Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Integration Practice
Integration Practice
Integration Practice
I. Integration by substitition.
Example. We have
Z u = x2 Z
x dx 1 du
=
x4 + 1 dx = 2x dx
2 u2+1
1
= tan−1 u + C
2
1
= tan−1 x2 + C
2
Practice Problems:
Z √
1. x3 4 + x4 dx
Z
dx
2.
x ln x
Z
(x + 5) dx
3. √
x+4
4. In each integral below, find the integer n that allows for an integration by sub-
stitution. Then perform the integration.
Z √
(a) xn 1 − x4 dx
xn
Z
(b) √ dx (there are two very natural choices for n).
1 − x 4
xn
Z
(c) dx (there are two very natural choices for n).
1 + x10
x6
Z
(d) n
dx
Z 1 + x
2
(e) xn e−x dx
Z
5
(f) xn e2x dx
√
Z
(g) x5 1 − xn dx
x6
Z
(h) √ n
dx
Z 1 − x
dx
(i) n
Z x ln x
dx
(j) n 7
Z x (ln x)
(k) xn sin(x6 ) dx
sinn x cos x
Z
(l) √ 4
dx
3 + sin x
sin3 x cos x
Z
(m) √ dx
3 + sinn x
Example. We have
Z u = x, dv = sin x dx Z
x sin x dx = −x cos x + cos x dx
du = dx, v = − cos x dx
= −x cos x + sin x
du
Notice that in the above, setting u = x yields = 1 (i.e., du = dx), which is simpler
dx
and dv = sin x dx which gives v = − cos x, which is no more complicated.
Practice Problems:
Z
1. xe−x/10 dx
Z
2. x2 e−x/10 dx.
Z
3. x2 ln x dx
Z
4. xn ln x dx (n is an integer)
Z
5. x2 sin x dx
Z
2
6. x3 e−x dx
Z √
7. x3 x2 + 1 dx
Z Z
8. Assume that f (x) dx = g(x), that g(x) dx = h(x) and compute
Z
(a) x3 f (x2 ) dx
Z
(b) x2n−1 f (xn ) dx
Z
9. sin−1 x dx
Z
2
10. sin−1 x dx
Z
11. tan−1 x dx
Z
12. sec3 θ dθ (Hint: write sec3 θ = sec θ(1 + tan2 θ) and integrate sec θ tan2 θ by
parts.)
Basic Idea:
a2 − x2 For expressions like a2 − x2 substitute x = a sin θ. Then x2 − x2 = a2 cos2 θ
and dx = a cos θ dθ.
Example 1. We have
Z √ x = 2 sin θ Z
4− x2 dx = 4 cos2 θ dθ
dx = 2 cos θ dθ
Z
= 2 (1 + cos 2θ) dθ
= 2θ + sin2θ+ C
x
= 2 sin−1 + 2 sin θ cos θ + C
2
x 1 √
= 2 sin−1 + x 4 − x2 + C
2 2
Z Z
sec θ(sec θ + tan θ) dθ
sec θ dθ =
sec θ + tan θ
u = sec θ + tan θ Z
du
=
du = sec θ(sec θ + tan θ) dθ
u
= ln |u| + C
= ln | sec θ + tan θ| + C
Z
In an entirely similar fashion, one shows that csc θ dθ = − ln | csc θ + cot θ| + C.
Z √ x = a sin θ
a2 − x2 dx cos2 θ dθ
Z
= a
x dx = a cos θ dθ
sin θ
(1 − sin2 θ) dθ
Z
= a
sin θ
Z
= a (csc θ − sin θ) dθ
= −a ln | csc θ + cot θ| + a cos θ + C
√ a + √ a2 − x 2
= a2 − x2 − a ln +C
x
Z √
a2 − x2 dx a is constant.
Practice Problems:
Z √
9 − x2
1. dx
x2
Z
dx
2. √
x 1 − x2
Z
dx
3. √
x a2 + x 2
Z √
4. 4 + x2 dx (Hint: see problem 12 page 3.)
Z
dx
5. (It might be easier to do this by partial fractions.)
a2 − x2
Z √
x 2 − a2
6. dx
x
Z
dx
7.
(a2 + x2 )2
Z
8. sin−1 x dx (Let x = sin θ)
Z
2
9. sin−1 x dx
Z
10. tan−1 x dx
p(x)
Basic Idea: This is used to integrate rational functions. Namely, if R(x) = is
q(x)
a rational function, with p(x) and q(x) polynomials, then we can factor q(x) into a
product of linear and irreducible quadratic factors, possibly with multiplicities. For
each power (x − α)n of a linear factor, the expansion of R(x) will contain terms of the
form
a1 a2 an
+ 2
+ ··· + ,
x − α (x − α) (x − α)n
where a1 , a2 , . . . , an are all real constants. For each power (x2 + αx + β)m of an
irreducible quadratic factor, then the expansion of R(x) will contain terms of the
form
a1 x + b 1 a2 x + b 2 am x + b m
+ 2 + ··· + 2 ,
x2 + αx + β (x + αx + β) 2 (x + αx + β)m
where a1 , a2 , . . . , am and b1 , b2 , . . . , bm are real constants.
The determination of the constants above is a purely algebraic process. For exam-
x+1
ple, in decomposing the rational function R(x) = we set this up as
(x − 2)(x2 + 4)
follows:
x+1 a bx + c
2
= + 2 .
(x − 2)(x + 4) x−2 x +4
At this juncture, there are a number of approaches. One is to multiply through, clear-
ing all denominators and equating coefficients in the resulting polynomial equation:
a + b = 0,
−2b + c = 1,
4a − 2c = 1,
3x − 2
Z Z Z
x+1 3 dx 1
2
dx = − dx
(x − 2)(x + 4) 8 x−2 8 x2 + 4
3 3 1 x
= ln |x − 2| − ln(x2 + 4) + tan−1 + C.
8 16 8 2
Practice Problems:
5x − 3
Z
1. dx
x2 − 2x − 3
Z
6x + 7
2. dx
(x + 2)2
2x3 − 4x2 − x − 3
Z
3. dx
x2 − x2 − 3
Z
dx
4.
x(x2 + 1)
Z
1 1
5. 2
− 2 dx
x + 1 x − 2x + 5
x3 + 2x2 + 2
Z
6. dx
(x2 + 1)2
Basic Idea: This technique is particularly useful in computing definite integrals hav-
1 1
ing integrands of the form or . If we let t = tan 12 θ, then using
a + b cos θ a + b sin θ
the double-angle identity for
the tangent:
2 tan A
tan 2A = , 2t
1 − tan2 A
θ
we obtain immediately that
1 − t2
2t
tan θ = .
1 − t2
From the picture depicted to the right, we obtain, therefore, that
2t 1 − t2
sin θ = and that cos θ = .
1 + t2 1 + t2
Z π/2
4
E XAMPLE . We use the above to compute dθ.
0 3 + 5 sin θ
dt 1 + t2
With the substitution t = tan 12 θ, we have = 12 sec2 12 θ = . From this it follows
dθ 2
2 dt
that dθ = ; we now proceed as follows:
1 + t2
Z π/2 t = tan 12 θ Z 1
4 4 2
dθ = × dt
0 3 + 5 sin θ 0 3 + 10t/(1 + t ) 1 + t2
2
Z 1
8
= dt
0 3t2
+ 10t + 3
Z 1
3 1
= − dt
0 3t + 1 t + 3
1
= ln(3t + 1) − ln(t + 3)
0
= ln 3
Practice Problems:1
Z π/2
3
1. dθ
0 1 + sin θ
Z 2π/3
3
2. dθ
0 5 + 4 cos θ
Z π/2
3
3. dθ
−π/2 4 + 5 cos θ
Z π/2
5
4. dθ
0 3 sin θ + 4 cos θ
Basic Idea: The IB syllabus for Calculus (Core Topic 7) contains a component relating
to a special class of differential equations, namely those having the variables separa-
dy
ble. Specifically, this relates to those differential equations = f (x, y), where the
dx
function f (x, y) can be written in the form f (x, y) = g(x)h(y), for suitable functions g
and h. Such a differential equation can, in principle, yield an implicit solution for y
via separating the variables and integrating:
Z Z
dy dy dy
= g(x)h(y) ⇒ = g(x) dx ⇒ = g(x) dx.
dx h(y) h(y)
Assuming that the integrations can be performed (which is a significant assumption!)
we arrive at an equation of the type H(y) = G(x), which defines y implicitly as a
function of x.
1 These (and the example above) have been lifted from Sadler and Thorning, pp 500–501:
dy
E XAMPLE 1. Consider the differential equation = −3x2 y, subject to the initial
dx
condition y(0) = 2. We proceed as above:
Z Z
dy dy dy
= −3x2 y ⇒ = −3x2 dx ⇒ =− 3x2 dx ⇒ ln |y| = −x3 + C.
dx y y
The above can be rendered more explicit by exponentiating both sides and setting
3
K = eC (an arbitrary constant); the result is y = Ke−x . Finally, use the initial condi-
3
tion y(0) = 2: 2 = Ke0 = K, and so the resulting solution is y = 2e−x .
dy
= ay(1 − y), where a > 0 is a constant, y(0) = .2.
dx
1 1 1
Next, using the partial fraction decomposition = + , we obtain
y(1 − y) y 1−y
Z Z
1 1
+ dy = a dx
y 1−y
Keax 1
y = = ,
1 + Ke ax 1 + Be−ax
where B = K −1 , again, an arbitrary constant.
We conclude with a few words of terminology. What we have considered above are
usually called ordinary differential equations, typically abbreviated ODE. These are
to be distinguished from partial differential equations, which, as you can guess, in-
volve partial derivatives and are typically much harder.2 Next, the arbitrary constant
which arises in the integration of an ODE is typically solved via the specification of
2 One of the “Millennium Problems” is to help the mathematical community arrive at a better understanding of the Navier-Stokes
dy
= f (x, y), y(0) = y0 ,
dx
we call the above an initial value problem, or IVP.
dy
1. = xy, y(0) = 1.
dx
dy
2. y = x2 , y(0) = 1.
dx
dy
3. = −2x(y + 3), y(0) = 1.
dx
dy x2 y + y
4. = 2 , y(0) = 2.
dx x −1