny, B, and Laszewski, M. 1993. “DoingTalkbase with Lao technicians”. Language Programs in
Development Projects, ed. by W. Savage, 18 1-1 92. Bangkok: Asian Institute ofTechnology.
Martin, J. R. 1993 “Life as a noun: arresting the universe in science and humanities”. Writing
Science, cd. by M. A. K.Halliday antl J. R. Martin, 221-267. London:The Falmer Press.
Wilkins, D. A. 1976. Notional Sy/lahuses. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Willing, K. 1989. Teachlng How to Learn. Sydney: NCELTR Publications.
Chapter 1 9
Simon Sergeant
CALL INNOVATION I N THE ELT

CURRICULUM
Introduction
T H E C 0 M PL E X I T Y 0 F I N FO R M A T I O N T EC H N 0 L O G Y (IT) innovation
and the speed of diffusion antl technological advance sccm t o h a w lcft the English
language teaching profession searching for ways o f integrating IT usefully into thr
curriculum. While there seems to be little doubt ofthc potential of 1'1; it is difficult to specify
the nature of the new learning opportunititx Papert ( 1 987) and l'erkins (1 985) highlight
the fact that there is much still to 1~ tliscovcrctl about the placc of computer-assisted learning
(CAL) in education, and this is still the case totlay.'I'his article does not claim t o produce
answers, but I hopc it \vi11 contriliutc t o awareness of the problcm. The aims o f the article
arr:
to cxamine thc nature of CALL (coniputcr-a tee] language learning) innovation ant1
its potential as a force for curricular change hvith cxamplcs tlrawm from my work in
a language ccntrc in Singapore;
to invrstigate reasons fbr the shorttall Iictwccn thc potential ot' CALL and actual use,
and discuss reasons why CALL opportunities arc not taken;
to indicate strategies by which a changc agent may add valuc, to a CALL facility.
Computers in commerce antl industry arc associated with higher cfficiency.This assumption
has been carried into the educational arena, antl into language teaching in particular, with
varying degrees o f succcss. CALI. as a discipline is cstablishing a rcsearch basc after several
years' local trial and error supportcd by anccdotc. Hohvevcr, rcscarch is oftcn carried out
under ideal conditions \vhich arc only partially realizable \vithin the constraints of everyday
use. These local constraints arc informed tiy attitudes of the major stakcholdcrs in CALL:
managcrs (usuallj non-users), CALI. pcrsonncl (initial users), and tcachcrs antl studcnts
(entl-users). Students, who arc thc recipients of CALI,, arc thc least consulted during thc
dwision-making proccss.Thcy arc also thc ones l v h o arc most tlisadvantagetl if CALL is not
effectiwly implcmcntcd.
The full potential ofintcgrating computers into the ELT curriculum has not yet been
reached and their use is still limited. CALL is trcatcd as a separate entity antl boltrd on to
the existing curriculum. I will suggcst in this articlr that duc to the additional complexity
CALL INNOVATION I N THE ELT CURRICULUM 241
of the computcr medium compared with normal classroom activitics, a high standard of
teacher expertise is csscntial. Without this cxpcrtise not much useful learning takes place
antl CALL becomcs a form of ‘electronic baby-sitting’.
Background
CALL facilities have l x c n available at my teaching institution for many years, starting Lvith
an exploratory project to in tigatc the pedagogic value of microcomputers in the ELT
classroom. Since then, informal e\-aluation based on the observation of teachers and students
using computers, positive comments in student questionnaires antl informal discussions all
suggest that on the whole, despite a small number of negative reactions from students, using
computers to learn English can be enjoyable as well as educational.
CA1.L facilitics have grown so that computers feature throughout our course structure.
The main computer room houses a network of computers. Students usually work in pairs
or groups of thrcc. Timctabling is Ilexihle. Slots are booked, usually a meck in advance by
teachers when they feel their class would most benefit. O n a 100-hour full-timc course, a
student may spend ten hours using the computer. In terms of a quantitative evaluation,
CALL in our centre has had an extrcmcly high adoption rate. Ovcr a ten-year period there
have been between 300 000 and 350 000 half-hour lessons hooked.Thc actual time students
sprnd in front of a computer and the high degree of adoption by teaching staff is an
important visible sign of success, especially as use is discretionary, but it conceals the
important dimension of quality, bvhich I shall rcturn to later.
Teachers arc trained in a number of ways. Each teacher has a short induction giving them
a broad overview of CALL and how to use the most popular programs. The teacher is then
supported by written information which offers more detailed help. A CALL co-ordinator
(CC) is on hand to respond to questions as they arise, while more experienced teachers pass
on their cxpcrtisc. A special four-clay training course, the CALLTeacher Education Course
(CALLTEC), was also designed. CALLTEC aims to give teachers the theory and practical
cxpericncc necessary f‘or effective CALL use and materials development.
The fascination of the computer as machine

The introduction of computers into the culture of language learning is a complex change.
When we think of CAI,I., the first impression is of the computcr itself, apparently doing
something sophisticated mith students peering intently at thr screen. Then \vc may reflect
that the apparent sophistication is a stitchcd-together product of people and systems with
their inherent flaws. Less obvious is the enthusiast working late behind the scenes trying to
ensure that the stitchrs arc not obvious and that the thing does not suddenly get out of
control, by making the hardware, software, pedagogy, communications and infrastructure
robust. We then need to add the reactions ofthe users and managcrs: enthusiastic, accepting,
indifferent, cynical, nervous or rejecting. Finally, we step back and look at the whole picture,
and reflect on how all these interacting elements constitute a new s u k u l t u r e of language
learning.
It is clear that, together with a fascination for computers, many students rank acquisition
of computing skills alongside thc acquisition of English language as essential for survi\ al in
the modern world. Given thc holding pow-cr of the computcr, it is hardly surprising that
lvc tend to foreground the computrr antl computrr- applications, when we should
concentratc more on the interaction between the technology antl the culture of learning.
Papert ( 1 987) calls this tendency technoccntrism making an object the centre of our
~
242 S I M O N S E R G E A N T
attention.Technocentrism is endemic in CALL research and evaluation as well as in the way

teachers, students and managers perceive computers in cducation. It often leads to thc
assumption that having provided the opportunity to use computers, lcarning happens liy
itself.
The ecology of CALL innovation

CALL, like any classroom innovation, takes place at many levels. ‘The first important thing
is that change is systcmic, that is to say it takes place in an cnvironmcnt which consists of a
number of interrelating systems’ (Kennedy 1988).
Kcnnedj employs a ‘wheels within wheels’ diagram in which classroom innovation
forms the centre of the whcel, and institutional, educational, administrative, political and
cultural levels form progressively outer circles. Chin and Benne (1 976: 33) discuss the
problems of introducing new ‘thing’ technologics (for examplc, audio-visual devices,
television, computers) into school situations:
As attempts arc made to introduce these new thing technologies into school situations,
the change problem shifts to the human problems of dealing with the resistance,
anxieties. threats to morale, conflicts, disrupted interpersonal communications and
so on, which prospective changes in patterns of practice evoke in the people affected
bv the change.
Paisey (in White 1988: 1 16) reminds us that
. . . it is people who inhabit an institution, and an organisation consists of networks

of relationships tietween people acting and reacting on each other thus organisations
~
contain rational as \vel1 as non-rational clcments . . . Most crucially, an educational

organisation is operated by the persons who arc themselves thr instruments of changc.
Without their willingness and participation, thcrc will be no change.
These writers give some idca of the dynamics of introducing ‘thing’ technologics into
interacting systems and sulisystems, although they fall short of providing a detailcd model
of the curriculum in a state of flux.
Innovation or change?
White (1 988) defines innovation as ‘a deliberate effort, perceived as new and intended to
bring about improvement’. I t is distinguished from change, which is any difference between
Time 1 and Time 2 . Delano et al. (1 994) define innovation more narrowly for the ESL
context in terms of change, development, novelty and improvement. An innovation in a
second language teaching programme is an informed change in an underlying philosophy
of language teaching/learning, brought about by direct experience, research findings, or
other means, resulting in an adaptation olpedagogic practices such that instruction is better
able to promote language lcarning.
Kemmis et al. ( 1 997) make a distinction between minimal and maximal curriculum
innovation. Minimal innovation occurs when there is a change in the way a particular aspect
of the syllabus is presented to students.Thc course will be altcred to accommodate the new
idca. Maximal innovation would be evident in a massive reorientation of a course influenced
by the CALL aspect of the course.
First order and second order innovation

Pcrkins (1 985) sheds light on the \I ay in which innovations are minimally adopted in
education. I IC distinguishes b c t v ontl order ‘fingertip rffects’ of information
sing technology. First order fingertip cllects are t h c oII\.’I O U:
\ c I‘ff
I crcncrs an innovation
, t h r iinmctliatc advantagc p u t at one’s fingcrtips, such as Iwing able to c‘onvcrsc with
fricmds overseas (tc,lrcommunications), or casicr typing (the lvord procrssor). Second order
fingertip effkcts arc the deeper rcpcrcussions o f t h r innovation. ’l‘he use of the word
or for instance puts a p v c r f u l tool at thc fingertips of the L2 student o f \vriting.
lit? t o crcatr antl manipulate text easily to move, insert, copy or tlclctc hlocks bel‘oi-c
dcciding how the completed document \vi11 appear, libcratcs the \vritcr from linear
constraints and from the chore o f reivriting in long-hand.
l ‘ h c ‘opportunitirs get taken’ hypothesis (Pcrkins ibid.) suggests opti
students will recognize the opportunity of large-scale editing. T h e deeper
el‘fects involving a restructuring of the cogniti! e skills underlying t h r \vi-iti
Iic ‘soaked up’ liy assigning \vriting tasks on the word processor. In other words, the
opportunity tloes the teaching liy itself. Hou.evcr, Pcrkins claims, ‘Most typically . . .
the opportunities arc not taken.’
The nature of missed opportunities
Somrthing mill always be learned when a stutlcnt engaucs in a CALL activity but this may
?
not be cvrn at Pcrkins’ first ortlcr 1 1. C>pportunities lor the derper second Irvel learning
may also be missed. Considcr the rcsults o f a s u r \ o f perceived program usc among full-
time students on a 100-hour intensive gcnrral English course. At thr end o f t h c course 200
students \vcrc asked \vhich programs they had used and to estimate how many times they
had used t h e m . T h c results arc shonm in Figure 19.1.
O n e o f I’erkins’ criteria lor transfer of learning is a varicty 01’ \vide-ranging practice.
This is not occurring since almost 57 pcrcvnt of perceived CALL use is accounted for hv
two programs: Storyboard’ and Gapmastcr.’Teachcrs arc not exploring tliffci-cnt programs.
The popularity o f Storyhoard antl Gapmaster may IIc accounted for by the case of entering
texts into thc programs, or ‘authoring’ .To author Storylioartl, teachers typr in a tcxt (author
the program) antl save it. T h e samc applies t o Gapmaster. Teachers place the words they
\vant t o blank o u t in square hrackets. T h e t r x t s i w d are usually rxtracts from student
textbooks or grammar/vocahularv practicc books.
Another v ay ot‘gctting closcr t o t h r nature ofmissed opportunities is t o rclatc the le\-cl
o f actual program use t o types 01’ learning genei-atcd by CA1.L. Krmmis ct al. ( 1 997)
distinguish five lcarning stvlcs for CAL, which Phillips (1 985) uses t o map t h e types of’
lcarning naturally arising from a particular program typcx. These arc recognition, recall,
comprchcnsion, experimental and constructive understanding, In thc first style, the student
is required merely to recognize prcviouslv presented language forms. In the
student is required t o reproduce previously acquired knowledge. Neither rccognition nor
recall involve the active construction of ncw kno\vlcdge. The third tvpc, comprchrnsion,
involves a more active role antl entails t h e ability to operate on a Iiody o f content and
transform it in some \Yay. Experimcntal learning may involve thc active exploration o f a
simulation. Languagc production is less consti-aincd by on-screen t c x t . Constructive
understanding involves using the coinputrr as a tool to discover n
The most common use of Storylmard is for students t o retric
previously encountered in their textbook. S t o r y h a r d contains a ‘cheat’ feature \vhich means
Stor) board 1266 38.3 Instructional /conjectural

Gapmaster 614 18.6 Instructional
Word procc-ssing 577 17.5 Einancipatory
Vocal) Games 322 9.8 Instructional
Tcstmastcr 150 4.5 Inatructional
G r a m m a r Games 116 3.5 Instructional
Clarity Grammar 94 2.8 Instructional
Pinpoint 49 1.5 Instructional/conjectural
Fast Fuod 35 1.1 Kcvelatory
Word s t o re 34 1 .o Instructional
FCF Fxcrciscs 22 0.7 Instructional
Matchmastci- 13 0.4 Instructional
London Adventure 10 0.3 Kcvelatory
* Instructional: Icarncrs irecall \I hat has Iiecii taught

Revelatory: Icarncrs take part in a rclati\cIv struc.turcd learning situation, c.g. a simulation
Conjectural: lcariicrs cngagr in tasks \\ ith opcii-cn(lcd, unprcdictalilc solutions
bmancipatory: Icarncrs cng"gc in authentic, real a d \ itivs
Figtrrc /'I. I l'crccivcd program use
that at any time a student ma: see the entire tcxt again lvithout a penalty.Thr same applies
to individual words. Both thcsc stratcgirs arc uscd liy studcnts to reduce learning load.
Though teachers intcnd this activity to improvc comprchcnsion, the type of learning arising
from this activity is usually at thc I 1 of recognition or rccall. Copying a text verbatim
may help students to rcmcmlier words or syntactic structures, spelling may improve, and
it is probably more fun than copying a text using pen and paper.
If they work o n a Storylward acti\-ity collaborativcly, students may learn something
from the language they use to complctc the text. though research o n the nature of' talk
generated in front of CALI, programs summarized by Nicholls ( 1 992) and Nicholls' own
research on Storyboard in particular suggest that conversational spin-off is limitrd. The
discourse produced is impoverished in terms of lcxical and syntactic varicty, v i t h many
single wort1 utterances and repetitions of screen text, and it is of limited pedagogical value.
Gapmaster is most frcqucntly uscd in the drill-andpractice mode. An cxcrcise from a
grammar textbook is typed in, for instance to practise question tags. The outcomc is fixed
and non-ncgotiablc. Thc facility of the program to accept more than one correct answer
rcquircs more effort hy a teacher to author thc altcrnatives (enter the tcxt rcquired) and is
often not uscd. The off-screen interaction is limited and the learning is at the level of
rccognition or rccall.
The problem of opportunitics for learning not tieing taken deepens when thr mode of
the CAI,L cxpcricncc is considered (Figure 19.1). CALL in the instructional mode accounts
for 8 1 percent of total use, ivhercas CALL in the revelatory mode accounts for 1.4 prrccnt.
ing accounts for the total use of CALL in the cmancipatory mode at 17.5
percent. CALL in thc instructional mode involves no negotiation of outcome. The aim of
activities is for the student to produce tcxt which has hccn prc-determined before the
C A L L INNOVATION I N THE ELT C U R R I C U L U M 245
activity liegan .They involve the manipulation of language in ways which do not involvc any
exchange of meaning.Transformation exercises antl controlled pattern practice are activities
\vhich involvc thc production of language but not the use of language (Willis 1990). This
approach is thcrcforc at odds with current communicative language teaching mcthodology
rts that people learn a language best by using the language to achieve real
meanings and outcomes. Underwood (1 984) commcnts that CAIJ, in this modc trics to
simulate what the tcachcr docs in the classroom to be exact, thc least interesting things.
I t tends to be authoritarian, evaluative a n d overly structured. The shortfall between thr
potential learning opportunities that could be rcalizcd and the reality of the way programs
arc frequently undcruscd is obvious.
Summary of the problem

Teachers with a low level of CALL, expertise arc less likely to be ahvarc of the rangc of
opportunities offered by authoring and using \%-elldesigned CAI,[, activities, though some
novices make up for this by being enthusiastic and crcative liecause they do not havr
preconceived ideas. During a four-hour lesson, migrating to the computcr room is a
welcome change of ne which tends to g i w thc- tcachrr and students a break from each
other. Once a task has hcen set, the teacher can take a more passive rolc, offcring guidance
only when requircd, sometimes not at all. Tcachers take a technocentric viewpoint and
assume that thc minimal task imposed by the program, whcthc~r gap filling, test
reconstruction, or intcracting at a basic level with a simulation, constitutcs a worthn.hile
task.
Each timc teachers use a new CALL activity, it represents a micro~innovation.Tcachers
will usually make a cost/benefit calculation based on how much benefit their classes \vi11
reccivc from half an hour in front of the computer offset against the amount of effort and
risk involved.The effort teachers need to put into lcarning a new program and training their
students to take part in an activity will be calculatcd.The risk of failurc is an important part
of thc calculation, based on perception ot the reliability of the hard\varc antl the complexity
of the program.The more complex a program is, the more a tcachcr will fear thc failurc of
the activity due to someone pressing thc \rrong key or cntcring part of the program that
the teacher has not yet discovered. A number of personal failures, for example with Lvortl
processing, may disco gc a tcacher from using valuable activities, and staffroom anccdotcs
about such experien will discourage other teachers. As a consequence, thc safer, less
complex activities tc o lie favoured by the majority.
Certain factors militate against the use of more time-consuming integrated activities
such as simulations, which involve the class and the teacher in learning how to use a program
that has less repeat value than a text reconstruction activity. This type of program involves
more preparation and time in terms ofpre-CALL and post-CALL activities in the classroom.
There is the need to complctc the textbook material prescribed for the le
especially the case where classes are shared by more than one teacher, so ‘extra’ activities,
which are less obviously related to course content, may be less used. There is, thcrcfore, a
danger of over-using a small number of programs and requiring students to use the same
program (with different texts) repeatedly.
A similar cost benefit calculation applies to the creation of materials. Certain programs
such as Storyboard arc easy to author (enter text) and highly productive in tcrms of the
ratio of authoring timc and effort to the amount of student use. Storyboard has a consistent
history of almost 100 percent relialilc use, so there arc few lost lessons. Under conditions
of teacher ownership, materials are Lvrittcn into courses using these easily mastered packages
246 SIMON SERGEANT
\vhich produce as much student ‘liusyncss’as Iiossililc tor the least effort in materials writing
or lesson preparation.
Most materials exist only as texts. Thcy arc supplcmcntary t o the tcxtlmok matcrials.
They arc easily authored materials ~1rittc.ninto courscs, s o that a particular unit in a
textbook may tic supplcmcntctl \\it11 a t e x t reconstruction activity, a vocabulary activitv
a n d / o r a gapfilling acti\ it!. Thcy arc \\ rittcn into the teacher’s notes, antl Iiecomc
institutionalized, fixed supplcnicntarv clcmcnts Ibr a Iiarticular coursc. The syllalius then
Iiecomes resistant t o m o r e integrated acti\ itics in cniancipatorv or rc\clatory motlcs, such
ing or simulations. At this stagc it is tlifl’icult t o alter t h e materials or
introducc a \vitlcr variety o f prograins.
T h e Iireliondcrancc of CAI.1. inaterials in the instructional mode (see Figui-c 19.1)
reflects the nature 01’ the \\ idcr syllalius, pritnarily tlcri\-ctl from textbooks with a
structural/functionaI ordering ol‘itcnis. In the \vitlcr syllalius thcsc structures and functions
arc supplemented \vith further materials 01’ the same nature. A nunilicr of communicative
activities are also a\ ailalilc, but arc considered secondary t o the process o l teaching the
subject matter of the syllalius. This is also rcflcctctl in the Iialancc of C A I l materials. The
prc\alcncc of the supplementary u s c 01‘ CAI I . tends t o tldinc the normal level o f CALL
use, \vhich is the typical Icvcl of’atloption of‘the majority of’tcachers.
CALL implerncntation strategies

CALL expertise is a complex skill \vhich can lie acquired liv various means. In an ideal
situation, the CC (CAI.1- co-ordinator) gains cxlicrtisc hv studying the ticltl intcnsivrly, by
talking to other practitioners antl by everyday olisci-vation antl practicc. A selection of thcsc
skills are simplitictl antl translcrrctl to teachers through in-service training in various forms
antl through dealing mith c\~ct-v(IayIiroblcnis and qucrics. A similar sclcction, simplification
and transfcr of skills takcs placc Iict\vc.cn tcachcr and stutlcnts.
‘I‘hc CC, in his/hcr efforts t o cnsurc cfl(xtivc CALL Icssons, is in thc position o f co-
ordinating the interaction o f t w o highly complex systems: net\\ orkctl computers and the
staff within the organintion (scc Appendix Ix-lo\~ ).XI cnsurc adoption, the CC can therefore
ivoi-k at the ‘thing’ 1 1 o r at the ‘person’ Ic\-c.l.Working at thc ‘thing’ Icvcl lcatls t o case of
access for all users: students, tcachcrs antl niatci-ials \vritcrs. Working at the ‘person’ Icvcl
in\-olves creating antl maintaining a flo\v o f information t,ct\z n all stakeholders \z ithin the
institution, both users (students antl tcachcrs) antl non-uscrs (managers, technical staff,
atlniinistrativc staff
O n a day-to-tla: Iiasis, thc CC makes decisions about the most cffcctivc lint. of work,
ivhrthcr t o focus acti\ity from thc bottom-up o f the system (c.g. materials development.
bvr i ting cl ear insti-uc ti ons / tlocunic n t a t ion) or from t he top - don n ( c .g. t cac he r training,
maintaining the goodwill of the managcmcnt). E\.crytlay priorities usually in\-olvc thc
bottom-up approach, dealing \\ ith Iiroblcms as they arise, \\orking under the assumption
that if things arc running smoothly, t h c good\vill o f the managcmcnt is a s s u r d .
Impro\ cnicnts made to the system, materials antl instructions arc permanent, \z hcrcas
training antl retraining is a constant rcquircnicnt lbr nc\v staff or for those requiring
updating. Most of thc timc it is more Iirotital)lc t o locus on Iicrmancnt improvements. For
example, something can hc made easier for t e a c h - s t o usc, Iivrhalis simplifying a procedure
b v a single key press, or \vriting clearer instructions. Il‘this is multiplied hy 40 staff or 2000
studcnt users, it means that far less training is rcquirctl.
T h c l d l implementation of CALL is a lengthy Iiroccss. Five ycars \vci-c nccdctl in our
ccntrc for the institutionalization of a minimal Icvcl o f CAI.1.: to set u p system structurcs,
t o source soft\\ arc, to providc instructions t o teachers, to author high cluality materials antl
~ v c a v cthem into the structure of courses. Eight years m ~ recluii-et1
~ c before o u r ccntrc
ti thc standard of' implcmcntation antl expertise rcquircd t o gcncratc a teacher
training course such as CALLI'EC.
Summary of value-adding activities

'I'hc summary in the Appendix t o this articlc illustratcs thc ua!s in \\.hich a teacher Lvith
rcsponsilility for CAI .I ma: add \-aluc t o a CALL facility hy \\-orking \vith managers,
tcachcrs and studcnts cithcr at the thing (system) I C 1 or at the person 1c
Whcrc only a sniall amount o f non-teaching time is made availal)lc, the main focus o f
activity tcntls t o shift alvay from teacher training to other consitlcrations which, Tvhilc thcy
arc morc mundanc, are the sine clua non oi' CALI,: trouldc shooting, software acquisition
antl installation, timctabling, maintenance of materials (printing, cataloguing, dclction, filc
hackup) antl therefore the lcvcl o f use tleci-cases in scope antl quality. The pro\-ision of morc
time allo\vs the CC to focus o n value-adding activities 1%hich arc lcss conccrnctl nit11 the
day-to-(lay running of the facility such as teacher training, tlc\-cloping interesting matcrials,
c\.aluation and self-education,
Conclusion
With insufficient management, thc Icycl o f CALL use is likclv to tlcclinc.Thc change agent,
in this casc the CA1.I. co-ortlinator (CC), is ccntral to the ~ ~ ~ w cof e sensuring
s that CALL
operates smoothly. The CC deals lvith practical problcms, antl ensure5 that the innovation
is at least minimally implcmentetl.Thc C C can minimize problcms faced >I! users of' CALL.
by 'atltling \ d u e ' tc t c m at iarious lcvcls. O n a larger scale, the actions o f t h c CC arc
pivotal t o thc pi-ot igniiicant curriculum change. 'I'hcsc actions are rcsponsihlc tor
facilitating conscious learning opportunities by ensuring that CALL learning exists, antl that
managers, tcachers antl students rccognizc these opportunitics antl take them.
To crcatc antl maintain the CALL facility in good working ortlcr requires a pi-ofcssional
change agcnt: the CAI.1 co-ortlinatoi- (CC) or a team of' protcssionals with a high tlcgrec
ofcxpcrtisc in CAL.I..Thcy can intcrprct CALL use in tcrrns of current mcthotlology, define,
crcatc antl maintain high quality learning structures antl communicatc their potentials t o
managers antl users simply antl cffectivclv. T h e CC is rcsponsihlc for the creation and
maintenance of a student learning niche within the cui-riculum. Ideally, thcrcfoi-e, t h e
cxpcrtise of the CC as change agcnt should include at least a rudimentary appr-cciation o f
ho\v CALL is cmhcddctl in the curriculum antl ho\v to tnanagc the innovation.
In this article, I havc cxplorctl the nature of' day-to-day CALI value-atltling activity
within the context o f t h c CALI, facility \vhcrc I work. I p u t for\vartl possildc strategies lot-
dealing u i t h prohlcms arising from the institutionalization of a minimal Icvrl of CALL u s ~ ~ .
T h e resolution o f these problems is sccn as a precontlition for maximal benefit to the ELI'
curriculum.
Appendix: value-adding activities
1 Working with non-users (managers)
Infuencing
Influencing thc private evaluation ol CALL I)> managers, on the level of finance and
hardware/softm arc.
Echnica/ matters
Reassuring managers that the technical performance of the system is robust and reliable
Materials development
Encouraging managcrs to have an active interest antl investment in materials dcvchpmcnt
for CALL.
Eacher training
kncouraging the management to initiate antl dc\clop various forms of teacher training.
Conimunicationr
Improl ing the information flou bctu ccn CALL personnel and manager?.
Evaluation
Evaluation b? managers of CALL on thc lcvcl o f consumcr satisfaction, observable
organizational change antl flow of communication.
2 Working with users (teachers and students)
Mbrking at the y5tem l a e l

Designing and programming the s)stcm to make it reliable and transparent to use, and
idcntifying thc nrcd tor new h a r t h arc
Software evalciation c7nd acc~uitition

Initiating the purchase or design of ne\v software antl submitting it to materials writers for
evaluation.
GLlidlng C/ILL ure
Administering the timetable. Writing instructions and manuals to support CALL use.
Cataloguing and publishing materials in a form that teachers find useful when planning
lessons.
,Ilaterialc tlevelopment
Writing materials and model lessons antl supporting teacher5 1'1ho arc authoring
coursemare.
Eachcr training
Initiating and developing tcachcr training, ranging from presentations and markshops to
responding to the day-today questions of individual teachers. Training may be cithcr in thc
use of existing activities or in thc creation of materials.
E I a Ilia t I on
E\aluating thc lc\el of CALL usc and thc contribution CAI I can make to diffvrcnt cour5c-5.
Inpuencing
l the prilate domain of thc teacher,
Changing the may teacher5 think ahout CALL.This l e ~ cis
concerned \\ ith how teachers relate t o CALL and the \\a> CAI I is integrated into a lesson
at the planning stage.
Notes
1 In Storylmartl, students have t o rcasscmblc a tcxt which has 1)ct.n deleted from the
ScI-cCn.
2 Gapmastrr is a form ofcloze procedure, \vith students filling in missing u o r t l s in a text.
References and bibliography

Krurnfit, C., Philips, M. antl Skehan, 1’. (eds) 1985 ‘Computers in English LanguagcTcaching:
AVien from the Classroom’. In British Council Occasionu[ Papers no. 122 (British Council/
Pergamon)
Chin, I<. antl Benne, K. I>. 1976 ‘General stratcgics for cffccting changes in human systems’. In
Bennis,W. G., Rcnnc, K . D., Chin, R. and Corcv, K . D. (cds.) 1976 The Planning of’Chnnge
(Holt, Rinchart antl Winston, Nc\vYork)
Delano, I.., Riley, I,. and Crookcs, G. 1994 ‘The meaning of innovation for ESL teachers’. In
Syxtem vol. 2 2 no. 4 (I’crgamon)
Kcmmis, S., Atkin, R. and Wright, E. 1997 ‘ I low do students learn?’ (Occasional Paper no. 5 ,
CAKE, University of East Anglia)
Kcnncdy, C. 1988 ‘Evaluation of LL‘I‘ projrcts’. In .+plied Linguistics i.01. 9 no. 4: 329 4 2
(OW)
Nicholls, L. 1992 ‘Computers as a stimulus for talk: the nature of talk gcncratcd by pairs of
studcxnts using StoryIx)ard’. In 0 . L - C X L vol. 9 no. 2: 19-29 (University of Queenslantl,
Australia)
Papcrt, S. 1987 ‘Computer criticism vs. technocratic thinking’. In Educutionnl Reieorch 17:
22-30 (NE‘EK, Koutlcdgc)
Pcrkins, 1). N. 1985 ‘The fingertip effect: hon information-processing technolog? shapes
thinking’. In Etiticutionul Reseurch 14: 1 1-1 6 (NFER, Routlctigc)
Phillips, M. 1985 ‘Logical possibilitics and classroom scenarios for thc tlcvclopincnt o f CALI,’.
In Brumfit, C., Phillips, M. antl Skehan, P. ( e & ) 1985
Untlcr\vootl, J. I I. 1984 Linguistics, Cunip~itersund the Lcinguuge Eucher: ci Cornrnunicatir,e .,lpprocich
(Newbury HOLISC)
White, R. 1988 The E l T Curriculum: D e s i p , Innoration and .Ilunuiyerncnl (Black\vell)
Willis, D. 1990 The L e ~ i c i i lSyllabus (Collins)
PART FOUR
Evaluating curriculum change

C h a p t e r 20
Pauline Rea-Dickins and Kevin Germaine
P U R P O S E S FOR E V A L U A T I O N
1 Introduction
N U M B E R 0 F D I F F E R ENT P U R P 0 S E S for evaluation can lie identified. They

A can he divided into two broad categories:
1 general purposes
2 specific, topic-rclatctl purposes.
The main g e n t d purposes arc examined first.
2 General evaluation purposes

E\ aluation ma) bc undertaken for thrcc principal rcawns
1 accountability
2 curriculum de\ elopmcnt and betterment
3 self cle\elopmcnt tcac her\ and othci language teaching profc\\ional\
Evaluation f o r purposes of accountability

Evaluation for purposes of accountability is mainly concerncd with determining whether
there has bccn value for money, in other words \z hethcr something has been both effective
and efficient. The main aim is to report on a product and givc an evaluative judgt,mcnt,
whether something is intrinsically a ‘good thing’ or not. Generally the information tlcrivcd
from evaluation for purpo 1 o f accountability is not used in any niajor \vay to improve thc
functioning o f the curriculum o r classroom practice. Kathcr it informs decisions as t o
whether something is to continue or be discontinued. If, for example, sponsors or heads o f
institutions are not satisfied with thc implementation of a particular project, then cuts may
be made.Thus, if a particular reading schcme is introducctl, cvaluated a year later, and then
judged to b e ineffccti\-e, it is highly likely that a school \\ill discontinur supporting this
venture.
E\ aluations of this type are largely, although not exclusively, the domain of policy
makcrs or pro\-itlrrs of resources. There is a close link bctwccn pmver and c d u a t i o n for
accountability. There arc other points to notice. Usually, such evaluations arc carried out
after an innovation has been running for some time, or at the end of a project. This type of
254 P A U L I N E REA- DICKINS A N D K E V I N G E R M A I N E
evaluation, knoivn as summcitii’c L‘I illtrotion, has also tended t o in\ olvc testing and mcasurc-
m c n t , antl anal! s c s of thc statistical significance of results olitainctl. It has focuscd o n the
o\.crall outcomes, i.c. end product ol’an inno\ation, antl has consistently failed t o takc into
account tcachcrs’ cvaluati! c comtnc‘nts. Sumniati\-c cvaluations arc liinitctl I)! their focus
on outcomes a t the cntl o f an educational inno\ a t.ion.
Evaluation f o r purposes of curriculum development

Tcachcrs have a kc? rolc to pia! in thc curt-iculum r-cnc\\.nl a n d dc\.clopmcnt process. The
ideas o f Stcnhousc ( I 975) \\.crc piiota1 in placing classroom practice at thc fot-cfi-ont of’
curriculum cnquirics:
Fi-otn the first set oftrials it \vas learned that information coming from children’s test
results \vas tentati1.c antl not readily usable for guiding re\\.riting tvithout being
supplcmcntctl liv other data. Thc rcsults pla!ctl a U S C ~ L Ipart ~ in confirming that thc
gctwral approach o f t h c materials \ \ a s cttccti\.c in promoting achievement of i t s stated
o b j c c t i \ q antl the dcvclolimcnt o f tests also had s i d e - l m d i t s for the production of
Units. Rut for indicating changes which \zouId make thc Units morc effective the?
\\ere of much less use than information from other s o u r c ( ~. . .
Whilst it could not b e said that the test information \vas without value for this
Project, it can I)c said that \vhcrc resources a r c limited antl it is necessary to
conccntt-atc itlion gathering i n l i ) r t n a t i o n t o give thc greatest rcturn on mom?, timc
antl h u m a n energy, then the choice n m ~ i l dl i e for tcachct-s’ reports and tlircct
olxcrvations in the classroom antl not for tests of short-term changes in children’s
twhaviour.
(Harlcn 1973: 91 9 2 cited in Stcnhousc 1975)
tval u a t i on for CLIr r icu luni t leve Iop in c n t pur 1x ’ \vi11 involvc information from
tcachcrs an(\ other relevant El :I‘ l)rofcssioiials. I t p o r t a n t in the management of
evaluation to inclutlc a l l relevant partics. From this it follo\vs that tcachcrs have major
contributions t o make in the c\.aluation of‘ c l a s s r o o m s . It is the tcachcr, rather than the
‘trstcr’ or the evaluation ‘expert’, ~ h has o most information alwut specific classroom
contcxts. This information may l i e rcportctl at various times antl in various f’orms, for
example as rcymnscs t o qucstionnairc,s, intcrvic\vs, records, o r diary kccping- It ma? Iw
largcly descriptive antl qualitative, and ncctl not entail tests, measurements, and intcrcnccs
about curriculum quality from statistical data. In contrast to summative ?valuation for
purposcs o f accountability, cvaluations intended to improve thc curriculum will gather
information from tliffei-ent people ovci- a period of timc.‘l’his is known as,fhrrnutive evuluution.
Such evaluations arc ongoing antl monitor tl lopmcnts hy identifying the strengths antl
\vcakncsses of all aspccts of teaching antl learning. As opposed to mcrcly passing an cvaluatil-e
judgement o n the cnd product of a tcaching programme (summativc evaluation), formativc
e\ aluation is drsignctl to pro\-itlc information that may l i e used as the basis for future
planning and action. It is formative sincc it aims t o strengthen and improvc the curriculum.
Evaluation f o r purposes of teacher selfdevelopment

A third antl major rolc that evaluation has to play i s in formalizing and cxtending a tracher’s
kno\vletlge ahout teaching antl learning in classrooms. This is sometimes referred to
as illurninatii,e evuluution (Parlctt antl Hamilton 1987) Iiecausc it involves raising t h e
PURPOSES FOR EVALUATION 255
coiisciousncss o f tcachcrs antl otlic-1- tL'1' practitioners as t o \\.hat actually happens (as
opposed t o what is s u p p s c d to happen) in the language teaching classroom. This t) pv o f
cvaluation is also tlcvclopmcntal antl formative.
Evaluation of this kind is tlcf'initc~lTnot conccrncd \vith mcasurcnicnt. 'I'hrough
alvarcncss-raising activities, tcachcrs arc involved in dcscrihing antl Iwttcr understantling
their o\\ n contexts \vith a \ i c \ \ t o improving thc teaching ant1 learning proc
c\.aluations arc both illuminative ant1 formati\e in purp)sc.Thc! focus m o r e o n th
antl less o n the product, of tcaching antl learning antl have a tnajor role t o play in tcachci-
Summary
In this section \\ c h a c examined the general p u r p o w s f o i e\ aluation (accountal)ilit>,
lopmcnt, antl tcachrr self dc\clopment). Accountabilit: 1 5 us
\\itli sumniati\c e\aluation 1%hilc cui riculum tle\clopmcnt and teacher sclt ti
arc I x t t c r informed 11) c\ aluation as a formati\c p r o ~ c c c
1 . 1
3 Specific topic-related purposes for evaluat'ion

tion, i v c t-xaniinc \va!s in \vhich evaluation is important t o classroom tcachcrs
antl ho\v their a\varcncss can 1)c raised by evaluation acti\-ities. We arc concerned 1% ith
formative a n d illuminative evaluation, associated Tvith curriculum drvc~lopmcntantl tcachcr
self-development.
What is meant by thc cni.ironmen/ o f t h c classroom since it is this that pro\.itlcs the focus
for our c d u a t i o n s ? Thr cmvironnicnt is macle u p of man! things including t h e social
organization of thc classroom, the tcxtlmoks, the inodc(s) of teacher presentation, antl the
resourcrs available t o the teacher. Thus, \vhcxn \vc ask the question 'Do o u r teaching antl
Itm-ning Ixogrammcs \vork?' (i.e. arc they cffcctivc?), \\e need to itlrntify clearly the focus
of OUI- question. A r e \vc intcrc~stctlin evaluating the classroom organization, aspccts of
ntation, o r is thc focus on the textbook or thc \Yay tcach grammarlThc
c\aluator has t o he clear as t o \\.hat is hcing cxamincd.
Kcv factors arc that:
1 c\aluation is not restricted t o the testing of Icarncrs' alditics

2 more than just thc end product is important \\ hcn cvaluating a learning Iirogramnic
3 thcrc arc diftercnt conditions that m a y explain, or contrihutc to\\ artls an cxplanation
of, w h y a prugrammc is su
4 other information, rclatcd Ilkrcnt aspccts of the teaching antl learning
pi-ocess, should be incluclctl in an evaluation of the. curriculum, t o complcmcnt (lata
tvpically tlcrivetl lrom a test analysis of learner pcrformancc.
, varied processes of teaching arc as important as the outcomc of learning,

In other ~ v o r d sthe
antl in 01-derto improve learning outcomes, there is a need t o examine more closclv those
conditions that ma? contribute t o succcssful language learning. W h a t is ncctlcd is a d e d c t l
examination of the cnvironmcnt created by the teacher antl Icarncrs to promote cffcctiw
language learning. Evaluation is thc means h y lvhich \vc can gain a Iwttcr understanding of
\&at is cffcctivc, \\-hat is less cttc.cti\.c, antl xvhat ai1ptw-s to he of no use at all. In ortlcr t o
do this, evaluation must focus on both the means antl thc product of the learning pro .
256 P A U L I N E R E A - D I C K I N S A N D K E V I N G E R M A I N E
4 Materials
Before anal) sing the extent to \\ hic h g i en
~ tcaching and lcarning matcrials arc suitable,
there arc preliminary questions to address rhc matcrials selected tor cla5sroom ure can hc
defincd in a numbcr of c\ a! 5
What do materials meanforyou?

1 110 you refer cxclusivelj to textbooks, o r do you includc teachers’ guides, teaching
manuals, supplcmcntarv units, rvatlcrs, audio and visual materials, etc?
2 L)o you make a distinction hctwccn materials dcsigncd spccilically for first and second
language teaching, and also I)ct\vccn those targeted specifically for use in school and
materials that arc non-pedagogic but authcntic?
3 Do you include materials produced by thc teachers and the learners?
The role of materials within your teaching and learning context

1 What rolc(s) arc the) cxpcctcd to play?
2 What goal(s) arc they expcctcd to achie\e?
How are the materials to be used?

1 Are the) to be uwtl as thc sole 5ourcc and rcwurcc for teaching?
2 Arc the\ one of scvci-al a\ ailablc resources?
There has hccn a tendency for overreliance o n classroom teaching materials, with
unrealistic expectations made of thcm. However, the cff‘ectivcncss o f teaching and learning
is not cxplained solcly in terms of how good or bad the learning materials are. As Allwright
( 1 98 1 ) suggcsts, materials are only purr of thr. co-operative management of language
learning. I t is also crucial not to ovcrrniphasizc the importance of learning materials.
Evaluation of classroom learning materials

The first xvay in Lvhich materials inay I)c cvaluatcd is in terms of’how wcll they reflect the
principles by M hich they havc Ixxn writtcn. In the case of class textbooks, the evaluation
criteria will be those used lvhcn tlcciding \vhich hook is best for your teaching context.
When it comcs to teacher-made materials a specification, i.c. a list of criteria against which
to evaluate the materials, is indicated at thc outset o r accumulated during the proccss of
~
materials writing and is thus ‘known’ to the tcachtxr. In both cases, \ve arc rcfcrring to the
theoretical worth of the materials.
Examining the materials as they stand, that is Lvithout rcfcrence to their actual use in
the classroom, gives us no information about how these materials actually work with a class.
This distinction between the theoretical (i.c. construct validity) and empirical value of
materials has becn explored by Rrccn ( 1 989), who distinguishes three phases in the
evaluation of materials: materials~as~\I.orkplan, matc,rials-in-proccss, and outcomes from
materials.
We can generalize from the notion o f ‘tasks’ to the notion o f teaching and learning
materials in the following manncr. ‘Materials-as-workplan’ refers to the theoretical value
ofmatcrials, taking u p the range of points covered in comprehensive checklist. Rut, as Breen
(1 989: 189) statcs:
PURPOSES FOR EVALUATION 257
Workplans can only provide opportunitics for change in knowledge and capability
and for successful outcomes in relatively unpredictable antl broad measure.
‘This brings us to an evaluation of ‘Materials-in-pro .’ . This stage gcncrates information

about the \rays in \vhich learners antl teachers actually use and rcspond to materials, thus
providing indicators as to whether the materials are ‘succcssfuI’ or not.Thc ‘outcomes fi-om
materials’ rcprcscnt the relative achievements of learners.
W h o evaluates the inaterials is the final point to he considcrcd here. Lon. (1 987)
comments on the range of individuals connected \vith a language learning course and
examines both the nature antl purpose o f t h e evaluations they arc likely to make. For I.o\z-,
ten tliffei-cnt perspectives on materials evaluation could be offered:
The Lcarnei-
The Parent
The Teacher
Thc Head or College Principal
I’hc Teacher Trainer
The Curriculum Committee Mrmbcr
The Inspcctor
The Educational Rcscarc hei-
The Ikhlishcr
The Materials Designer
(Low 1987)
U) examining the role(\) of these p i ticipating groups in the materials cx\aluation

process, L o n ( 1 987) shou s hon each group \r 111 h a c different interests and different
questions to be ansirered For examplc, a materials writer might carr: out a formati\e
e\ aluation designcd to indicate 1% hcthcr the texts arc appropriate to the targct learners, antl
then make the nccessar! changes A parent, on the othcr hand, might onl) be intereyted in
examination results, M hic h imphes a summati\ c asscyymcnt ot learner pcrformancc
O n the premise that ‘teachers ma; lieneht greatl) in the eialuation, design and usc of
materials b\ cngaging the help and r IC\\ s of learners’, Rrccn and Cantllin suggest a! s in
\r hich learners ma) participate in the e\aluation of materials
On the procedurcsf o r tiorking with tasks and actir.itie.7 in the clossroom

What do you find are the most useful w a to learn a new language?
What arc the Iwst kinds o f language lcarn tasks and activities?What arc the reasons
for your choice?
What can a tcachcr do which \z-oultl hclp you most \\hen you arc learning a nc\v
language?
What can other learners in thc class d o which would hclp you most whcn you arc
learning a new language?
What is your favouritc kind o f language lesson?
What are the reasons for your choice?
What are the good things and the had things about learning a language in a classroom?
What can materials best provide you with to hclp you learn a new language!
What arc thc best kinds ol’ language learning materials?
What do they look like?Why do you think they’re best?
What is good and not so good a h i t the tnatcrials you arc \vorking Lvith no\v? W h a t
do you think is missing from them?
W h a t changes \vould you make t o them?
(13rcc.n antl Candlin 1987: 27)
As with most in\ cntorics ol’this kind, the qucstions can Iic reformulated to make them
morc relevant t o individual contexts. It is important t o recognize the diffcrent and relevant
contriliutions t o materials evaluation. As I.o\v ( 1 987:27) maintains: ‘the evaluation of a
language learning programme, o r the materials used t o tcach it, invol\cs morc vie\vpoints
than that of the “intlclien(lcnt” outsi(lc olxervei-’.
Summa iy
In evaluating materials it is ti ai-\ t o cxaminc the Ivays in \vhich teaching and learning
materials arc sensitive t o the uagc Icai-ning lira< . Evaluation criteria should relate
not only t o thc aims antl contents o f language Icarning, hut also, and importantly, t o the
procctlurcs lor lvorking with texts and Iicd;)rming tasks in the classroom. It is necessary to
analyse learner outcomes, h i t not to the exclusion of cvaluating other aspects o f the teaching
antl learning process. From this \\.e mav conclude that a comprchcnsivc evaluation of‘our
teaching antl learning materials \vi11 cntail a thcorctical (i.e. \vorkplan) and cmpirical (i.e.
process) analysis of materials, the data I’rom lvhich \vi11 bc augmented Lvith details of learner
outcomes. T h e importance 01‘ ohscrvational (lata, derived from an analysis of materials in
use, should n o t h e untlcrvalucd.
5 Teachers and teaching
Purposes f o r classroom observation
F,Yaluation is a crucial part ol’teaching, Iiut how is it done \vcll!Testing knowledge o f theory
is not cnough to judge clfectivc teaching. Wc need t o ol)scrvc tcachci-s in action using thrir
kno\vletlgc in t h e real sctting of thc classroom. Classroom oliscrvation givcs us thr
opportunity t o see tcachcrs putting theory into prac.ticc: it shmvs us what tcachcrs tlo rather
than \\.hat thrv kno\v.
Grading teachers
Your o\vn tcaching context \ \ i l l influence your v i e w o n the ~ i u q i o s c sof‘ classroom

ol)scrvation. The cxpcricncc of many tcachcm suggests that it is primarily summative in
p u r p c , incxtrica1)ly Imund u p \vith reporting a grade, accountability, and jutigcmcmtal
statements.
The focus \\.lien grading tcachcrs using a checklist is mainly o n the product of teaching
antl Icarning, for example, ‘ability t o cstalilish rapport’, ‘suitalility of matrrials and
methods’, ‘use of aids’. Also, thc chccklist is used by an cxtc-rnal oliset-vcr.T!’pically, tcachcrs
a r c \.kited by inspectors \vho check thcir class rccor~lsand lesson plans, obscrvc a Irsson,
antl then c o m m e n t on the lessons using a chcc.klist as a guide. Sometimes this evaluation is
car-rictl out without much participation hy thc tcachcr i v h o is actually Iicing ohscrvctl.
I. . I
‘
P U R P O S E S FOR E V A L U A T I O N 259
Teacher development
Using observation merely to grade teachers, for example, with a vicw to promotion, is
extremely limiting. It is important to use observation to provide information that teachers
can use as a basis for future action. Here we refer to the formative value of classroom
observation where the feedback from evaluation will he used to further develop o r improvc
an aspect of classroom practice, o r as part of curriculum bettrrment o r tcacher self-
de\ elopment. Consider this following way of evaluating teacher performance:
The classroom assessment process should consist of three stagrs:

1 prc-lesson matcrial
2 the lesson
3 the trainee’s post-lesson evaluation
1 Thr pre-lesson material includes:

(a) information about the class: descriptive and evaluativc
(b) the scheme of Lvork and the place of the assessed lesson in it
( c ) the lesson plan (normally accepted form)
2 The Icsson; attention to the following:

(a) classroom pcrsonality (d) what is being sought
(b) classroom management (e) how it is being sought
(c) awareness of learners (f) what thc learner is doing
The above should be gone into in detail.
3 Post lesson evaluation; written self-assessment on:

(a) the lesson plan
(b) the major headings on the asse5smcnt schedule
(c) any additional releiant points
(James 1983)
In this approach not only is the tcachrr formally included at stage 3 by means of a
written self-assessment, but also there is an attempt to examine the process o r teaching and
learning. The category ‘what the learner is doing’ could highlight, for example, the nature
of the interaction (teacher to learner, learner to learner, learner to teacher) o r the type of
writing that the learners are doing: copying from the blackboard, filling in a gapped passage,
reordering words and sentences). An item on a checklist which focuses on ‘how’, i.c. what
the teacher is doing, can also identify a wealth of information about the teacher and teaching,
for example, ‘What are the different question types that the teacher uses?’ ‘How are visual
aids used at the different stages (presentation, practice, or production) of the lesson?’
Checklist items such as these focus attention on details of the teaching and learning process
and provide information that is useful in terms of modifying and improving classroom
practice. I t is, therefore, an example of formative teaching evaluation.
Peer teaching is an alternative mcthod of evaluating teachers in training. Here trainees
‘teach’ a lesson to their colleagues.Tutor and learner observers look out for specific points
in the teaching practice. Feedback can come both from the trainer and fellow learners.
Another way is using microteaching. In its simplest form a trainee teaches a group of learners
for a short period of time, for example, fifteen minutes covering a specific topic or skill
(apologizing, reading for specific information, ctc.). Again, peers and/or a trainer observe
this performance and comment on it using a checklist as a guide.
The observation involved in the above practiccs can he used for improving thc teachers’
techniques, monitoring their progress, antl counselling thcm on relevant aspects of their
teaching, However, in many ca. , they arc primarily geared towards training and grading,
in other words, used to determine Lvhcther thc training institution will qualify a teacher,
the syllabus is being covered, the teacher uscs the appropriate methodology, and so on.
Additionally, not only is the olxcrvation largcly controlled by someone other than the
classroom teacher, but checklists may reflect an cxtcrnal observer’s judgement on what is
effective teaching. Thcrc is a need to consider lvays in Lvhich teachers themselves may
become more involvctl in the proccss of evaluation.
Teacher self-development
A more participant-orientated cvaluation through observation is important in raising

teachers’ awarcncss, a key feature ofthc teacher development process.Taking microteaching
as an example, \vc can consider ways in hvhich evaluation may be made more illuminative,
collaborative, and useful in terms of tcachcr self-dcvclopmcnt.The proccss can be examined
at three levels: self-evaluation, peer evaluation, antl collaborative group work. We shall
examine these in detail.
Teacher selfevaluation
Self-Evaluation is simply thc practice of tcachcrs reflecting on what has taken place in the
I tsson
... with a vie\v to improving their performance. It can lie very informal, for example in
the form of brief notes written immctliatcly after the lesson. Or it can be part of a written
(such as the class record) or oral rcport on thc lesson itself. Alternatively, a checklist can
be used. One of the advantages of self-cvaluation inventories is that they can be designed
by individual teachers to suit thcir own tcaching contexts. They are relatively simple to use
and pet potentially they can providc a wealth of information about teachers, their teaching,
and thcir learners.
Peer evaluation
Peer evaluation can be incorporated into microteaching where several trainees are
present during the lesson o r where they share the same microteaching session. Here it is
important for there to be somc means of encouraging open and constructively critical
discussion.
Now, consider the following procedurc (adapted from James 1983) which may involve
both teacher self-evaluation and peer evaluation.
1 The teachers prepare an open profilc of themselves as teachers. I t is in the form of a

sort of self-presentation which can precede the feedback session at the end of the
microteaching.
2 Statements such as the following would make up a teacher’s own professional
principles:
I always correct learner errors.

I do not allow learners to use their first language.
PURPOSES FOR E V A L U A T I O N 261
I teach the rules of grammar to help lcarncrs use the language.

I never ask a learner to use language which has not been previously presented
and practised.
I always use authentic materials as a basis for teaching.
I make certain that a large proportion of the learners’ time is spent in group work.
I never ask learners to read aloud to the rest of the class.
I always mark learners’ writtcn work.
I believe that learner errors are the result of first language intcrferencc.
I try to exercise a strong personality in the classroom.
I adapt my teaching to suit what the learners say they want.
3 For each of these statements, the teachers in discussion groups indicate whether they
agree or disagree. If thcrc is tlisagrccment then they are asked to rewrite the statement
to reflect \vhat they think.
Note that this self-cvaluation checklist [. . .] does not presupposc any external obscrwr.
Nonctheless, in microteaching it can be used by both peers and tutors to discuss hvhat
constitutes elements of good teaching practice. Because peer evaluation is collaliorativc in
approach, thc teachers being observed might themselves suggest areas of their teaching that
they feel need to be improved and ask their colleagues to concentrate on thest,.
A t this point cvaluation has moved away from the narrow summative functions of
evaluation for grading purposes and has taken on illuminativc and support functions and
bccome formative in purpose.
Collaborative group work

This is a fui-thcr cxtension o f peer-evaluation where thc focus of the evaluation is agrecd
on beforehand by the group. More control is in the hands of the peer group but it requires
good lcatlership skills. Collaborative group work can offer an additional opportunity to
evaluate the trainer and the programme.
Kouraogo (1 987), in an article about Rurkina Faso, discusses the junction of teachers’
self-help groups which can form the basis of a collaborative national teacher organisation.
Kouraogo suggests that groups could meet on a monthly basis and discuss the practical
problcms that tcachers have. A t a later datc, these small groups antl their discussion topics
could be Ilrought together in a national conference. One of the purposes of these self-help
groups is that they may not only help teachers resolve practical prohlcms, hut may also
cncouragc antl support teachers in difficult circumstances.
Summary
We havc moved from the narrow perspcctive of grading teacher performance t o an
evaluation o f tcachers and teaching which can provide information of practical use to
tcachers for the development of their ttwhing. Evaluation through obscrvation is useful a t
all stages of a teacher’s ea]-eer to improve the quality of teaching for the benefit o f the
Iearncrs. I t may be a gradual process which is initially promptcd by an rxtcrnal olxcrvrr
but latcr moves tobvards self-evaluation. Since tcachers may find themselves in a situation
where there is little or no in-service training, evaluation can bc the m a n s to understanding
their own teaching bettcr, improving their performance, and adapting to the changing needs
of the classroom. Evaluation in this broad scnse is an important part of teacher education
which teachers can use throughout their careers.
262 P A U L I N E R E A - D I C K I N S A N D I < E V I N G E R M A I N E
Bibiliography
Allwright, D. 198 1 . ‘What do \ce need matcrials for?’ English Language Teaching Journal 36/ 1 :
6-9.
Rrecn, M. 1989. ‘The evaluation cycle for language learning tasks.’ In: R . K. Johnson (ed.): The
Second Language Curriculum. Camhridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
Brecn, M. P. and C. N. Candlin. 1987. ‘Which materials?: a consumer’s and designer’s guide.’
In: L. E. Sheldon (et].): ELTTextbooks and Materials: Problems in Evaluation and Development.
ELT Documents. London: Modern English Publications/British Council, 1987.
James, G. 1983. Teacher A.s.se.s.sment 2: Report of the Second Exeter Seminar. Exeter: Language
Centre, University of Exeter.
Kouraogo, P. 1987. ‘Curriculum rcncwal and INSET in difficult circumstances.’ English
Language Teachingjournal 41 / 3 : 171 8.
Lon, G. 1987. ‘The need for a multi-perspcctivc approach to the evaluation of foreign language
teaching materials.’ Evaluation and Research in Education 1 / 1 .
Parlett, M. and D. Hamilton. 1987. ‘Evaluation as illumination: a new approach to the study of
innovatory programmes.’ In: R. Murphy anti H. Torrance (eds.): Evaluating Education:
I.s.sues and Methods. London: Harper and Row, 1987.
Stenhouse, L. 1975. An Introduction to Curriculum Research unci Development. London: Hcinemann
Educational.
Chapter 21
David R. Carless
A C A S E S T U D Y OF C U R R I C U L U M
IMPLEMENTATION I N H O N G I<ONG
1 Introduction
C U R R I C U L U M I N N 0 V A T I O N is 110th a highly complex phenomenon (Fullan,

1993; Markee, 1997) and one that requires further research and investigation
(Markee, 1993; Stollcr, 1994). To date there is insufficient information on the process of
curriculum implementation: the extent to which teachers carry out innovations as intended
by the developers, how they go about moulding the innovation to their own context, the
strategies that they use during thc implementation process and how their pupils respond to
the innovation. Within the Hong Kong context, as elsewhere, it is common for curriculum
innovations to result in a facade of change, but with little noticeable impact on what goes
on in the classroom (Morris, 1992, 1995).
The study described in this paper sought to explore the process of the implementation
of Hong Kong'sTarget-Oricnted Curriculum (TOC) initiative through a multiplc case study
research design. In order to facilitate detailed discussion, this article will focus on one of
the case study teachers who seemed t o be particularly successful in implementing the
innovation. A picture of the process of curriculum implementation will be developed mainly
through the analysis of qualitative data, comprising classroom observation and interviews.
The aim of this analysis is t o verify and devclop elements of' the theory of curriculum
innovation through exploringTOC implementation in the specific context of a well-qualified
teacher, positively oriented towards the innovation.
The paper will begin with a brief review of selected factors affccting the implementation
of curriculum innovations. This will be followed by a short discussion of the main elements
of TOC. A description of the rcsearch methodology and its rationale prepares the way for
the main body of the paper containing a presentation and discussion of relevant data from
the study, including lesson transcripts and interview extracts. Implications for primary ELT,
teacher education and curriculum innovation are discussed.
264 D A V I D R. C A R L E S S
2 Review of selected factors affecting the implementation

of in novat ions
l‘hc litcrature on the management of change (c.g. Fullan, 1991 ; Markee, 1997) indicates a
numhcr of different factors that may affect the implcmcntation or non-implementation of
curriculum innovations. This , tion \z i l l hrictly discuss just three factors that seem
particularly relevant to the caw study discussed in this paper, namely teacher attitudes,
teacher training and teachers’ undcrstantling of the innovation.
’l’rachcrs’ attitudes otniously affcct thcir xhaviour in thc classroom. Thcir attitudes
tend to be derived from their owm expcricn as learners, thcir training, their teaching
experience, their interaction \vith collcagucs and the values and norms of the society in
kvhich they work. When teachers’ attitudcs arc congruent with the innovation, then they
are likely to be positivcly tlisposctl to\vards its implcmcntation. However, teachers who arc
initially enthusiastic about an innovation may easily become disillusioned if there is a lack
of support for thc innovation, such as inadcquatc rcsourcing or negative sentiments from
the principal or colleagues.
If the innovation is incompatible \vith teachers’ existing attitudes, resistance to change
is likely to occur (Waugh antl Punch, 1987). Within E I T , for cxample, there arc a number
nt reviews o f largely unsuccessful attempts to implcmcnt learner-centred
communicative curricula amongst teachers \vhosc background and experiencc tends
towards more traditional tcachcr-centred methods. In some form this scenario has been
documented in China (Hui, 1997; l’cnncr, 1995), Egypt (Holliday, 1994), Grcccc (Karavas-
Iloukas, 1995), and Oman (IIarrison, 1996). [. . .]
Teachcr training antl support are crucial issues in the prcparation of teachcrs to
implcment a ne\v curriculum [. . .]. Vcrspoor (1 989), in a study of change in developing
countries, suggests four clements nccdcd for successful teacher training to support
innovation:
permanent and locally available in-service training, e.g. through a cascading model;
establishment of effective t c m s for supcrvision antl support of teachers;
adjustment ofthc content oftcachcr training to the teachers’ o\vn Icvcl of knowledge
and experience; and
encouragement o f teacher motivation antl commitment, e.g. through improved
working conditions or opportunities for professional dcvclopment.
Training therefore needs to be ongoing antl tlcvclopmcntal rather than piecemeal (Brintlley
and Hood, 1990). Teachers need both on- and off-site training; the former to relate the
innovation to the realities of the spccific school context, the latter to permit the opportunity
to reflect on the meaning of the innovation away from thc pressures
If teachcrs arc to implcmcnt an innovation succcssfully, it is e.
thorough undcrstantling of the principles and practice of the proposed change. It is desirable
that they understand h t h the theorctical underpinnings and classroom applications of the
innovation, but it is the latter that tends to prove most essential, especially in contexts kvhcre
teachers are not \ycll-traincd and/or lack sound subject knowledge. Fullan (1 991, p. 199)
\varns us of a cardinal fact of social change, that “ p ~ o p l cwill al\vays misinterpret and
misunderstand some aspect of the purpose or practicc o f something that is new to them.”
For example, Karavas-Doukas (1 995), in an investigation of a communicative syllabus being
introduced in Grcck secondary schools, found that teachers exhibited incomplete
understanding of the innovation they were charged with implementing and that these
misconceptions contributed to negative perceptions of’thc innovation.
C U R R I C U L U M I M P L E M E N T A T I O N I N H O N G I<ONG 265
Dissemination of innovation from curriculum developers or change agents is often

insufficient to achieve understanding amongst potential implcmenters. Instead, what is often
needed is the negotiation of meaning between developcrs and teachcrs, s o that a sharcd
vision of the implications of the changc can be tlevclopcd. Understanding can be further
consolidatcd by the gencration of specific classroom teaching procedures for thc innovation
along tvith resource materials that can be used without adaptation in the target classrooms.
Allied to on-site classroom support discussed carlicr, these strategies seem to be promising
methods in minimising the problem of misconceptions about innovations.
3 Nature of TOC
A T O C cross-circular framework \vas d loped tiy a research antl development team, and
outlined in Clark et al. ( 1 994). Initially T O C was to bc implemented in the three core
primary school subjects of Chincse, Mathematics and English, with subscqucnt introduction
of other subjects and also extension into secondary schools. Thr implementation schedule
forTOC is an incremental one, starting in Primary 1 classes Lvho p r o c c d through the school
using TOC. I litherto, schools have licen given some flcxihility in the pace antl extent o f
implementation.
In summary, T O C is made up of three main conceptual elements: targets, tasks antl
task-based assessmcnt.The learning targets provide a common direction for learning for all
schools in Hong Kong and facilitate the planning o f schemes of work or text-books and the
evaluation of progress towards the targets. “’Tasks”are purposeful and contextualiscd learning
activities through which pupils progress towards the targets. Criterion-referenced
assessment is used to assess pupil progress towards the targets and enables information to
bc recorded antl reported to relevant parties, such as parents. This alignment of targets,
tasks and assessment forms an integrated curriculum framework, linking teaching, learning
and assessment in a rccursive way.
A major premise of T O C is that pupils should be actively involved in thcir owm learning
and in the construction and dewlopment of knowledge antl ideas. TOC postulates that
students learn through five fundamental, intcrtwining ways of learning: communicating
through receiving and sharing meaning, inquiring through questioning or testing hypotheses,
conccptualising through organising knoivlctlge and identifying patterns, reasoning through
logical argument and by deducing o r inferring conclusions and problem-solving, including
identifying, justifying and evaluating solutions. T O C also proposes that more attention
should be paid to the individual learning needs of different pupils, so that variations in pupil
learning styles, speeds and abilities can lie licttcr catered for.
T O C is, to a large extent, congruent with “intcrnational good practicc”, based on
current knowledge about how children learn, and with respect to ELT, TOC has much in
common with communicative methodologies. It is, howevcr, innovativc within the I Iong
Kong context where teacher-centred, whole-class teaching styles predominate and tcachers
tcnd to emphasise the transmission of information and knowledge. “It is a tradition o f the
education system in Hong Kong that didactic teaching is a superior mode because of
constraints of public cxaminations and unwillingness of tcachcrs to change” (Wong, 1 996,
p. 92).
4 Research methodology and rationale

The study involved case studies of three English teachcrs, in different schools, implementing
TOC over a 6-month period in their own Primary 1 or Primary 2 classrooms, with pupils
266 D A V I D R . C A R L E S S
aged 6-7 years old. The case study approach seems particularly suitable to investigate a
curriculum innovation becausc, as indicated earlier, relatively little is known about how
innovations are o r arc not implemented in the classroom context. Case studies enable
information to be collected from a number of sources and over a period of time. The
approach enables the development of an understanding of thc phenomenon from the
teacher’s view. This teacher perspective is crucial because teachers arc the key element in
the implementation process, in that they arc the individuals who will implement faithfully,
reinvent or reject an innovation.
The central focus of the study was to explore the nature of curriculum innovation
through analysing thc pro o f T O C implementation in the classroom. The research
1
questions that guided the study focused mainly on the following issues:
the teachers’ attitudes towards English teaching antl towards T O C ;

the teachers’ familiarity n i t h T O C principles, the extent to which they believed that
they were carrying them out, whether they were actually implementing T O C
principles and the strategies that they Lvere using; and
the extent and nature of change antl development in the teachers during the period
o f t h e study.
Data collection methods used for the study comprised classroom observation, focused
interviews and an attitude scale. Classroom observations were conducted for 5 -6 con-
secutive English lessons for each teacher in three separate cycles during the school year,
totalling 15-18 audio-taped observations per teacher. I took the role of a participant
observer and was willing to take part in lessons; for example, I tried to encourage, assist o r
monitor pupils during individual, pair o r group activities. Both quantitative data in terms
of a tailor-made classroom observation schedule and qualitative data in terms of lesson
transcriptions and field notes were collected. This “compatibilist” stance (Lynch, 1996) or
mixetl-method approach aimcd to facilitate triangulation through the use of both numerical
and non-numerical data.
A 26-item attitude scale was developed to measure the orientation of respondents to
ELT andTOC.Thirteen ofthe items (numhers 3 , 5 , 7 , 9 , 10, 1 1 , 1 2 , 13, 14, 17, 1 8 , 2 0 and
24) implied a broadly positive orientation towards T O C and related principles, the other
items indicated a broadly negative orientation. The attitude scale was administered to the
case study teachers prior to the classroom observation period and again 6 months later at
its conclusion. It was also administered to a wider sample of primary English teachers.
A series of five scmi-structured interviews were conducted with each of the three
teachers. A baseline interview, prior to the commencement of classroom observation,
collected relevant background information about the teacher and the school. Post-
observation interviews, carried out at the end of each cycle of observations, focused
primarily on the lessons that had just been observed. Summative interviews were conducted
in order to probe into some ofthe main issues, arising from the classroom observations and
the ongoing data analysis. All interviews were transcribed verbatim by the researcher.
For reasons of space, this paper will focus principally on qualitative data from the
classroom observations and interviews.
5 Background to the teacher and the school

The teacher involved in this case study, rrfcrrcd to as Carol Lee (a pseudonym), had 4 years’
teaching experience at the commencement of this study. She has completed a teaching
ccrtificate as an English major from the Hong Kong Institute of Education, the main provider
ofprc-scrvice teacher education in Hong Kong. She also holds a B.Ed. degree from a British
university and is currently studying for an M.Ed. at thc Open University of Hong Kong.
She is very well-qualified acadcmically in comparison with the majority of Hong Kong
primary teachers. In fact, a recent survey indicates that only 3% of English tcachcrs are
graduates and 550/0 of English teachers are not subject trained (Education Department,
1996). A t the time of the research, it was the third year that she had taught in her current
school. She is the pancl chair (similar to a head of department) for the subject of English
and also t h r T O C coordinator in her school.
Her school is situated in Kowloon, one of the major urban areas in Hong Kong. The
school is a bi-sessional onc, meaning that thcrc are two sessions, a morning OIW antl an
afternoon onc that co-exist more or less independently in the samc premises. Carol works
in thc afternoon session.This section has seven timetabled lessons of 35 min each between
1 .OO pm and 5.40 pm. Seven lessons prr week are allocatcd to the subject of English. I h r i n g
the period of the research, she carried out T O C with a Primary 1 class of 26 pupils aged
mainly 6 ycars old.
The principal of the school is supportive of Carol and allows her a high degree
of autonomy, both as the T O C coordinator and the pancl chair for English. His ohvn
attitudc to TOC is characterised by Carol as one of acquicsccmce rather than cnthusiasm.
In her opinion, the reason for T O C implcrnentation in the afternoon session \vas mainly to
follow the lead of thc morning session rather than through a proactive dcsirc to introduce
TOC.
6 Findings and discussion
This main body of the paper \vi11 consider data from thc three sources mentioned carlicr,
namely classroom observation, intcrviews and the attitude scale. [. . .]
6.1 Classroom data
In ordcr to providc a flavour of how this teacher carries out TOC in hcr classroom, thc
lesson transcript shown in Table 2 1 .1 provides excerpts from one of the lessons observed
in the first cycle of observation. The target language structurcs for the lesson were, “Who
+
is this?”“This is names of family mcmhers.”
Although the methodology of this lesson may seem relatively typical of international
ELT practice, in comparison with the traditional norms prevalent in Hong Kong primary
schools, it represents an innovativc approach consistent withTOC principles.l’he mingling
activity part of thc lesson (see lines 2 9 4 0 ) cxcmplifies a numbcr of’keyTOC features.Thc
pupils are activcly involved in using the targct language and are carrying out a7‘OC language
learning task. The open-ended nature of the activity caters for learner difficulties antl the
pupils can respond at their obvn lcvcl both in terms of quality and quantity of utterance.
In terms of the five fundamental intertwining ways of learning, pupils are principally
involved in communicating and inquiring, hvith elements of‘reasoning and problem-sol\-ing
involved in the identification of family members in the photos. Taken as a whole, this lesson
thcrefore seemed to indicate that Carol was able to put into practice a number of the main
features ofTOC, a finding corrolmratcd by subscqucnt olxervational data not included in
this paper.
With respect to ELT, \?IC can see in this extract a numbcr of reatures that havc heen
indicated by Ellis (1 988) as likely to facilitate second language <le\-elopmcnt.
Table 2 1 . I Excerpt from a Irsson transcript
1 (She takes our an altractii e cnlurcycd plioro o/ ber,faini!r~)

1':Look at me (points to herself). I am Miss I cc. M! name is Miss 1 . c ~ .I am
Miss Lee. My name is Miss I r e . Ant1 this (points to t h e phoro) is my family,
A n d this is my family. Miss 1. family. This is m y family. W h o is this
5 (points)? Who is thi.;? W h o is this?
L1: This is Miss Lev.
L2: This is Miss Lrc.
L3: This is Miss Lee.
'1': l'his is m e (points). I am Miss I ce. This is my fhmily. This is my fathtxr
10 (point\). 'l'his is my mother (point.\). ,4ntl I ha\c t \ v o sisters. They arc my
sisters (points). 'fhis is my sistcr (points). ficr name is Cclinc. I Icr name is
Cclinc. 'I'his is mv sister (points). Her namc is Stella. Her name is Stella.
This is m y father (points). 'l'his is my father. He is a man. fie. IIc is my
father. His name is h i . His name is h i . I IIS. I lis narnc is h i .
15 (Then she recups and remind\ pupi1.s o f t h c nume.s und then usks them questions
ahorit the names antl relationships of her,fumi!i member,. She then usks them to take
out theirfami(r. photos; man) of them make comments in Cantonese, [~rcsiimub(~
C.\CIMS / u p o l o ~ p s ;she tells pupils iurh no photos t o take oiit their hunch& II hich
hc71.ephotos in them. She takes one p u p i l photo as cin crumple.)
20 '1.: Look. Who's this (points)? Who's this? This is . . .
L4: Irene.
L 5 : 'I'his is Ircnc.
.I.: Good. This is Ircnc. I Icr narnc is Irene. Okay, this is Irene.
L L L : This is Irene.
25 T : Her name is Irenc.
1.1.1.: I Icr name is Ircnc.
T: A n d this one (points), \\bo's thi.;?
(Further ifemon.strution and pructicc)
T : Stand up. Stand up. No\v I \\ant you t o gct \\ ith [sic]vour photo o r your
30 hantll)ook ( U S E S p m r e ) . Y o u can walk aroun(1 and then look at the othcrs,
'What's this?' antl then you can ansmrr, y o u can answer okay no\v try, get
yourhook antl get your photos readv. ( S o m e get o t i t o/ their seuts.) Yes, go
around (cises gcstwe). . . . . . . . . .
(f'upils leure their scot) m i l mow toiwrds the Iron1 o/.thc clci<.s)
35 Ircne, you can ask 'I'onimy. O r I Icidi you can ask Kitt
Okay come out. Comc hcrc children. Comc hcrc chiltlrcn.
(Pupils stand near the.front V f t h c tluss, ut,f;r.st the), tire led b), t h e teacher 10 u\k the
turget yuestions und m s i w r them, brit uftcr some inititil prompting and
encouragement, more indcpenclcnt pupil purliripcition del-clops. 7hc re\curcher also
40 joins in which encoriruges firrthcr coinmunicution in the turgct lcingriuge.)
'I'i-anscription c,onvcntions: T = teacher; I 1 , 1.2 ctc = itlciitifictl Icarncr; L1.L = whole class choral; (in
itulrcs) = commentary; . . . = pausc; CAI'ITALISATION = c%mphasis.
C U R R I C U L U M I M P L E M E N T A T I O N I N HONG KONG 269
the target language serves as the medium as well as the focus of instruction;
the input is rich in directives;
thcre is an adhcrcncc to the “here and now” principle;
studcnts seem to be converting input into intake: and
in the activity stage, learners have some intlcpendent control over the propositional
content: they havc some choice over what is said and there is some information gap
bet\vecn speaker and listener.
Notekvorthy is the quantity o f comprehensible input to which the pupils are k i n g

exposed and the use oftechniques such as repetition (e.g. lines 2 S), short simple scntences
(e.g. lines 10 14) antl visual support (e.g. use of the photo) to facilitate pupil understanding.
Interview data indicates that thc teacher is aware of Krashen’s (1 987) distinction between
acquisition and learning and that she believes that acquisition is the most favourablc routc
for pupil language learning. “For primary school students, I think acquisition is important
for them. I hclieve that it’s much more easy for them to acquire a language rather than learn
a language” (baseline interview, p. 9). In other words, she has a clear rationale for using the
target language s o as to lacilitatc language acquisition among the pupils.
I t is suggested that the task-liased approach of 1’OC puts a greater onus on teachers’
language proficiency than more restricted form-focused tcxthook exercises. Carol’s lluent
antl confident use of English seems to play a greater rolc in the choice of language medium
than the pupils’ own limited knowledge of the language. In other words, she is able to
maintain English medium during the lessons mainly hccausc of her own high overall
proficiency and her ability to use clear, simply English supported by pointing or gestures.
This contrasts with a view, commonly expressed by Hong Kong primary tcachers, that thcy
nccd to use Cantoncse or mixed codr because ofthc low le\ el of language skills ofthe pupils.
Carol explains thc I)encfits of using the target language as follo\vs:
If thcy can try t o listen to English more, it is easicr for them to learn a language. I
think it’s strange if you learn, for example, Frcnch in a Chinese \ray \vith Chinese as
a teaching medium as that’s why pupils like to go overseas to learn a language. I think
it’s a kind of acquisition and I havc t o give them an environment that English is the
first language instead 01’ Chinese.
(summativc inter\ie\v, p. 1 )
6.2 Interview data

Haling looked briefl>at an example of how Carol tarrieq o u t T O C in the classroom, I 1% 111
nou proceed to discus, a number of themes from the inter\ IC\\ data.Thc extracts discussed
here relate to her attitudc touartls T O C , her understanding of TOC, the rolc ot the
principal, change implementation, teacher \upport and teacher reflection
6.2.1 .Ittirude tortar& TOC‘
Her actions in thr classroom, her statcments in interviews and her attitudc scale responses
all indicate that Carol has a positive attitude to\rards T O C and associated principles. For
example, in thc interviews shc describes hcr attitudes towartlsT0C as “positive” or “more
than positive hut I can’t say very positive.’’
Initial analysis of the attitudc scale responses shows that she has a more positive
orientation to principles congruent ivithTOC than a lvidcr sample ol‘primary school English
270 D A V I D R . C A R L E S S
teachers. The following are the statements that she either strongly agreed with or strongly
disagreed with in both parallel administrations o f the attitude scale used for the study.These
provide a sample of her attitudes.
She strongly agreed with the following statements on both administrations of the scale:
Item No. Statement

3 Making errors is a natural part of the learning process
7 Thc main rolc of the tcachcr is to facilitate learning amongst pupils
9 Pupils learn most when they arc actively involved
10 I t is important to give pupils the opportunity to learn at their own pace
11 Pupils learn through constructing their own grammar rules
13 It is important for pupils to create their own sentences
14 I t is important for pupils to use a communicativc approach to teaching
24 The tcachcr would take into account pupils’ needs and interests
She strongly disagreed with Item 22 of the attitudc scale, on both administrations.
ltem No. Statement

22 Under T O C pupils \vi11 be less motivated than before
Overall, her expressed attitudes scem to be congruent with the constructivist view of‘
learning cspoused in thc T O C framework (Clark et al., 1994, p. 1 5) and those linked to
communicativc and/or task-based approaches to EIll: Interview data indicates that her
attitudcs scem to derive mainly from her English language learning experiences as a school
student, her prc-service training and her experience of“1anguage immersion” when studying
in the UK as an adult.
6.2.2 Undersranding ? ITOC
The first four interviews all asked rcspondcnts to summarise their understanding of the
main principle of TOC. Carol put different emphases on different aspects of T O C at various
times, but in general demonstrated a rcasonalile, though not full, understanding ofTOC,
despite confessing to some confusion about the differences betwwn TOC tasks and asso-
ciatcd terms, such as activities, exercises or worksheets. The following sample answer is
quoted to illustratc clcmcnts of her conception of TOC:
I think Lve should try to motivate thcm, try to increase their interest in Icarning, not
just copying. I think put the knowdcdgc in use is quite important in TOC. I think in
T O C it should bc more livcly, not just a classroom situation, not just learn this but
know that it is useful and they can use it and they know that it is useful for the whole
lifc, I think that isTOC.
(post~obscrvationinterview three, p. 7)
Although she has not uscdTOC terminology directly, she has touched on a number of
TOC elements, for example, active involvement of pupils (first two sentences), task
(“knowledge in use”), real-life context (“ not just a classroom situation”). Understanding of
the principles and practice o f a curriculum innovation tend to cvolve over time and it is to
be expected that Carol will dcvclop hcr intcrprctation ofTOC further as she continues to
gain experience with it.
C U R R I C U L U M I M P L E M E N T A T I O N I N HONG KONG 271
6.2.3 The role $the principal
Instructional leadership, staff’development, the building of collaborative cultures, academic,

administrative and resource support are some of the main means by which principals can
facilitate change. In Carol’s case the principal is supportive and willing to permit her a high
degree of autonomy. I t is not clear the cxtcnt to which this is an informed management
strategy or is indicative of a reluctance to be directly involved with‘I‘OC, a “wait and see”
attitude prevalent amongst principals according to Morris et al. (1 996). Carol acknodcdgcs
the supportiveness antl flexibility of her principal:
Even he thinks we shouldn’t do that [implemcntTOC] hut once we started, he gives

a full support to m e and if I want to take some courses he always mentions that I
shouldn’t worry about missing lessons. He thinks that it is good for m e to take some
courses and he always asked me to encourage my colleagucs to go out antl take some
courses. He doesn’t control what I did, I can do it hohvever I like.
(baseline i n t e n k w , p. 5)
This laissez-faire style is in contrast with more authoritarian leadership stylcs commonly
perceived to bc! found amongst many Hong Kong principals. In Carol’s case, it seems to be
effective as shr has the confidencc and ability to benefit from the autonomy granted by her
principal.
6.2.4 TOC and change

Change is often best effected gradually and as indicated by Clark et al. (1994) in t h e T O C
curriculum framework there should he flexibility over time-scales, with the development
and implementation of T O C being aligned with the readiness of teachcrs and schools. As
Carol comments:
Maybe it’s too rushed for the school to run t h c T O C class, hve have to adapt it and
change bit by bit. First of all, wc have changed the time for each lesson, change thc
format of teaching, before kvc just adapt the ivholcTOC, theTOC matter lvcausc wc
have to change the assessment task, the format of assessment, the format of rcport
card, too man! things at a go, so I don’t think it is a good way to change the
curriculum.
(baseline interview, 1). 16)
O n the othcr hand, thc implementation of ‘I‘OC seems also to have brought some
benefit to Carol. As indicated b y Morris clt al. ( 1 996) in their report on a major T O C
rcscarch project, innovation can be used by principals 01- teachers as a vehicle fbr countering
inertia and lc-gitimising attempts to improve. The introduction of T O C provides teachcrs
with a rationale for more activc antl innovative teaching approaches. Carol expresses it in
the following way:
Because it is T O C I can d o a lot of activities and prepare a lot of things. I have an

cxcusc, because it is TOC class so I can make it different from the other class. If
cvcrybody is doing a traditional class, maybe if1 do it in a tliffercnt way then the others
may say, “why do you have to do so many things?Wc don’t d o it so ifwe compare with
you, it seeins that we are lazier than you,”so because it’sTOC class, it’s a kind of excuse
o r reason why I change my way of‘teaching.
(summativc interview, p. 7)
2 7 2 D A V I D R. C A R L E S S
In other \vortls, thcTOC initiativc pi-ovitlcs a theoretical and administrative backing for
Carol to carry out the kind of learner-centred activitics that shc \vould likc to carry out
any\vay. This enables her to teach in her preferred \vay, yet with less risk o f facing negative
peer pressure from her more tratlitional~mintlcdcolleagues.
6.2.5 Teacher-researcher collaboration
As mcntioncd carlicr, school-bascd support is an essential component of inservice teacher

education provision for innovations (Vcrspoor, 1 989).‘l‘his support can take different forms,
for example, the collaboration bct\z n a tcachcr and a tcacher educator researcher as
described in this paper \vas mutually enriching. From my anglc, 1 have dcvcloped new
understandings of the primary classroom antl of TOC, and in my o\vn teacher education
classes, I now frequently use examplcs from Carol’s class to exemplify points that I am
making. From the teacher’s point o f vicw, Carol comments as follo\vs:
You make my class a real English class, you make the classroom really English.You
make me get used to having somcliotly watching my lesson, so now I don’t care if
anybody comes into my classroom antl \vatchcs ho\v I teach, and I have confidcncc in
my teaching and Y O U have given me a lot o f atlvicc in thc whole year, thank you very
much. I think I’ve improvctl in some parts.
It is also suggested that thc process o f k i n g intci-vic\vcd plays a role in clarifying a

teacher’s understanding of thc innovation by prompting thought and discussion about
relevant issucs.
6.1.6 Tcacher reflection and der cloprnent
A t various points in the intcrvic\vs, Carol s h o w s hcr open-mindetlness and interest in finding
out more allout teaching as a means for prolkssional improvement. She comments on the
value of peer observation in thc following extract:
I think going to another classroom to \vatch how the others teach is important. I think
it’s good because now I a m doing the assignment [M.Etl. assignment] and I hale to go
into the classroom to \vatch the students. Even though I hvatch the studcnts, I can
watch how the teachers teach, I think I really learn a lot of things, many many things.
I think my teaching skill is quite good already but I tind I can lcarn some more even
ne\vcr things. So, I believe that if teachers likc to watch each other, I think the others
can give you some comments s o you can improve antl also improve by watching how
the others teach . . . but I think it is difficult Iwcause a lot of teachers don’t likc other
pcoplc to come in their classroom antl \vatch how they teach.
Other responses also show an interest antl atiility in identifying and beginning to
reflect on relevant teaching issues. Reflection and the ongoing consideration of alternative
teaching strategies is one of a numlier of factors identified hy Hopkins and Stern ( 1 996) as
being characteristic of effective teachers. ’l’hc following extracts show evidence of Carol
developing a rcflcctivc orientation to her tcaching:
I think under the condition of TOC brighter students become brighter and lirighter
but the weaker students arc still very weak and I am still puzzling about this problem.
(baseline interview, p. 17)
. . . qometimcs I find that the> c n j q doing thow actillties hut how much dit1 the!
really learn? I just wonder
(pmt o b s c r ~ation inter\ IC\\ 2 , p. 1 )
7 Conclusion
This paper tried to show how a well-qualified English teacher has responded to a curriculum
innovation. Reference has been made to her attitude towards the innovation, her
understanding of thc innovation, her classroom teaching, her professional development and
interview comments on a number of issucs relevant to thc change process. The anal!
of a case study, so extrapolating the findings is not possible but it is suggested that the
discussion has raised a numbcr o f issues that may have \vidcr implications.
I t has been indicated that despite the challenges associated with successful curriculum
innovation, this teacher’s initial experiences withTOC have been largely positivc. A number
of her charactcristics have assisted her:
hrr academic and professional training;

her high standard of English proficiency;
her positive attitudes ton-ards teaching and toivards the innovation; and
her desire for further self-improvement and professional development.
This discussion is not incant to imply that curriculum innovation can only lie fostered
bv teachers who have the abovc characteristics, but it is fair to sa\’ that such teachers arc
probably in a favourable position. Therefore, gcncral governmental initiatives that upgradr
the professionalism of teachers, in addition to being desirable in their o\vn right, do help
to pro\-ide a climate conducive to the development of curriculum reform. Such initiatives
arc part of a long-term enhancement of primary education in Hong Kong (Education
Commission, 1992) of whichTOC is one componcnt.This reinforces Stenhousck \enerablc
dictum that thcrc is no curriculum development without teacher tlevclopment.
In addition to these wider initiatives, support for teachers at the classroom level plays
a significant role in facilitating the implementation of innovations. In this case, the
supportivencss o f the principal and fruitful collaboration bet\vccn the teacher and an
external teacher ctlucator/rescarcher seemed to encourage a capable tcachcr in carrying
out the innovation. In other cases, proactive involvcmcnt from principals o r scnior
colleagucs and/or ad\ )ry visits from inspectors, tcacher trainers or experienced teachcrs
may be needed to facilitate implementation, Support and encouragement, in one form or
another, are an essential prerequisite for successful classroom implementation of a
curriculum innovation.
References
Brindlc); G., Hood, S., 1990. “Curriculum innoIation in adult ESL.” In G. Brindle) (Ftl.). The
Second Language Curriculum i n Action. NCEUI’K, Sylncy.
Clark, J., Scarino, A , , Brownell, J., 1994. Improving the Qialiy $Leorning:A Framework for Target-
Oriented Curriculum Rener4d in [long Kong. Institutc of Languagc in Education, Hong
Kong.
Education Commission, 1992. Report No 5: The teaching profession. Government Printer,
Hong Kong.
Education Department, 1996. Teocher Suri,e),. Education Dcpartmcnt, I-Iong Kong.
Ellis, R . , 1988. Classroom Second Longucige Derelopment. Prentice-Hall, London.
Fullan, M., 1991 . The h’erz.,Weaning of Etlucationul Change. Teachers College Press, NcivYork.
Fullan, M., 1993. Change Forces: Probing the Depths of‘Educational Refbrm. Falmcr Press, London.
Harrison, I., 1996. “Look who’s talking noLv: listcning to voices in curriculum rene\val.”In: K.
Railcy, D. Nunan, (Eds.). Ibice.s,from the Language Classroom. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, pp. 283 303.
Holliday, A , , 1994. Appropriate .Clethodologj, antl Social Context. Carnhritlge University Press,
Cambridge.
Hopkins, D., Stern, D., 1996. “Quality tcachcrs, quality schools: international pcrspectivcs
anti policy implications.” Teaching and Teacher Education 12(5), 501 -5 17.
Hui, L., 1997. “New bottles, old \vine: communicative language teaching in China.” English
Teaching Forum 35(4), 38 41.
Karal as-Doukas, E., 1 99 5. “Teacher identified factors affccting the implementation of a
curriculum innovation in Greek puldic secondary schools.” Language, Culture and
Curriculum 8(1), 53 68.
Krashen, S . , 1987. Principles and Practice i n Secontl Language .kyui.sition. Prcnticc-Hall,
Englcnood Cliffs, NJ.
Lynch, B., 1996. Language Program Eraluation: Theor). antl Practice. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.
Markcc, N., 1993. “Thc diffusion of innovation in language teaching.” :lnntial Review ofApplied
Iinguistics 13, 229-243. See also chapter I O of this volumc.
Markee, N.,1997. Managing Curricular Innoration. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Morris, P., 1992. Curriculum Development i n [long Kong. Education Papers 7. Faculty of
Education, Hong Kong University, Hong Kong.
Morris, P., 1995. The Hong Kong School Curriculum. Hong Kong Univcrsity Press, Hong Kong.
Morris, P. and 1 2 associates, 1996. ‘liirget-Oriented Curriculum Evaluation Project: Interim Report.
Faculty of Education, University of I long Kong, Hong Kong.
I’enncr, J., 1995. “Change and conflict: introduction of the communicative approach in China.”
TESL Canatlajournal 12(2), 1 17.
Stoller, F., 1994. “Thc diffusion of innovations i n intensive ESL programs.” Applied Linguistics
IS( 3), 300-327.
Verspoor, A , , 1989. Pathways to Change: Improi,ing the Qua/iy ?f’Etlucation in Developing Countries.
World Bank, Washington DC.
Waugh, R . , Punch, K., 1987. “Teacher receptivity to systemwide changc in the
implementation stage.” Revieri ofEJucutionul Research 57(3), 2 37- 2 54.
Wong, Y. F., 1996. ‘‘To investigate the understanding of principals antl teachers of the kc?
features of the Target-Oricntctl Curriculum (TOC) antl their perceptions of its impact
on their teaching.” Unpublishctl master’s thesis, University of Hong Kong.
Chapter 22
Joan Lesikin
DETERMINING SOCIAL PROMINENCE:

A METHODOLOGY FOR UNCOVERING
GENDER BIAS I N ESL TEXTBOOKS
Introduction
T H E M O S T S I G N I F I C A N T I N F L U E N C E on an individual’s role is“the social

prescriptions antl behavior of others,” according to Thomas and Biddle (1 979, p. 4).
The female and male characters in ESL textbooks have the potential to serve as those others
~ sources of social prescriptions antl behaviors for ESL students. According to some studies
(e.g., Cole, Hill, and Dayley, 1983; Rem antl Rem, 1973), same-gender role models provide
stronger role identification for some people than models of a different gender. Thus, for
example, female characters in texts are stronger role models for some lvomen than they
arc for some men. Any one dcpiction of a female or male, however, may lx- inconsrquential;
it is a particular bias sustained over time and through repetition which has a cumulative
cffcct.
Because of their ubiquitous presence in our schooling, cducational texts may have just
that effect. Content analysis of textbooks in a variety of educational subjects (e.g., social
studics, Slectcr and Grant, 199 1 ; science, Powcll and Garcia, 1988; teacher education,
Satlker, 198 1 ; children’s rradrrs, Weitzman and Rizzo, 1974; ESL, Porreca, 1984) has shown
them to contain gender bias. And \vc know that teachers in a variety of cducational subjects
usc tcxthooks about s nty pcrccnt ofthc time (Komoski, 1985); ESL tcachers arc probably
no exception.
The potential influence ofgendered role models may haw particular weight in ESL in
highcr education. For many ESL collcgc students, ESL textbooks may be their first encounter
with the American educational system. ESL textbooks especially may have a morc profound
cffcct than texthooks used suhscqucntly in a collcgc student’s academic carerr.
ESL text materials attempt ideological neutrality in order to appeal to a broad and often
censorious educational market. Real and imagined pressures have often led writers antl
publishers to substitute or eliminate topics deemed objectionable to various constitucncics
(lanner, 1988) . l c x t materials published for second language lcarning in particular prcscnt
language in ways that reinforce the sense of ideological neutrality. These texts arc typically
276 J O A N L E S I I < I N
filled both with extended discourse in narratives o r essays and with individual sentences in
lists. I.anguagc itcms may br prcscntetl \vith littlc i f any surrounding context, dcvoid of its
history of usage, and with little background given to make sense o f it. Yet ideological
knowledge in tcxts informs meaning, according to critical linguists such as Hodge, Kress,
and Fairclough (Fairclough, 1989; Krcss and €lodge, 1979) whose theory of social semiotics
links language with power. External social forces influcncc a writer’s choice of language.
Thus, the meanings and structures of language in a textbook o r any other writing reflect
~
ideology. Feminist critical analysis, an outgro\vth of critical analysis, focuscs on the semantic
and structural properties of language in ordcr to examine ideas antl assumptions about
gender. Feminist content analysis, on thc other hand, is grounded in a semantic and lexical
linguistic tradition in the social scienccs. Feminist rcscarchers use both these general and
sometimes overlapping perspectives.
The methodology 1 present bclow allo\vs for the analysis of text materials containing
both extended discourse, whcrc ideology may lie more apparent, and context-reduced
sentences, where ideology may be less apparent, as can lie found in many ESL text materials.
The approach, related to feminist critical analysis, analyzes languagc at the
structural/mcaning level and seems to bc lrss inferential than analyses that only count
of language clcments.
Methods of analyzing gender bias in texts

Researchers h a w rxaminetl gcndcr hias by quantifying language items in the content
~
analysis tradition and by interpreting language content more in the critical analysis
~
tradition, o r by combining methodologies that encompass these perspectives. Recently,

Macaulay and Brice (1 997) reported the results of two studies that show widespread gender
bias and stereotyping in the example sentences of syntax textbooks. Using a combination
of methodologies, they looked at grammatical function, thcmatic role, and lexical choice,
based on the works of Jackendoff ( 1 972), Dillon ( 1 977),and Cowper ( 1 992). Using another
methodology to examine ESL textbooks, Porreca ( 1984) found widespread bias primarily
Iiy quantifying language items. Her study focused on omission, firstncss, occupational
visibility, nouns, masculine generic constructions, and adjectives.
The methodology I propose both interprets language content and quantifics language
items. Similar to Mills’s methodology ( 1 995), grounded in Hallitlay but dealing only with
extended discourse, the present methodology can also he applicd to context-reduced,
sentence-level items. It is advantageous because it gets at meaning that may be hidden duc
to the presentation of context-rcduccd language. The methotlology can be used alonc or in
conjunction with other mcthodologies, such as those in Porreca’s study, in order to
triangulate findings. If different methods haw similar results, we can lie more certain that
the findings arc robust antl not influcnccd by our methotlology (Firestone, 1987).
A variety of approaches may he needed to account for the inherent contradictions in
tcxts. For example, in examining the middlc chapter of Developing Reading Skills: lntermediate
(Markstein and I Iirasawa, 198 l ) , this researcher (Lcsikin, 1994) found less than half as many
frmalrs named as males (40: 100) yet a greater quantity of femalc-specific nouns and
pronouns ( 1 00:84). At the same time thc two structural analy. , based on Halliday,
presented below, showed that females antl males are equally represented in terms of social
prominence.
DETERMINING SOCIAL PROMINENCE 277
Analyzing gendcr bias as social prominence in texts

The methodology is based on M. A. K . Halliday’s examination of the functions of language,
specifically his concept of participant roles of nouns and pronouns and the division of theme
and rhcmc from the Prague School of Linguistics and reconstituted by Hallitlay (1 985).
I use these concepts to dctcrminc the relative social promincncc of females and males in
written texts.
Theme, rheme, and last stressed element
According to Quirk and Grccnbaum (1 973), “the t h r m r is the most important part of’ a
clause from the point of view of its presentation of a message in sequence” (p. 41 2).Themc
is the psychological suliject. It is the first clement in a clause (lvith the exception of initial
adverbs) ‘‘VIhich serves as the point of departure of the message; it is that with which the
clause is concerned” (Halliday, 1985, p. 38). Rhcme is the remaining part of the messagc,
which develops the themc.‘lhc last strcsscd clement of a clause is also important.Thc person
o r persons occurring as the last stressed element bear the information focus of the clause
and, like the, person or persons in theme position, have communicative prominence (Quirk
and Creenhaum, p. 41 2 ) .
From communicative prominence to social prominence
A charactcr in the position of theme or as last stressed elcmcnt in a clause is the person
in a position of communicative prominence. It is the person who is the center of con-
versation, the topic in writing, or the information focus until anothcr person is introduced
or focused on o r the communication or text ends. People who are centers of conversations,
topics of writing, or the information focus ~voultlseem to have more social prominence
than pcoplc who are not. We communicate about people who in somc way intcrcst us or
arc important to us; those Lvho are not of interest are not thc focus. Thus pcoplc can be
perceived as having different degrees of social prominence hy the dcgrcc of intcrcst shown
them.
Similarly, in a Ivrittcn text such as a textbook, if characters of one gcnclcr (rcprcscntcd
ly gcndcr-spccific nouns or pronouns) occur more frequently in the position of
communicative promincncc as theme or last strcsscd clement an underlying message
~
to rcatlcrs is that one gentler has higher social prominrncc than the othcr. Thc); most likcly
prcsent a stronger, more alluring role model than those characters in rheme position.
Participant junctions
The division of gender-specific nouns and pronouns in clauses into theme, rhcmc, and last
stressed element does not specify what those role models potentially are. A noun or pronoun
in a clause also has a participant role in terms of the ideational function of the clause, 1% hich
helps us to get at the ideological message. Since themes and last strcssed elements arc the
most prominent and could be more intlucntial rolcs for students than those rolcs cmbcdtictl
in rhrme, I examine their participant functions.
According to Hallitlay, the ideational function of a clause is how it represents experience
in terms of meaning. The role of a noun or pronoun in a clause is how it participates in thc
process of a particular experience expressed by that clause. Thus the noun o r pronoun also
has a participant role in terms of this ideational function.
278 J O A N L E S I K I N
The participant roles can be di\ided into two groups (seeTable 22.1). In Group I, the
functions include doing, acting, sensing, saying, attributing, and rclating. Those in Group I1
are the complcmcnts of the participants in Group I. Group I participants take a more active
role experientially than those in Group 11, whcre the role o f actor is defined a3 the most
active and direct participant in an experience.
Table 2.2. I Participant roles o f nouns anti pronouns
Group 1 Group II
Actor Rccipicnt, Client, Goal

Beha\ cr Brnchciai-?
Sayer Rccci\cr, Targct
Scnwr I’hrnomrnon
Token Valuc
Procedure
The procedural steps to apply this mcthodology arc:
Collect all clauses in the “unmarked” form (thosc that are not questions a n d / o r
negations), containing at least one gentler-specific noun o r pronoun (e.g., Anne is here
or T h y waitedfor Rob to come). ‘
Categorize these clauses b y gcnder antl by thcme/rhemc distinction. Simultaneously
examine each clause to see if it contains a last strcssed gender-specific noun or pronoun
in the same clause signaling a competitive focus of new information. If it does, note
the gender-specific focus. Eliminate themes or rhemes which have both female and
male nouns or pronouns (c.g., Anne and John arc here or Either June or Bob I$) since co-
occurring forms offset each other.
Tabulate the number o f themes, rhcmes, and last strcssed elements according to
gender, and compare the numlicr of themes and last stressed elements to the number
of rhemes, by gender.
To determine the roles of thosr gender-specific nouns antl pronouns labeled as theme
and last stressed clement, re-examine them in terms of participant functions.
Tabulate the themes and last stressed elements by participant function and gender.
Lastly, incorporatc into the results the quantity of themes and last stresscd clt‘ments
compared to quantity of rhcmcs.
Findings
Theme and rheme
I applied this methodology to a singlc chapter in each o f scvcral tcxtbooks devrloped for
the ESL academic markrt. I will discuss t h r findings from one o f the textbooks, Grammar in
Use (Murphy, 1989), to demonstrate thc application of the methodology.
O u t of 55 gender-spccific nouns and pronouns in clauses, 44 are theme, as in Ann in
/inn telephoned someone (p. 94). Of these, thc ratio of females (n = 15) to males (n = 29) is
5 2: 100 (34”h to 66%). Elcven gentler-spccific nouns and pronouns in clauses are rhcmcs,
as in him inyou want him to get some stamps (11. 101). Of these, the ratio of females (n 3) to
males (n = 8) is 38: 100 (27% to 73%). In addition, seven gender-specific nouns as rhemes
are the last stressed elements in seven of the clauses, as in Torn in I’ve just seen Torn (p. 98).
Of these, the ratio of females (n = 2) to males (n = 5) is 40: 100 (29% to 7 1 Yo).As theme
and rheme (including the last stressed element) of a clause, female nouns and pronouns are
present on average 33% compared to 67Yo for male nouns and pronouns (n = 37) or thc
ratio of 49: 100 (seeTable 22.2).
Table 22.2 Grammar in Use: frequency of gender-specific nouns and pronouns as thcmc and rheme in
“unmarked” clauses
Female Malc Totul Ratio
N YO N Y
O N I; to M
l’hcmc 15 34 29 66 44 52:100
I‘\hcmc 3 27 8 73 II 18:100
Total 18 33 37 67 55 49: 100
Note: Thcmc = psychological subject o f a clause; rhcmc = noun or pronoun devrloping the subjcct
including last stressed clcmcnt I)caring information focus.
As theme and as the last strcsscd clcmcnt (n = 5 1) the prominent forms in tcrms of
~
meaning 17 are females and 34 arc males (33% to 67%) o r a ratio of SO: 100. (SecTablc
~
22.3 .) Thus males dominate thc positions of communicative prominence in clauses in this
chapter by double the numbcr of females. The total number of female to malr nouns and
pronouns in the chaptcr is morc equitable: 44% to 56%.
Table 22.3 Grammur 7n I1.w frequency of gender-specific nouns and pronouns as thcmc and last
strcsscd clcmrnt in “unmarked“ clauses
Female Malc Total Rutio
N 96 N Yo N 1 toM
Thcmc 15 34 29 66 44 52:lOO
Elcmcnt 2 29 5 71 7 40: I00
I‘otal 17 33 34 67 51 50:100
Note: Theme psychological subject o f a clause; clcmcnt = last strcsscd clcmcnt in a clausc~bearing
information focus.
Participant rolcs
By examining those gender-specific nouns and pronouns in theme position in the same
clauses to determinc their participant roles, I found that they (n = 44) function in fivc
participant roles (see Table 22.4). That is, they are actors, sensers, tokens, sayers, and
bchavcrs. The 15 females occupy four of the rolcs while the males occupy fivc. Males
outnumber females in all rolrs except that of senscr, where fcmalcs (n = 4) arc prcscnt
twicc as often as males (n = 2). Howcvcr, males (n 1 1) arc actors, the strongest participant
role, more than three times as often as females (n = 3) or the ratio of‘ 27: 100. In addition,
there are more than twicc the numbcr of m a l a (n = 10) than females (n = 4) as sayers or
280 J O A N L E S I K I N
the ratio of 40: 100. The roles of actor antl sayer h a c the greatest numher of nouns and
pronouns. Femalc5 (n = 4) antl malc5 (n = 5) arc most clcnly matched in the role oftokcn,
the second largest role, in thc ratio of 80: 100.
Tuhle 22.3 Grarnmur 7n Use: frcquc.nc.! of‘partic~il~aiit

I-olea ofgcntlci--specitic iiouiis antl pronouns in
“unmarkctl” clauscs
Roles N (Yo N “0 N F to M
8ctor 3 21 11 79 14 27: 100
Scnscr 4 67 2 33 6 100: 50
’l’okcn 4 44 5 56 9 80: 100
Saycr 4 29 10 71 14 40: 100
Reha\ cr 0 00 1 100 1 0:IOO
Total 17 33 34 67 51 50:100
.\ole: Actor = a doer; acnscr = a p v r w n li,cling, thinking 01- sccing; token = a pcrson having an
attribute or relation to another; saver = a vcrlialircr; Iwhavcr = a person cxhibiting physiological or
psychological Iwhavior.
Summary of findings and implications

Males dominate the positions of communicativc prominence ( 1 00: 50) in G‘rummar in Use.
At the same time, males arc actors, the strongest participant role, more than three times as
often as females and dominate four of thc five roles in thcmc position in clauses, with an
overall prcscncc more than t\vice that o f fcmalcs. Males arc primarily presented as actors
and sayers, suggesting males as thc docrs antl vcrlializcrs. Fcmalrs outnumlxr males as
scnsers, suggesting females as feeling, thinking, antl sccing indivitluals. Both arc fairly evenly
divided as tokens expressing having an attribute or relation to another. While thc comparable
l‘rcqucncy of females and males varies antl males occupy thc two strongest roles, all the roles
presented for lmth females and males arc activc cxpcricntially.
The grcatcr quantity of males in the position of communicative prominence antl in thc
participant roles in clauses in the chapter suggests that the males presented havc greater
social prominence antl thcrcforc more pocver than the femalcs.Thc greater number o f male
nouns and pronouns in clauscs in general rcinforccs these finclings o f dominancc.Thc findings
also suggest that fairly traditional, stereotypical roles arc prescntcd for each gcndcr (the
males as actors and sayers; the fcmalcs as scnscrs).
Grammar in Use is onc ofthe largest sclling textbooks to thc academic ESL markct, based
on the opinions o f ten marketing experts in pul)lishing and distributing ESL textbooks
( h i k i n , 1995).Thc tcxtbook may influence how our students view their ohvn social power
relative to that of others as thcy sort out a new gentlered identity in the acculturation
process. Language learners arc “constantly organizing and reorganizing a smsc of who they
arc and how they rclatc to the social world.‘l’hcy are, in othcr \vords, engaged in identity
construction antl ncgotiation” (Norton, 1997, p. 41 0). As part ofthe acculturation process,
ESL students’ new identities arc shaped in part by what thcy read in our classes. When the
texts they read reflect biased assumptions about gentler, thc texts may transmit these hiascs,
often reinforcing the lower prcstige antl p v c r ascrilxtl to fcmales.
To my knowledge, no research has been done on the effects of gender bias in ESL
textlmoks. Studies on gentler and language have suggested that gentler bias and sexual
stcrcotvping in written tcxts antl pictures and sexist behavior in classrooms have delrtcrious
effects for American femalcs. These effects include feelings of exclusion, devaluation,
alienation, and lowered self-expectations. (See, for example, McArthur antl Eisen, 1976;
Montemavor, 1975; MacKay, 1979; andTodd-Mancillas, 198 1 .) Macaulay and Brice (1 997)
report on several empirical studies in education suggesting that “thr stcrcotTping of
mathematics as a male domain negatively affects females students’ attitudes toward,
performance in, and perceived proficiency in the subject” antl that graduate students (females
most especially) who pcrccived gender-biased behavior in their classes wcrc negatively
affected; in some cases they hvithtlrew from the discipline or graduate program
(pp. 820 821).
’l’hc results of these studies suggest that our female ESL students, like American females,
may also construct less ponwful and prestigious identities than their male counterparts
from similar sources. The undervaluing o f women potentially adds to the female language
learner’s sense of alienation and worthlessness, making adjustments more problematic antl
perhaps slowcr than for her male counterpart.
Conclusion
In conclusion, I would like to offer some recommendations for countering the gender bias
that may I x present in ESL textbooks and elaborate on the reasons for classroom teachers
n focus o n gentler issues with students. Teachers might begin by citing
~
ccs of gentler bias in the ESL class’s textbook.

By discussing what ~ v as e tcachcrs perceive as gender hias, ~ v may
c find that students
have different pcrccptions antl vieLvs from our own. Discussion might lead to reflective
hvriting or to studcnts interviewing Americans or fricnds and family members on specific
topics raised about gendcrcd roles, behaviors, stercotypcs, or expectations. Students may
also creatr alternative tcxts as language learning activities. For example, students might take
a published tcxt containing generic masculine forms (c.g., he, mankind) and rewrite the text
using more inclusive languagc. A subsequent activity could have students applying this new
kno\vlctlge to their o writing. Wc can also counter the gentler bias by supplcmc~~ting the
material with more nly represented tcxt in instances where wc arc comfortable \vith
other aspects of thc textbook or cannot change the textbook for programmatic reasons.
Finally, we can write to publishers o r speak to their representatives at professional
conferences to makc them a\vare of our disco\eries ofgendcr bias in their materials antl our
distaste for these biases.
In bringing gcndcr bias in ESL textbooks to our students’ attention,CI \ immediatel)
raise gcndcrcd behavior antl roles as issues in their ow-n acculturation process. Rehavior and
role assumptions and cxpcctations arc changing, not only in the US mainstream culture but
in the students’ cultures as \rcll. Students may be a v w e of these forces o f changc in their
own cultures but may not be a\varc of them in thc US. As their teachers, \ve help our students
explore, sort out, and construct their new roles and idcntitics in the new culture by making
the unconscious conscious.
Knowledge of gender bias in educational tcxts and in other aspects of schooling, such
as pcrccivcd academic strengths and differential conduct antl expectations of teachers in
relation to female and male students, ma): help stutlcnts reflect on their prior school
experiences, consider their present behaviors with teachers and students, and make
kno\vlctlgeablc decisions about their future educational goals. In constructing ne\v identities,
282 J O A N L E S I I < I N
issues of gender also seem highly relevant to our students’ familial, social, and occupational
realities and expcctations.
Issues of gentler impact on our students’ lives in their gendcred roles as family members
and in their expectations of family life in the US. What will lie the household division of
labor? Who will care for aging parents? Who will contribute to family support? What are
the expectations for daughters and sons regarding work, education, family, religious o r
cultural customs?
Gender roles and behaviors also frame our students’ social lives. As young adults in a
new culture, they may now, as never before, consider choices in gmdered social roles and
behaviors. Dating and courting customs may undcrgo change in the new culture; our ESL
students are ripc for exploring options, their benefits, and drawbacks. W h o do I date? How
do I arrangc it? Do I tell my parents? Do 1 submit to their expectations?
As collcge students considering career options, our ESL students may also want to
explore gender issues in the US workplace. Topics such as child care options, sexual
harassment, perspectives on parental leave, work-related stereotyping, and career
opportunities can p r o d e information and reflection on students’ future participation as
gendcred lvorkers in the US.
O u r students knew the expcctctl gentlcrctl hehaviors and options in their own cultures,
but now in the US, they probably do not. Issucs of gentler have relevance for our students
and can provide valuable information and insights as they learn English and create new
identities.
Note
1 Eliminating clauses containing qucstions and/or negations may exclude somc data but
makes thc analyses of the participant roles that follow more straightforward.
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Index
abilities 16 Australian Languagc Levels (ALI.) guidelines

accountahilitj 2 5 3 - 4 42 4
action research 197 207; tlcscription antl authenticity 2 3 1 2
rationale 197 9; and 'real' rcscarch availahilit) of material.; 1 1 2 14
199 202; steps in pr(i
activities 185 6 ; organization o f content antl I k h n i a n , L.F. 149 50
189-90; selecting and tlcvcloping 188 9 ; Railcy, K . M . 201, 205
see ulso tasks 13angalol-c Project 4 8
activity ol)jcctives 182 3 Rarmatla, W . 176
adoption ol'innovation 1 19, 1 2 2 3 haw foi-m of vcrlx 5 1
Adult Migrant English Program (AMEP) basic intrrpcrsonal communication skills (BICS)
208-28; Certificates in Spoken and 100 I , 104
Writtcn English 21 5 25; communicati\c I3a/crnian, C. 80
approaches 2 I O - I 3; curriculum Iichavioural educational psychology 209
devclopmimt over 50 v c m 208; grmx-hawd Brnnv, K.1). 123, 242
approaches 21 3 1 5; structui-al approachc%s Ucrctta, A . 1 19
208-1 0 Rhatia, V . K . 72
affective goals 182 Iilingiial education 9% 107
affects 10-1 1 Ih-ccn, M . P . 2, 257-8
age 103 5 Krctt, P. 7 3 4
Allwright, I). 201, 205 Rricr, C. 276, 281
Altman, H.H. 128 Rrintllcy, G . 38, 178- 9
analysis: antl classification 57 9; as thc prccursoi Hrown, H . D . 112
oftask\ 6 0 2 Rrumfit, C. 1 2 1
aquaculture outreach project 137 4 8 Rrunci 99 107
art 103, 105, 106 burcaucrati\ation 7 4
Asian Institute o1'Tcchnology, Thailand 1 38,
7; Ace o l o aquaculturc outreach project CALL (conipiitcr~a.;sistcdlanguage learning) 4 ,
cnt 190- 1; C L T i n Korca 160 I ; CSWE 240 9
2 2 I 2; 'I'OC 265 CALL co-ordinator (CC) 241, 246, 247
Aston, G . 58 -9 CAI .I_ .l'cachcr Education Course (CALLTEC)
astrophysics papers 7 1 24 1
attitude markers 76 Canale, M. 149 50
attitutlcs 161; students' 162; tcachcr\' 162, 264, Candlin, C . N . 58, 257-8
269 70 Cartcr, K. 64-9 p o w m
attrihutcs of innovations 1 2 3 casc-stud) rcseai-ch 5, 265-73
attrihutive hedges 76 Cclcc-Murcia, M. 1 12, 2 12
Austin, S. 105 Certificates in Spoken antl Written English
Australia: AMEP see Adult Migrant English (CSWI:) 21 5-25
Program change: liindamcntal 120- 1 ; innovation and 242
INDEX 285
checklists 259-60 critical literacy 94, 21 5

Chin, K. 123, 242 critical thinking objectives 182-3
Cliomsk!,, N. 5 5 , 2 1 0 c ~ i h - a lc.ontinuity 169 77; pi-inciple 169 70
Clark, R. 174 culture 186
Clarkr, I). 147 Cummin\, J . 100 I , 104
classification 57-9 curriculum: rvaluation for p i i r p e s o f
classroom genres 74 5 , 78 9 curriculum ( l e i clopmcnt 2 54; managing thc
classroom obser\ation 258, 267-9, 272 learning process 3 3--8; purI>o\c o l I0 1 1 ; w e
clozc, self-crcatctl 1 3 2 ~3 also s! Ilabus
cognitii c academic language proticicnc! ( c . 4I t') ciirriculum~planniri~ grid 44
100 1, 104 curriculum project managcmcnt 171 3
cognitive goal\ 182 cyclical-organisetl courscs 1 90
cohcrcnt c~rclatrtlsti-atcgics 60
cohc\ion, lexical 57 tleconstructing text 224
Coleman, H. 127 tlcticit pcrspccti\c 109
collaboratii-c gi-oup \\ ork 26 1 de-lcxicalisctl item\ 5 I
collocations 5 1 description 66 7
common-core teaching 80 1 tlei eloping countries 1 3 5
tlc\iational perspecti\ c 109
diffcrcntiation 1 5 16
communicatii e compctcncc 5 5--6,149 tliffusion olinno\ation 3, 1 1 8 26; paradigm
comniunicatii-c language teaching (CLT) 2 , shifting and 108 1 1
9-26;achie1ing23 5 ; .4MEPZl0-13; diffusion of scholarship 1 1 1
delining 14%50; tlilriculties due to 1 5 3 , direction 15, 2 2
160 1 ; in I:l-L c'ontcxts 150 1 ; inadequatc disciplinar! \ariation 3, 71 8 3
account of EIL teaching 160; managing the tlisciplinc-spccifc coinponcmts 80- 1
learning process 30-2, 33; materials discourse: AMEP 2 11-1 2 ; tcchnologicetl
protluction 2 34 5 ; and syllahus tlcsign discourse 170 3, 175,176
184-5; tcachcrs' tlifliculties in introducing in discourw compctencc 55 7
South Korea 149-67; teachers' (liscour\c s! Ilabus 5 5 6 3
niisconcrptions ahout 1 55 6 drills 92
Dutllc! -E\ ans, I..74
dynamic pcrspcctii c 109
5 5 7; syllahus tlc\ign 18 5- 6; target tast-Wcst Center, Hoiiolul~i1 1 1

compctcncc 1 1-1 2 cclcctic s! Ilahusc.; 56
compiitcr~assistctllanguage learning (CALL) 4 , educational gron th, local I6 3
240 9 educational syllabus 46-7
computcri/ctl Iarigiiagc corpoi-a 2 3 , 6 4 70 ctlucationd system 1 5 3, 158 9
consti-aintc and rcso~~rccs I92 4 ctlucationi \aluc.s/attitud(~s161
content: conceptualizing 18 3 7; lexis 46 54; Etl\vartls, K. 170
organimtion of 189 90; and process 2 ; role EFI teaching: CLI"5 inadcquatc. account 01' 160
in CLT I C ) 22 Ellis, K . 267 9
content-l>ascclcourscs 1 86 cmcrgcnt language pi-ogram fi-ainc\\ ork 1 37 4 8
contcnt q~ccilyiriglists 49 54 emphatics 76
context 24; formal antl infornial I6--17 cinpirical~rationalinno\ation strategies 1 2 1 4
context~huiltling2 2 3 empirical response 2 3 1 2
continuity: content antl 2 1 ; cultural 169 77 cmpoizcrnicnt 173 5
contrilxitions, learner's 1 2 14, 15 cpistcmic grammatical subjects 77-9
convci-gcncc htratcgies 6 0 1 cquililxium paradigm 1 1 1-1 2
Cooper, K . 1 , 1 18 evaluation 5 , 173; action rcscarch 202 4,
core compctcncics 42- 4 205-7; aquaculturr outwach Ixojcct 146;
corpora 2-3, 64 7 0 CLT 22 3; course tlevclopmcnt pro<
countc%rparts174-5 190-2; materials 2 56 8; purposes for 5 ,
course tlevclopincnt proc 2 5 3-62; teachers antl tcaching 2 58 62
178-96 cxaminations: General
(.ourscwork 1 14-1 5 papers 87 9; grammar-hasctl 158
coverage objcctivch 182- 3 exclusion\ 4 7 9
286 I N D E X
expantling 145-6 I long Kong 263-74

Expanding Circlr 1 10 I I , 1 12 1 3 ‘hourglass’ articles 7 3
expectations, learner 13-14 humanistic education 29
experiential content domain 29-30 humanistic/ps!.chological oricntation 38-9, 4 1
experiential, student-gcneratcd material5 2 37- 8 Hutchinson, T. 141
‘cxperts’, expatriate 174-5 hvhrid models 124
expressive functions 1 1 2 Hqland, K . 75-6, 8 0
Hvincs, D. 21 1
facts, computer corpora as 65
first order innovation 243 illuminativr evaluation 255
Flew, A. 175 implementation: factors affecting 264-5
focus 20 impro\emcnt, innovation and 121
formal learning context 1 6 ~17 incluaions 47 9
formative evaluation 23, 191, 254 indcpcndent construction 224
function \\ ortls 5 1 indigenization 109--10
functions 54, 2 1 1 ; syllabus design 184-5 individualization 1 27 36
fundamental change 120-1 informal lcarning 16--17
funding, insufficient 159 information rcport 93-4
initial contributions, learner’s 12-1 4
Gapmaster 243, 244 Inner Circlc 1 10, 1 12-1 3
gender bias 5, 275-83 innovation strategirs 123 4
General Secondary Education rxamination institutionalisd utterancrs 5 1
papcrs 8 7 9 instrumcntal functions 1 1 2
Gcncsee, F. 103 integrative functions 1 12
genre: AMEP and genre-based approaches interacting needs 141, 142
2 13-1 5 , 220-1, 225 6; disciplinary interactive tliscoursc 58- 9 , 62
variation 72 - 5; gcnrc-based approach to interactive learning model 2 12 1 3
materials production 2 36-7; LINC and genre intrrdependent participants 17-19
theory 93-6 interlanguagr continuum information 1 12
genre-related strategies 60 International Ccrtificate Confercnce (ICC) 62
qeocmtrism I 14 I 5 intrrpcrsonal function 75
gcography 105, 106 interpretational response 23 1-2
Gcrman Model 1 05 involvement objectives 182-3
goals: long-term 230 I ; setting 39 4 5 , 181-3 Ivanic, R . 174
Gorlach, M. 1 1 3
govcrnmcnt(s) 88, 89, 92, 97 Jacob, G . 169
Gouer, R . 182- 3 Jacobson, W . H . 141-2
grading teachers 258 9 Jamcs, G . 259
grammar 32, 162, 184; LINC and 90 2 Johnson, M. 5 3
grammar-based examinations 158 joint construction 2 15, 224
Grammar in Use (Murphy) 278~-80
grammatical subject 77-80 Kachru, B B 108, 112, 113
group projects I 3 4 Kennedj, C 119
group work, collaborative 261 Kenn) , R 144, 2 3 1
grouping 3 9 , 4 1 , 130, I 3 4 ke!\vord\ 89 90, 92-3
knowledge about language 3, 87-98
Hallitlay,M.A.K. 7 5 , 9 4 , 9 7 , 2 1 1 , 2 1 3 , 214, Korea, South 149- 67, educational system 158-9
277 Kouraogo, P 261
Hamnctt, M. 109 10 Krashcn, S 120
Havelock, K.G. 1 2 3 4
Hayes, I>. 175-6 Lakoff, G . 53
hedges 76 language: knowledge about 3, 8 7 98; and the
Henrichsen, L.E. 123, 124 syllabus 4 8 9; as tcxt 2 13-14; views of
Hewings, A. 78 9 language and languagr teaching 88-9
high-structure teaching 32- 3, 34-5 language acquisition 269; agc and 103-5
highway engineering 7 4 language awareness 96
Holliday, A. 1 50 language competence 149 50
Holmes, R. 74 language corpora 2 - ~ 3 64-70
,
I N D E X 287
language fcatures 22 I 256 8; pro1)lenis in using CALL 245 6;

Language in thc National Curriculum (LINC) selccting and tlc\cloping 188-9
project 3, 87-98; ban 89- 90; lessons from rnatcrials protluction/drvclopment 229- 39; lack
96--7 of rxpcrtise and time for 156; sample
language proficicncy orientation 38-9, 4 1 matcrials 233-8; theory 230 2
language use needs 141, 143 mathematics 103
largc classes 158; intlivithalization and 127 36 matrix-organixd course5 190
Larking, L. 102 McCarthy, M. 52
last stressed elcnicnts 277-8, 279 media I 5-1 6
learner-ccntredness 4, 170 I ; AMEP 210-1 3; metacogniti ve nccds 14 1 , 144
managing the learning process 27-9, 29- 30, mctacommunication 14-1 5
38 -9, 40; materials production 232 metadiscourse 75-6
lcarncrs 248-9; actively involving in n c d h metaphorical patterning 5 3 4
analysis 137 4 8 ; and CI T 11-14, 15, methodology: CLT 14- 17; CSWE 222 4
18 19; contributions 1 2 14, 1 5; and Mickan, P. 202 3
introducing CLT 153, 156-7, 162; mccting microteaching 260 1
nee& of different lcarncrs 224; antl paradigm missed opportunities 243- 5
Yhifting 1 1 I 12; participation in c\aluating modal auxiliaries 5 I
matcrials 257-8; roles 18-1 9, 28 modal verbs 90-2
learning: language 229-32; language-based modelling text 224
theory of‘214; lcarning-teaching context models of innovation 1 2 3 4
16-~17;scaffnldcd 214-15; styles antl CAL motivation 157
2 4 3 4 ; tension of syllabus v language and moves 72-3
learning 48-9; ways of and T O C 265 Munby, J . 58
learning-ccntredness 29-30 Murphy, R.: Grurnmur in IJsc 278 80
learning nectls 180 1
learning process, management of 2 , 27 4 5 name tags 130, 134
national curriculum: Australia 2 15 16; England
learning process goals 3 6 7 antl Wales 89
learning stratcgics 41, 186-7 natural language learning 1 20, 2 10- 1 1
learning tasks see tasks needs, long-tcrm 230-1
lcnding (class) library 1 3 1 , 1 34 needs analysis 38-9; actively involving learners
Lewis, C . 203 4 1 3 7 4 8 ; course development proccssey
Lewis, M. 68 framework 178 8 1
lexical approach 2, 46--54, 68 needs-hascd communicative approaches 2 10 1 3
lexical syllabus 56 negotiated spllahus 147
Lincoln, Y . 110 Nicholls, A. 120
linguicism I I S normati! e-re-cducati\ c innovation strategics
linguists 89, 97 1234
linkage models 124 notional/functional syllabuses 12 1
linking related texts 224 notional-structural approach 2 3 3
LIPT action rrscarch project 2 0 2 4 notions 2 1 1
listening skills 185 notions and topics 184-5
local educational growth 163 ‘Nuc1eus:English tor Scicncc and Technology’
Logan, G.E. 127- 8 233
Long, M. 1 1 2 Nunan, L). 28, 29, 3 2 , 4 0 , 4 8 , 198, 200 I
long-term goals 230-1
L o n , G. 257, 258 objective knowledge 200-1
low-structurc teaching 32--3, 34-5 objccticc needs 178-9
objectives, setting 3 9 4 5 , 181 3
Macaulay, M. 276, 281 opportunities, missed 243 5
MacDonald, S.P. 77 8 , 79 oral skills 154, 162, 1 8 5
Mackcn, M. 221 organization of content and activities I 8 9 9 0
Malaysian Communicational Syllabus 5 5 Outer Circle 110-1 I , I I 2 1 3
managcment of the learning process 2, 27-45 ownership 173-5
Masch, N. 105
mastery objectives I82 3 paradigm shifting 108-1 I ; students’ difficulty
materials: availability of 1 1 2-14; evaluation of I l l 12
288 I N D E X
participant roles 277 8, 279 80 rclational markel-s 76

participatory processes I86 -7 relevance 129
I'atton, M. 108 9 rcliahility 201
I'aulston, R. 1 1 1 repair \tratcgics 61
peer c\ aluation 260L 1, 272 rcpcrtoire: language teaching repertoire 224-5;
pccr teaching 260 target rcpertoirr 1 1 12, 19 ~ 2 0
pcrccii ctl attributes of innovations 109 reporting hack 145, 2 37 8
Pcrkins, D . N . 243 research: action research antl 199-202
person markers 76 rcscarch articles (KAs) 72-4, 75-6, 77-8, 79
phenomenal grammatical subjcrts 77 9 lopmcmt and tliffubion ( K D and U )
physical education 103, 105, 106 n10dcI 12 3 -4
planning grids 44 rchcr-tcacher collaboration 272
planning strategies 60 ancc: to change I 19, 122, 264; to class
plant hiology 74 participation 157
politeness stratqics 60 resources antl constraints 192 4
politics 105; and kno\vlctlgc about languagc 3 , I-csponsil)ilit~129
87- 98 rhcmc 277- 8, 278-9
Porrcca, K.L.. 276 Richards, J . 1 I 2
po\vcr-cocrcivc innovation strategies 12 3 4 Kogcrs, E.M. 109, 119, 123
Prabhu, N.S.4 8 , 120 romanticism 88
prescription 66 7 routes 1 5 . 22
prc-s>I l a h u s 59, 60
pincipal, rolc of 271 Samraj, R.I'.K. 77 8 , 79
prohlcm-sol\ ing motlel 1 2 3 4 Saphicr, J . 182 3
1)rohlcniatizing 192-4 scaffoltling 2 14 1 5
process 2 ; txaluation of curriculum proccs\ scholarship, diffusion of I 1 1
2 2 3; management o f t h r learning procc\s 2, scirncc 101, 103
27 4 5 second order inno\ ation 243
~ I - O C C S Scompctcncc 1 3 sclf-created clcm' 1 3 2 3
process project 171 3 self-dcvclopmcnt, teacher 255, 260 1
profcwional dc\clopmcnt 197 9, 259 60, sclf-c\ aluation 260- 1
272 3 sclt-learning programmcs (SI P) 1 3 1 4
professional genres 72 4, 75 6, 77 8, 79 scniantically densc itcyns 5 1
proficicncy: languag' prohcicncv orientation wntcncc hcatls 5 1 2
38-9, 41; lo\v antl introducing CI T 156 7; sequencing 20 I , 4 7 9 , 189
movement 185 Singleton, I ) . 103-4
Iiroficicnc> goals 182 situational language tcaching 208-1 0
proficiency tests I80 skills 54, 162, 185
~~i-otilc cards 1 10-~1, 1 34 skills-hasctl rtlucation 170--1
progressivt. [mlagogics 2 10 1 1 Sladc, D. 221
project managcmcnt 171 3 Smith, I I . 174
pronunciation 184 social Iwhaviour 90
proportional syllahiis 56 social interaction motlel 1 2 3 4
I)S)chological/humanistic orientation 38 9 , 41 wcial prominence 275 83; a n a l y h g gender bias
purposc: of curriculum 10- 1 1 ; piirp(~scsfor as in tcxts 277 -80
c\ aluation 25 3-62; specific purpow social sciences 7 4
orientation 38 9 , 41 wcially validated response 2 3 1 -2
wciocultural context 121
cfuc\tionnaii-c\ 1 30, 180 socio-linguistic competence 56, 154 5
speaking skills 154, 162, I85
radio ne\\ \ 1 32, 1 34 specific pui-posc orientation 38 -9, 41
Ramii-e/, J [I 99, 101 stakchol(lcr-ccntrctl approach 171- 3, 175
iapport 129, 129 3 1 stance75 6
reading learning need\ 141, 143, \kill\ 162, 185 stanclard English 90
record\, corpora a\ 65 6 Stcnhousc, I.. 254
r( education 128 Stephens, J.M. 24
reflccti\r practlcc 198, 272 3 steps 72 3
rcgi\tci 220-1 Stern, H.H. 182
INDEX 289
Story1x)artl 243 4 , 245 Teaching knglish t o Speakers of Other

strategic competence 56, 154-5 Languages (TESOL) pi-cparatory programs
strategic pre-syllal)us 59, 6 0 108-17
stratcgics: tliscoursc 6 0 2; innovation 123- 4; technical texts 2 1 6 - ~ 7
learning 41, 186 7 technocentrism 241 2
structural approaches 183; AMEP 208-10 tcchnologisctl tliscourse.; 170-3, 175, I76
structural indigenization 1 10 Tcrrell, T. I20
student-gcneratcd, experiential materials 2 17 8 tcxt: language as 2 1 3- 14; mctadiacoursc 75 6 ;
stutlcnts see learncrs t c x t l)ascd syllabus design 222 5
subdivision 2 1 theme 277 8 , 278-9
subjective kno\vledgc 200 1 thcoretic intligcnization 109 10
suhjectivc needs 178-9 ‘thing’ technologies 242
bilingual cducation and 99 107; S E C also
disciplinar! \ ariation, tliscipline~.;pccific
components
suhstantive intligcmization 1 I0 training, tcachcr 155, 162- 3 , 264
.*-~-.‘”~.~‘-,...~-~,,
. - . e ,
;
-_
1
aluation 2 3 , 191, 253-4 transactional language 62
support, teacher 159, 272, 273 transfer goals 182
supra-scntcntial linking 52 ‘I.riin, J.L.M. 102
Swain, M . 149-50
Swales, J. 72-3 understanding of‘ innovations, teachci-s’ 264 5,
syllabus: AMI:P/CSWE 220, 222--5; design antl 2 70
disciplinary variation 80 1 ; discourw units of nark 2 2 1
syllabus 55 61; Icxis in 2 , 46-54; tension of University of Illinois a t Urbana- Champaign
syllabus v language antl learning 4 8 -9 (UIUC) 1 1 1
syllahus grids 184 7 University of Mala)a Spoken knglish Project
synonyms 52 234 5
‘synopsiaing’ words 52 Ur, P.2 2 2
‘us’-‘thein’configuration 175
‘Talkhasc’ approach 237 8 Usher, K. 170
targct competence 11-1 2
targct need.; 180-1 validity 2 0 1
Target-Oriented Curriculum (I‘OC) 26 3 7 4 ~ value-adding activities 247, 248 9
target repertoire 1 1 12, 19-20 valuc-synonyms 52
targets 265 values 16 1
Taronc, k, 73 Van t k , J.A. 102
task-bascd learning 2, 27-45, 59 Van l i c r , L. I 9 7
tasks 61 2, 265; aquaculturr outreach project variation 2-3; disciplinai-v 3 , 71 8 3
145; individualizing learning tasks 1 31 4 ; Vaxrus, F. 109
syllabus design 1 8 5 6 vc>rhs, hasc form o f 5 1
Taylor, G . 173 Vcrapoor, A . 264
teacher education 155, 162 3, 264 w c a h l a r y 49, 184
teacher support 159, 272, 271 voluntary lcarning 130
tcachers 248 ~ 9 attitudes
; 162, 264, 269 70; Vygotsky, L. 21 5
grading 258 9; prrccived tliffjcultic\ in
introducing CLT in Korea 149-67; Wallace, M . 198
professional dc\elopmcnt 197 9, 2 59-60, Waters, A . 141
272 1; purposes For evaluation 258 6 2 ; Witltlo\vson, 11. 48, 58, 142 4 , 146
re.;earchcr-teacher collaboration 272; 1 - 0 1 ~in Wilkins, 0 . 49, 21 1
CLT 17 18; sclf-development 25 5, 260 1 ; Willis, 1). 48, 49-50, 68
understanding of innovations 264 5, 270; \+ords49-54
view of needs assessment 180; views on work-related needs 1 3 9 4 0
language and languagc teaching 88, 96-7 World Englishes paradigm 108 17
tcaching: dominant discourses 170-1 ; high- ‘would’ 5 1
structure antl low-structurc 32-3, 34 5; writing: learning ncctls 141, 143; skills 185
language teaching rcpertoire 224-5; text
based cycle 2 2 2 4 Yaltlen, J . 57

Innovation in English Language Teaching

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Innovation in English Language Teaching

‘This v o l u m c brings to the fore divcrsc, f u n d a m c n t a l issucs a b o u t thc processes a n d

Teaching English Language Worldwide

Innovation i n English Language Teaching provides both theoretical perspectives and

David R. Hall is Head of the Department of Linguistics at Macquarie University, Sydney,

David R. Hall and Ann Hewings

London and New York

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada

Routledge is an imprint o f the Taylor & Francis Group

Typeset in Perpetua and Bell Gothic by I<eystroke, Jacaranda Lodge, Wolverhampton

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

ISBN 0-415-24123-5 (hbk)

Michael P. Breen and Christopher N. Candlin

David Nunan and Clarice Lamb

Michael McCarthy and Ronald Carter

Ann Hewings and M a r t i n Hewings

W i l l i a m Savage a n d Graerne Stover

1.1 The curriculum 10

2.1 Learner roles in a learner-centered curriculum 28

2.4 Changing views on the nature of language and learning 31

Helen Boyce (course manager)

H E N M A C Q U A R I E U N I V E R S l T Y I N S Y D N E Y , Australia, and The

curriculum design by examining the theoretical underpinnings of a number of reccnt

account of the ‘dynamism inherent in linguistic contexts’. The understanding of the

Part 4 focuscs on evaluating curriculum change, placing this as an integral component

Michael P. Breen and

1 Communication The classroom

Teacher / learnei' roles

Figtire I . 1 Thc c.urriculum

1 What is the purpose of the curriculum?

interpersonal and textual knowledge allows us to participate in a crcative mcaning-making

2 What underlies the ultimate demands on the learner?

substituting’ and ‘style-shifting’ (Ret-nstcin, 1971, I Iymes, 1971, LAov, 1970).

3 What are the learner’s initial contributions?

facilitate even guarantee the involvement of the learner’s communicative knowledge

4 How are the curriculum purposes to be achieved?

4. I Methodology as a communicative process

4.2 Methodology as a diflerentiated process

(a) Learners’ contributions

The emphasis within a communicative curriculum on the communicative process of

4.3 Methodology exploits the communicative potential of the

process. In adopting a methodology characterised by learning and teaching as a com-

of these has sufficiently hctcrogcncous characteristics to makc classroom -based negotiation

moments in learning-teaching activities. In guiding and monitoring the teacher needs to be

5.2 The learner

he typified by the acceptancc of ongoing success andfuilure as necessary prcrcquisites to\vards

6 What is the role of content within a communicative

Content within communicative mcthotlology is likely to focus upon knowledge both ~

rather than accumulating separalde blocks of ‘static’ knowledge or a sequence of ordcrctl

Traditionally content has been subdividetl into scrialisrd categories o f structurrs or

7 How is the curriculum process to be evaluated?

Thc communicativc curriculum insists that c,valuation is a highly significant part of

examination or stantlartlisetl test he can exploit the interpretation of these external or

8 Achieving communicative language teaching

on the learning and teaching o f communication, highlights a communicative process

and suhjcct t o ongoing developments in theory, research, antl practical classroom

variability must also be seen as i n h r r r n t in human communication and in the ways it is

hological reality, its proccdurcs and activities is potentially a communicative cnviron-

David Nunan and Clarice Lamb

You are g l e n the experiences 4ou need to understand thc norld.

Setting the context and defining terms

A s e s s learning outcomes ~ ~ ~ _ ~ ~ ___