Other branches of anatomy

Superficial or surface anatomy is important as the study of anatomical

landmarks that can be readily seen from the exterior contours of the
body.[3] It enables physicians or veterinary surgeons to gauge the
position and anatomy of the associated deeper structures. Superficial
is a directional term that indicates that structures are located
relatively close to the surface of the body.[52]
Comparative anatomy relates to the comparison of anatomical structures
(both gross and microscopic) in different animals.[3]
Artistic anatomy relates to anatomic studies for artistic reasons.
History
Main article: History of anatomy
Ancient

Image of early rendition of anatomy findings

In 1600 BCE, the Edwin Smith Papyrus, an Ancient Egyptian medical
text, described the heart, its vessels, liver, spleen, kidneys,
hypothalamus, uterus and bladder, and showed the blood vessels
diverging from the heart. The Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BCE) features a
"treatise on the heart", with vessels carrying all the body's fluids
to or from every member of the body.[53]

Ancient Greek anatomy and physiology underwent great changes and

advances throughout the early medieval world. Over time, this medical
practice expanded by a continually developing understanding of the
functions of organs and structures in the body. Phenomenal anatomical
observations of the human body were made, which have contributed
towards the understanding of the brain, eye, liver, reproductive
organs and the nervous system.

The Hellenistic Egyptian city of Alexandria was the stepping-stone for

Greek anatomy and physiology. Alexandria not only housed the biggest
library for medical records and books of the liberal arts in the world
during the time of the Greeks, but was also home to many medical
practitioners and philosophers. Great patronage of the arts and
sciences from the Ptolemy rulers helped raise Alexandria up, further
rivalling the cultural and scientific achievements of other Greek
states.[54]
An anatomy thangka, part of Desi Sangye Gyatso's The Blue Beryl, 17th
century
Some of the most striking advances in early anatomy and physiology
took place in Hellenistic Alexandria.[54] Two of the most famous
anatomists and physiologists of the third century were Herophilus and
Erasistratus. These two physicians helped pioneer human dissection for
medical research, using the cadavers of condemned criminals, which was
considered taboo until the Renaissance—Herophilus was recognized as
the first person to perform systematic dissections.[55] Herophilus
became known for his anatomical works making impressing contributions
to many branches of anatomy and many other aspects of medicine.[56]
Some of the works included classifying the system of the pulse, the
discovery that human arteries had thicker walls than veins, and that
the atria were parts of the heart. Herophilus's knowledge of the human
body has provided vital input towards understanding the brain, eye,
liver, reproductive organs and nervous system, and characterizing the
course of disease.[57] Erasistratus accurately described the structure
of the brain, including the cavities and membranes, and made a
distinction between its cerebrum and cerebellum[58] During his study
in Alexandria, Erasistratus was particularly concerned with studies of
the circulatory and nervous systems. He was able to distinguish the
sensory and the motor nerves in the human body and believed that air
entered the lungs and heart, which was then carried throughout the
body. His distinction between the arteries and veins—the arteries
carrying the air through the body, while the veins carried the blood
from the heart was a great anatomical discovery. Erasistratus was also
responsible for naming and describing the function of the epiglottis
and the valves of the heart, including the tricuspid.[59] During the
third century, Greek physicians were able to differentiate nerves from
blood vessels and tendons[60] and to realize that the nerves convey
neural impulses.[54] It was Herophilus who made the point that damage
to motor nerves induced paralysis.[61] Herophilus named the meninges
and ventricles in the brain, appreciated the division between
cerebellum and cerebrum and recognized that the brain was the "seat of
intellect" and not a "cooling chamber" as propounded by Aristotle[62]
Herophilus is also credited with describing the optic, oculomotor,
motor division of the trigeminal, facial, vestibulocochlear and
hypoglossal nerves.[63]

Surgical instruments were invented for the first time in history by

Abulcasis in the 11th century
Anatomy of the eye for the first time in history by Hunayn ibn Ishaq
in the 9th century

13th century anatomical illustration

Great feats were made during the third century BCE in both the
digestive and reproductive systems. Herophilus was able to discover
and describe not only the salivary glands, but the small intestine and
liver.[63] He showed that the uterus is a hollow organ and described
the ovaries and uterine tubes. He recognized that spermatozoa were
produced by the testes and was the first to identify the prostate
gland.[63]

The anatomy of the muscles and skeleton is described in the

Hippocratic Corpus, an Ancient Greek medical work written by unknown
authors.[64] Aristotle described vertebrate anatomy based on animal
dissection. Praxagoras identified the difference between arteries and
veins. Also in the 4th century BCE, Herophilos and Erasistratus
produced more accurate anatomical descriptions based on vivisection of
criminals in Alexandria during the Ptolemaic dynasty.[65][66]

In the 2nd century, Galen of Pergamum, an anatomist, clinician, writer

and philosopher,[67] wrote the final and highly influential anatomy
treatise of ancient times.[68] He compiled existing knowledge and
studied anatomy through dissection of animals.[67] He was one of the
first experimental physiologists through his vivisection experiments
on animals.[69] Galen's drawings, based mostly on dog anatomy, became
effectively the only anatomical textbook for the next thousand years.
[70] His work was known to Renaissance doctors only through Islamic
Golden Age medicine until it was translated from the Greek some time
in the 15th century.[70]