Lecture 2

Solar Photovoltaic Modeling and

Operation
 Photovoltaic modules

• Photovoltaic (PV) modules are made by connecting

several PV cells.
•PV arrays are made by connecting several PV modules.
 Electrical Properties of a Solar Cell

Photons

n-type External circuit

Junction –
(e.g., battery,
V
lights)
p-type +
I

Diode current
5
BV
3 AA((eeBV --11))

Diode Amps
– External circuit
A(e BV - 1) V (e.g., battery,
Isc
+ lights)
I
0
0.0 Diode Volts 0.6
BV
I = I sc - A(e - 1)
 Photons’ Journey into Electricity
• Atom’s energy model:
Conduction Conduction
band band
Electron Energy

Electron Energy
Eg (partially filled) Eg (Empty at T =
Forbidden band 0K)
Filled band Forbidden band
Gap Gap
Filled band Filled band
semiconductors
Metals
• Photons energy is quantized. The energy of a photon with a wavelength of λ (or a
frequency of υ) is
hc
E = h =


•where h is Planck’s constant

P-N Junctions and Commercial Photovoltaic Devices

5
6
 Photons’ Journey into Electricity
• Ideal radiation of energy is described by the black body radiation.
• Black bodies radiate energy at different wavelengths as indicated by
3.74  10 8
E =
 14400

 e
5 T
- 1
 

E = A T 4
 Photons’ Journey into Electricity

• The incident power has 3 components depending on the final photons path.

Diffuse radiation

Direct-beam radiation

Reflected radiation
 Photons’ Journey into Electricity

• Direct-beam radiation:
• The extraterrestrial solar insolation is given by
  360n  
I 0 = (SC) 1 + 0.034cos   (W/m 2 )
  365 
This is the solar insolation before entering the Earth’s atmosphere. In the
equation, SC is the solar constant an equals 1.37 kW/m2 and n is the day number
(January 1 is day #1). The day number takes into consideration that the Earth-Sun
distance changes through the year.

• The solar insolation is attenuated as it passes through the atmosphere. The

portion that reaches the earth’s surface.
I B = Ae - km
where A and k are constants and m is the air mass ratio that takes into account that
the sun’s beam path length through the atmosphere changes with the sun relative
position with respect to the earth surface at the location where the analysis is
made.
Altitude and Azimuth
Photons’ Journey into Electricity

• Sun’s location terms

 Photons’ Journey into Electricity

• Sun’s position in the sky throughout the day and during an entire year.

Solar Zenith versus Azimuth at Austin

22nd Day of Jun, Jly, Aug, Sep, Oct, Nov, Dec
(Sun hrs/day. Jun=13.9,Jly=13.6,Aug=12.8,Sep=12.0,Oct=11.0,Nov=10.3,Dec=10.0)

Azimuth (South = 180)

0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
0
NOON
10 Jun 1 PM
Zenith (Degrees from Vertical)

20

30 3 PM

40 Sep
50

60

70 Dec
80

90
Sun Chart for 40 degrees N Latitude
 Site Selection – Tilt Angle
Max performance is
achieved when panels
are perpendicular to the
sun’s rays

Year round tilt = latitude

Winter + 15 lat.
Summer – 15 lat.
 Tracking Considerations
• Can increase system performance by:
• 15% in winter months
• 30% in summer months

• Adds additional costs to the array

 Passive Vs. Active

Active:

• Linear actuator motors controlled by

sensors follow the sun throughout
the day
 Passive Vs. Active

Passive:

• Have no motors, controls, or gears

• Use the changing weight of a

gaseous refrigerant within a sealed
frame member to track the sun
 Photons’ Journey into Electricity

• The direct-beam insolation IBC depends on the PV module orientation with respect
to the sun. If the PV module is fixed, this insolation will change in a deterministic way
throughout the day and the year:
if the incident angle θ is given by
cos  = cos  cos( S -  C )sin  + sin  cos 

• Then, the direct-beam

insolation is
I BC = I B cos
 Photons’ Journey into Electricity

• Assuming that the diffuse radiation does not depends on the sun’s position in a clear
sky, then it is modeled using the following equation:\
 1 + cos  
I DC = CI B  
 2 
where C is the sky diffuse factor which can be obtained from ASHRAE. This is another
deterministic value.

• The reflected radiation can be calculated by considering the reflectance ρ of the

surface in front of the PV module:
 1 - cos  
I RC =  I B (sin  + C )  
 2 
This is another deterministic value.

• The total radiation rate on a PV module is, therefore, given by

I C = I BC + I DC + I RC
 Photons’ Journey into Electricity
• After a long journey, photons are converted into electricity in semiconductors:

• Whenever a photon with enough energy hits an atom, an electron may jump the
energy gap into the conduction band. Once in the conduction band, the electron is free
to move in an electric circuit.
• If the circuit is open or if the load requires less current (charge per time) than the one
being produced, the free electrons will eventually decay again.
• Since it is assumed a continuous slow varying incident solar energy, electrons are
freed at a constant rate. Hence, a constant voltage is produced.
 PV Cells Technologies
• Characterization criterion:
• Thickness:
• Conventional – thick cells (200 - 500 μm)
• Thin film (1 – 10 μm). Tend to be less costly than conventional (thick) cells
but they also tend to be less reliable and efficient.

• Crystalline configuration:
• Single crystal
• Multicrystalline: cell formed by 1mm to 10cm single crystal areas.
• Polycrystalline: cell formed by 1μm to 1mm single crystal areas.
• Microcrystalline: cell formed by areas of less than 1μm across.
• Amorphous: No single crystal areas.

• p and n region materials:

• Same material: homojunction (Si)
• Different material: heterojunction (CdS and CuInSe2)
22
 PV Cells Technologies
Uni-Solar solar shingle

BP SX170B Polycrystalline BP SX170B Monocrystalline

Uni-Solar Laminate PVL-136

Amorphous

Mitsubishi PV-TD 190MF5

Multicrystalline
Various types of
PV Modules
 Series Connections

• Loads/sources wired in series

• VOLTAGES ARE ADDITIVE

• CURRENT IS EQUAL
 Parallel Connections

• Loads/sources wired in parallel:

• VOLTAGE REMAINS CONSTANT

• CURRENTS ARE ADDITIVE
 PV Applications

• More conventional applications (not all necessarily for microgrids)

 I-V Curve

I I = I sc - A(e BV - 1) , where A, B, and especially Isc vary with solar insolation

Increasing
Isc solar insolation

Maximum
Im
power point
Pmax = Vm I m
27
0
V
0 Vm Voc
• 36 Cells in Series Make a 12V-Class Panel (Voc 
19V)

9 cells x 4 cells is a
common configuration
•Two 12V-Class Panels in Series Make a 24V-Class
Array (Voc  38V)
 I-V Curve

Isc
(
I (V ) = 5.34 - 0.00524 e 0.1777V - 1 )
PV Station 13, Bright Sun, Dec. 6, 2002

6
Pmax at approx.
Isc 5
30V
4
Pmax  0.7 • Voc •
I - amps

3 Isc
2

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
V(panel) - volts
Voc
 The PVMaximum Power Point
Station 13, Bright Sun, Dec. 6, 2002

140.0
Pmax
120.0

100.0
P(panel) - watts

80.0

60.0

40.0

20.0
P=0 at short circuit 30
P=0 at open circuit
0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

V(panel) - volts

On a good solar day in Austin, you get about

1kWh per square meter of solar panels
(corresponds to about 150W rated)
 The p-n junction diode

n-type  qVkTd 
substrate Bias I d = I 0  e - 1
p-type voltage  
substrate Id
• Vd is the diode voltage
• I0 is the reverse saturation current Ideal diode
caused by thermally generated carriers Real
• At 25 C: diode
 0.026 
Vd
I
Id = I0  e - 1 0
 
 PV Cells physics

The current source

shifts the reversed
ISC diode curve
upwards V
OC

Same curve

The bias
p-n
source ISC junction is
(voltage Reverse v-i
equivalent
source) is curve for
to a diode
replaced by a the diode
current
 PV Cell steady state characteristic

• From Kirchoff’s current law:

 qVkTd 
I PV = I SC - I d = I SC - I 0  e - 1
 
• The open circuit voltage is
Maximum power
kT  I SC 
VOC = V ( I PV = 0) = ln  + 1 point
q  I0  Power
P = I PV VPV

Pmax  0.7 • Voc • Isc

Current
Summery of losses in Solar
cell

3
 PV Cell steady state characteristic

• Dependence on temperature and insolation:

 PV Cell steady state characteristic

• More on the dependence on temperature and insolation:

 More complex steady-state models

• For a more realistic representation we can consider the following (equivalent to a

diode’s model):
• 1) Effect current leakage
1
slope =
Rp
V
I PV = ( I SC - Id ) -
ISC R Rp
p

• 2) Effect of internal ohmic resistance

 qV d

+ + I PV = I SC - I 0  e - 1
kT
R V = IRS
 
ISC VdS V where
Vd = V+IRS
- -
This is a transcendental
equation
 PV more complex steady-state model
• Both effects can be combined to obtain the more realistic (and complex) steady state
model:

+ +
R
S
ISC R Vd V
p
- -
 qVkTd  Vd
I PV = I SC - I 0  e - 1 -
  Rp
where
Vd = V+IRS
This is a
transcendental
equation
 Dynamic effects

Capacitive
effect

• As with any diode, there is an associated capacitance. However, this capacitance is

relatively small, so the effects on the output can often be neglected. Therefore, PV
modules can follow a rapidly changing load very well.

•One undesirable effect of the capacitance is that it makes PV cells more susceptible to
indirect atmospheric discharges.
 Modules combination
• PV cells are combined to form modules (panels). Modules may be combined to form
arrays.

More modules (or

cells) in series

More modules (or

• When modules are connected in parallel, cells) in parallel
the array voltage is that of the module with
the lowest voltage.
•When several modules are connected in
series to achieve a higher array voltage, the
array’s current equals that of the module
delivering the lowest current.
 Shading

• A shadowed module degrades

the performance of the entire array
-
(Rp+Rs)(n-1)Imodule
+
+
One module with 50%
shadow
One module with 100%
(n-1)Vmodule shadow

Two modules with 100%

shadow

-
 Bypass diode
• Bypass diodes can mitigate the effects of shadows but they don’t solve the issue
completely.
• A better solution will be presented when discussing power electronics interfaces.

No
shade
Shaded Shaded with
without bypass
bypass diode diode