General Biology 1

The Cell
● Biology
- The systematic study of life

● Branches of Biology
- Botany - plants
- Zoology - animals
- Genetics - inheritance
- Cytology - cells
- Histology - tissues

● Living things/organism
- Plants
- Animals
- Fungi
- Bacteria
- Archaeans
- Protists

● Life’s Levels of Organization

- Atom - Fundamental building block of matter
- Molecule - An association of two or more atoms
- Organelle - A small structure in a cell that is surrounded by a membrane and has
a specific function.
- Cell - Smallest unit of life
- Organs System - an organization of varying numbers and kinds of organs so
arranged that together they can perform complex functions for the body.
- Organism - An Individual; consists of one or more cells [ Complex Organism ]
- Population - Group of Individuals of a species in a given area
- Community - All population of all species in a given area
- Ecosystem - A community interacting with its environment
- Biosphere - All regions of Earth that hold life

● Cells
- Smallest living unit
- The fundamental unit of all life
- Has the characteristic of life
- Do not function independently of one another
- Most are microscopic

● Measuring Cells
 - Different types of microscopes use light or electrons to reveal different details of
cells

● The Discovery of Cells

● No one knew cells existed until microscopes were invented

● 1600s: Anton van Leeuwenhoek's microscope
- Infusoria [ protists in modern zoological classification ], 1674
- Bacteria, 1676
- Thee vacuole of the cell
- The spermatozoa, 1677
- The banded pattern of muscular fibers, 1682

● Robert Hooke [ mid - 1600s ] improved the microscope and coined the term
“cella” or “cell”
- Observed silver of cork
- Saw “row of empty boxes”
- Coined the term cell
- Unicellular - one - celled
- Multicellular - many-celled

● Cell Theory
- [ 1839 ] Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden “all living this are made of
cells” realized cells were alive and proposed the Cell Theory
- [ 50 years later ] Rudolf Virchow “all cells come from cells”

● Principles of Cell Theory

- First is that “ A living things are made of cells “
- Second is Cell is the smallest unit of organism / The Cell is structural and
functional unit of all living things
- Third is “ All cells arise from pre-existing cells “ [ discarded spontaneous
generation ]
- Fourth is Cells contains hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell
during cell division
- Fifth is that All cells are basically the same in chemical composition
- Sixth is All energy flow [ metabolism and biochemistry ] of life occurs within the
cells
- Seventh is “ All living things are composed of one or more cell and cell product

Cell Size
● Characteristics of All Cells
- A surrounding membrane
- Protoplasm - cell contents in thick fluid
- Organelles - structures for cell function
- Control Center in DNA

● Cell Types

● Prokaryotic
- First cell type on Earth
- Cell types of Bacteria and Archaea
- No membrane-bound nucleus
- Nucleoid = region of DNA concentration
- Organelles not bound by membrane
- Bacteria and Archaeans
- Prokaryoctes - Cells
- Prokaryotes - Organisms

- Flagellum
- Basal Body
- Capsule
- Cell wall
- Plasma membrane
- DNA
- Ribosomes
 ● Eukaryotic
- Nucleus bound by membrane
- Include fungi, protists, plant, and animal cells
- Posses many organelles
- Plants, animal, protists, and fungi

● Common Parts of a Cell

- Cells can be vastly different, but still similar in some ways
- All cells have the following:

● A cell membrane
● Cytoplasm
● Ribosomes
● DNA [ genetic information ]
● Organelles

● Cellular Machinery
● Structure that carries out specialized metabolic function inside a cell
● Two general kinds
- Bacteria - like organelles
- Derived from membrane

● Cell membrane
- Cell membranes allow certain material to move across them [ selective
permeability ]

● Cell membranes :

❖ Regulate movements of material

❖ Separate the inside of the cell from the outside
 ❖ Separate various organelles within the cell
❖ Provide a large surface area
❖ Are a site for receptors
❖ Separate cells from one another

Cytoplasm, Organelles, and Cellular Components

● The cytoplasm of a cell has two parts :

- The cytomembrane system [ ER, Golgi apparatus, vacuoles, vesicles ]
- The aqueous part consists of the fluid cytosol

● Ribosomes
- Are the sites of protein synthesis
- Clusters are called polyribosomes

● Cytoplasm
- Semifluid substance enclosed by a cell’s plasma membrane
- Composition of cytoplasm, differs from fluid outside the cell

● Nucleus
- Organelle with two membranes that holds a eukaryotic cell’s DNA
- Contains the cell’s DNA
- Pores, receptors, and transport proteins in the nuclear envelope control the
movement of molecules into and out of the nucleus
- Control center of cell
- Double membrane
- Contains
➔ Chromosomes
➔ Nucleolus

❖ Nuclear envelope
- A double membrane that constitutes the outer boundary of the
nucleus.
- Separates nucleus from the rest of the cell
- Double membrane
- Has pores

❖ Nucleolus
➔ Most cells have two or more
➔ Directs synthesis of RNA
➔ Forms ribosomes
● Nucleoid
- Region of cytoplasm where DNA is concentrated in a prokaryotic cell

● Bacteria - Like Organelles

● Mitochondria, chloroplasts, etc.

● Release and stores energy
● Types:
- Mitochondria [ release energy ]
- Chloroplasts [ store energy ]
● Endosymbiotic Theory [ Ancient ]
- Evolution of modern cells from cells and symbiotic bacteria
- Cells living in cells

● Plasma Membrane
- Contains cell contents
- Double layer of phospholipids and proteins
- Surrounds the cell and controls which substances move in and out

● Lipid Bilayer
- Structural foundation of cell membranes
- Mainly phospholipids
● Phospholipids

● Polar
- Hydrophilic head
- Hydrophobic tail
● Interacts with water

● Movement Across the Plasma Membrane

- A few molecules move freely

- Water, Carbon dioxide, Ammonia, Oxygen

 - Carrier proteins transport some molecules

- Proteins embedded in lipid bilayer

- Fluid mosaic model- describes fluid nature of lipid bilayer with proteins

● Membrane Proteins
1. Channels or transporters
- Move molecules in one direction
2. Receptors
- Recognize certain chemicals

3. Glycoproteins
- Identify cell type
4. Enzymes
- Catalyze production of substance

Cells Parts and Their Functions

● Cell Wall
- Found in plants, fungi, and many protists
- Semi-rigid but the permeable structure that surrounds the plasma membrane of
some cells
- Surrounds plasma membrane

★ Cell Wall Differences

- Plants - mostly cellulose
- Fungi - contain chitin

● Ribosome
❖ Organelle of protein synthesis
❖ Composed of :
- Ribosomal RNA
- Ribosomal proteins

● The Endomembrane System

- The endomembrane system includes the rough and smooth endoplasmic
reticulum, vesicles, and Golgi bodies.
- Series of interacting organelles between the nucleus and plasma membrane
- Makes and modifies lipids and proteins
- Recycles molecules, and particles such as worn-out cell parts, and inactive
toxins

➢ Endoplasmic Reticulum [ ER ]
- A continuous system of sacs and tubes that is an
extension of the nuclear envelope
- Help move substances
- Network of interconnected membranes

★ Two types of ER

- Rough ER - with ribosomes [ for protein production ]

➔ Ribosomes attached to surface
- Manufacture proteins
- Not all ribosomes are attached to rough ER
➔ May modify proteins from ribosomes
- Smooth ER - no ribosomes
➔ Not attached to ribosomes
➔ Has enzymes that help build molecules\
- Carbohydrates
- Lipids

➢ Vesicles
 - Small, membrane-enclosed, saclike organelle
- Stores, transports, or degrades its contents

➢ Peroxisome
- Enzyme-filled vesicle that breaks down amino acids, fatty
acids, and toxic substances
➢ Lysosomes
- Vesicles with enzymes for intracellular digestion

➢ Golgi Body
- Organelle that modifies polypeptides and lipids
- Sorts and packages the finished products into transport
vesicles
➢ Vacuole
- A fluid-filled organelle that isolates or disposes of wastes,
debris, or toxic materials

● Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

- Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA - They resemble bacteria and
may have evolved by endosymbiosis

● Mitochondrion
- Double-membraned organelle that produces ATP
- Have their own DNA
- Bound by double membrane
➔ Break down fuel molecule [ cellular respiration ]
- Glucose
- Fatty acids
➔ Release energy
- ATP

● Chloroplasts
- Organelle of photosynthesis
- Derived from photosynthetic bacteria
- Solar energy capturing organelle

● The Cytoskeleton
- Dynamic network of protein filaments that support, organize, and move
eukaryotic cells and their internal structures
- Filaments and fibers

Made of three fiber types

 ★ Microtubules - involved in movement
➔ Hollow filaments of tubulin subunits
★ Microfilaments - reinforcing cytoskeletal elements
➔ Fibers of actin subunits
★ Intermediate filaments - elements that lock cells and tissues together
Three Functions

★ Mechanical support
★ Anchor organelles
★ Help move substance

● Surface extensions allow certain actions

● Flagellum
➔ Long, slender cellular structure used for mobility
➔ Whip- like extensions
➔ Found on sperm cells
- Basal Bodies like centrioles

● Pilus
➔ A protein filament used to help cells cling to or move across surfaces or for
plasmid transfer

● Cilia
➔ Short, hairlike structures that project from the plasma membrane of some
eukaryotic cells
➔ Used to move substances outside human cells
➔ Coordinated beating stirs fluid, propels motile cells
➔ Moved by organized arrays of microtubules
➔ Example : Clears particles from airways

● Cytoplasm
➔ Viscous fluid containing organelles
➔ Components of cytoplasm
- Interconnected filaments and fibers [ like skeletons ]
- Fluid = cytosol
- Organelles [ not nucleus ]
- Storage substances

● Centrioles
- Pairs of microtubular structures
- Play a role in cell division
● Membranous Organelles
➔ Functional components within cytoplasm
➔ Bound by membrane

● DNA
➔ Hereditary material
➔ Chromatin
➔ Chromosomes
- DNA
- Proteins
- Form for cell division

● Golgi Apparatus
➔ Involved in synthesis of plant cell wall
➔ Packaging and shipping station of cell

★ Golgi Apparatus Function

1. Molecules come in vesicles

2. Vesicles fuse with Golgi Membrane
3. Molecules may be modified by Golgi
4. Molecules pinched-off in separate vesicles
5. Vesicles leaves Golgi apparatus
6. Vesicles may combine with plasma membrane to secrete contents

● Lysosomes
➔ Contain digestive enzymes
➔ Functions
- They digest excess or worn out organelles, food particles, and engulfed
viruses or bacteria

● Vacuoles
➔ Membrane bound storage sacs
➔ More common in plants than animals
➔ Contents :
- Water
- Food
- Wastes

● Photosynthesis
➔ Takes place in the chloroplast
➔ Makes cellular food - glucose
Review of Eukaryotic Cell
 Molecule Movement and Cells

➔ Passive Transport
- No energy required
- Movement of a molecule of a solute from areas of high to low concentration
without the use of energy
- Move due to gradient
➢ Differences in concentration, pressure, charge
- Move to equalize gradient
➢ High moves toward low

★ Types of Passive Transport

1. Diffusion
➔ Molecules move to equalize concentration
 2. Osmosis
➔ Special form of diffusion
➔ Fluid flows from lower to higher solute
concentration
➔ Often involves movement of water
- Into cell and out of cell
3. Facilitated diffusion / Facilitated transport
➔ Differentially permeable membrane
➔ Channels [ are specific ] help molecules or ions
enter or leave the cell
➔ Channels usually are transport proteins
[ aquaporins facilitate the movement of water ]
➔ No energy is used

★ Process of Facilitated
Transport/diffusion

➔ Protein binds with molecule

➔ Shape of protein changes
➔ Molecule moves across membrane

➔ Active Transport
- Molecular movement
- Requires energy [ against gradient ]
- Example is sodium-potassium pump
➔ Endocytosis [ phagocytosis and pinocytosis ]
- Plasma membrane surrounds material
- Edges of membrane meet
- Membranes fuse to form vesicle

★ Forms of Endocytosis

➔ Phagocytosis - cell eating

➔ Pinocytosis - cell drinking
➔ Exocytosis
- Reverse of endocytosis
- Cell discharges material
- Vesicle moves to cell surface
- Membrane of vesicle fuses
- Materials are expelled
Parts Characteristics or Functions

Plasma Membrane A semi-permeable layer that separates the

insides of a cell from the external
environment and is the location of chemical
exchanges for many life functions.

Cytoplasm The fluid internal environment of the cell

where all internal components of the cell
(called “organelles”) are suspended.

Nucleus Stores the genetic material of the cell. In

prokaryotes, this genetic material is located in
a region called the nucleoid.

Nuclear Membrane Encloses the nucleus and protects the

genetic material

Nucleoplasm The environment within the nucleus.

Nucleolus An area in the nucleoplasm where the genetic

material is highly concentrated.

Nuclear Pore Gateway of materials into or out of the

nucleus

Mitochondrion Produces energy for the organism, having the

moniker “powerhouse of the cell" due to this
function.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Sites for lipid and protein synthesis.

Rough ER Contains ribosomes and is the site for protein

synthesis. In addition, it also functions as the
cell’s membrane-making machine.

Smooth ER Contains cell types used in metabolic

processes, especially lipid synthesis, as well
as the storage of calcium ions.

Golgi Apparatus Site for modifying, sorting, and storing of

compounds synthesized by the ER.

Lysosome Contains digestive enzymes that help break

down food or damaged organelles

Peroxisome Helps break down fatty acids to be used as

cellular fuel.

Ribosome Sites of protein synthesis. Can be found

attached to the rough ER or free in the
 cytosol.

Vacuoles Storage of food and other chemicals.

Centriole Organelle for cell division

Basis of Comparison Animal cell Plant cell

Sizes Various sizes similar sizes

Shape round and irregular rectangular cube

Nutrition heterotrophs autotrophs

Storage of energy glycogen starch

growth when increases in numbers, grows if water is absorbed by

increases in sizes the vacuole

locomotion most animals can exhibit do not exhibit movement

movement

Cillia present absent

Vacuole small large

Plastids absent present

Types of plant cell

Parenchyma - synthesis of storage of food

Colenchyma - provide mainly the support
Schelerenchyma - provide mainly the support but thicker secondary cell wall
Cork cells - protection of prevent water loss
Tracheids - transport of water
- Xylem - Up
- Phloem - Down

Types of Animal Cell

Nephron cells - smaller units in kidneys aid in the filtering of blood and extraction of wastes
Nerve cells - send electrical signal among the brain, spinal cord of other organs of the body
- Sensory - sense
 - Motor - movement
- Interneuron - think
Red blood cells - carries oxygen and nutrients throughout the body
Fat cells - stored fat for energy
- Produce hormones that influence metabolism
Epithelial cells - protect underlying structure such as lining in your mouth
Skin cells - protection of the body against damage
- Keratinocytes
- Melanocytes
- Langherans
- Merkel
Sex cells - sperm and egg cell
Stem cells - have the ability to develop specialized cells for organs/tissues
Endothelial cells - creation of new blood vessels

CELL DIVISION

Why? To produce new cells

3 types of cell division

1. Prokaryotic - Bacteria cell

- Binary Fission - to produce identical cells
- DNA replication, chromosome segregation, cytokinesis

2. Eukaryotic
- Mitosis - 4 daughter cell
- Meiosis - 2 daughter cell (not genetically identical)

Mitosis

- Also known as karyokinesis

- Divided into a series of phases: PMAT
Interphase

● It is the longest phase of a cell cycle.

● It is the phase where genetic materials increases and prepares for the division.

Prohrase

● It is the phase where the nucleus is starting to break down.

● It is when the chromatin condenses and produces a chromosome composed of two sister
chromatids linked at the centromere.
● The nucleolus and nuclear membrane vanish, and the centrioles shift to opposite poles,
generating a spindle.
Metaphase

● It is when the spindles bind to chromosomes, forcing them to align at the equatorial
plate.
● The kinetochore is the structure that retains the chromosomes and connects them to the
spindle.
Anaphase
● It is when the two chromatids split and migrate in two sets to the opposing poles.
Telophase & Cytokinesis
● It is when the two chromatids reached the two poles and form 2 daughter cells.
Meiosis

PROPHASE 1

Chromosomes are formed during prophase I during the condensing of the DNA and protein
complex known as chromatin. The sister chromatids—pairs of replicated chromosomes—remain
connected at a central region termed the centromere.

METAPHASE 1

The homologous chromosomal pairs align on either side of the equatorial plate during
metaphase I.

ANAPHASE 1

During anaphase I, the homologous pairs, which each have two chromatids, are pulled apart
and toward the cell's poles by contracting spindle fibers.

TELOPHASE 1

The chromosomes are encased in nuclei during telophase I. The original cell's cytoplasm is now
split into two daughter cells as the cell goes through a process known as cytokinesis.
PROPHASE 2

The chromosomes condense and a fresh pair of spindle fibers develop during prophase II. The
chromosomes start to move in the direction of the cell's equator

METAPHASE 2

The centromeres of the paired chromatids align along the equatorial plate in both cells during
metaphase II.

ANAPHASE 2

The chromosomes split at the centromeres during anaphase II. The divided chromosomes are
drawn toward the cell's poles by the spindle fibers.

TELOPHASE 2

The chromosomes are lastly encased in nuclear membranes during telophase II. The two cells'
cytoplasm is then divided by a process called cytokinesis.

What happened if something goes wrong during cell division?

 1. Down Syndrome is caused by and extra copy of chromosome 21 (trisomy 21). They
have decreased muscle tone, stockier build, asymmetrical skull, slanting eyes, mental
retardation.
2. Cri-du-chat is caused by the deletion of part of the short arm of chromosome 5. it is a
French word and the affected babies make high pitched cries that sound like a cat. They
have wide set eyes, a small head and jaw, mentally retarded, and very short.
3. Turner Syndromis a condition that occurs when a female is lacking sex chromosome.
4. Patau’s Syndrome is a serious rare genetic disorder caused by having an
additional copy of chromosome 13 in some or all of the body's cells.
5. Klinefelter syndrome (sometimes called Klinefelter's, KS or XXY) is where boys
and men are born with an extra X chromosome.
6. Edwards Syndrome - A baby with Edwards' syndrome has 3 copies of
chromosome number 18 instead of 2. This affects the way the baby grows and
develops. Having 3 copies of chromosome 18 usually happens by chance,
because of a change in the sperm or egg before a baby is conceived.

● Tissues
- A tissue must not be confused with a colony of cells
A tissue has three defining characteristics:
➢ It is composed of a group of interacting cells
➢ The cells that constitute this group are similar in structure
➢ The cells in the group perform a common function.

● In colonial algae, Volvox

- Cells with numerous cytoplasts are specialized for photosynthesis
- Those that are flagellated are responsible for moving colony from one
place to another
- The most actively dividing ones serve for reproduction
- When a cell is separated from its colony, it can survive on its own and
even form a new colony in a long run, On the other hand, a cell belonging
to a tissue usually dies when removed from its group

Animal Tissue

1. Epithelial tissues.
Epithelial tissues or epithelia are sheets of closely packed cells that cover the surface of the
body and line the internal organs and cavities. The closely-knit cells form a protective barrier but
may still allow fluid exchange on the other side. The side of the epithelium which faces the
outside environment or the inside of a tube or passageway is referred to as the apical surface.

Epithelial tissues are named according to the number of cell layers or the shape of the cells on
their apical surface: simple epithelium has a single layer of cells while multiple layers make up a
stratified epithelium. Based on shape, the cell can be squamous (flat and looks like fried eggs),
cuboidal (like dice), or columnar (brick-like). The combination of the number of layers and cell
shapes tells us of their function.

For example, a simple squamous epithelium is thin and leaky, so it allows the exchange of
materials through diffusion. This type can be seen lining the capillaries and the air sacs of the
lungs. Cuboidal and columnar epithelial cells have larger cytoplasm, and often function for
secretion or absorption of materials. The many layers of a stratified squamous epithelium make
it well suited for areas subject to abrasion, that is why they compose our outer skin, and they
also regenerate rapidly as new cells form near the extracellular matrix and move towards the
apical surface while older cells are sloughed off.

2. Connective tissues.

Connective tissues are cells scattered throughout a matrix. The cells produce and secrete the
matrix which usually consists of a web of fibers embedded in a liquid, jelly, or solid. Six major
types of connective tissues form our body:

● Loose connective tissues are the most widespread in the body and are made up of a matrix
with a loose weave of fibers suspended in a watery fluid. Many of the fibers are made of
collagen while others are elastic, making the tissue resilient as well as it is strong. This tissue
binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place.

● Fibrous connective tissues have a matrix made up of densely packed collagen, and this
maximizes strength. This tissue forms our tendons, which attach to bone, and ligaments, which
connect bones at joints.

● Adipose tissue stores fat in large, closely packed adipose cells held in a very sparse matrix
of loose fibers and fluid. This tissue pads and insulates the body as well as stores energy in the
form of fat.

● Cartilage forms a strong but flexible skeletal material. Its matrix is made from collagen fibers
embedded in a rubbery material. Cartilages commonly surround the ends of bones, providing
shock-absorption; support the ears and nose; and lastly, provide cushioning disks between our
vertebrae.

● Bone is made up of collagen fibers embedded in a hard mineral substance made of calcium,
magnesium, and phosphate. This combination of materials makes our bones strong without
being brittle.
● Blood transports substances throughout the body and thus functions differently from other
connective tissues. Its matrix is called the plasma and suspended in it are the different types of
blood cells.

3. Muscle tissues.

Muscle tissues are the most abundant in nearly all animals. It’s made of long cells called
muscle fibers, each having contractile proteins. Muscle tissues can be classified as follows:

● Skeletal muscles are attached to bones by tendons and are responsible for voluntary
movements of the body. The cells are arranged in a way that they appear striped or striated.

● Cardiac muscles are the contractile tissues of the heart. It is striated like the skeletal muscle
but it is involuntary or cannot be consciously controlled. Cardiac muscles are branched,
interconnected at special junctions called intercalated disks that help relay signals to contract
from cell to cell during a heartbeat.

● Smooth muscles lack striations. They are found in the walls of the digestive tract, arteries,
and other internal organs. They are responsible for involuntary body activities such as the
movement of food in the digestive system.

4. Nervous tissues.

Nervous tissues sense stimuli and help transmit information. They are found in the brain,
spinal cord, and nerves throughout the body. The structural unit of the tissue is a nerve cell, or a
neuron, which is specialized for conducting electric nerve impulses. A neuron is composed of a
cell body, which contains the nucleus and other organelles; and extensions that may receive a
nerve impulse from other neurons, referred to as the dendrite, or those that transmit signals to
other neurons, referred to as axons, or effector cells such as muscle cells that respond to the
stimuli.
 Plant Tissues

● Three Types of Plant Tissue Systems.

- A tissue system is made of one or more tissues organized into a functional unit
within a plant. Each plant organ is made up of three tissue systems--dermal,
vascular, and ground--which are arranged differently in leaves, stems, and roots.

1. Dermal Tissue System.

- The dermal tissue system is the plant’s outer protective covering, like an animal’s skin.
In nonwoody plants, the dermal tissue is made of a single layer of tightly packed cells
called the epidermis. On leaves and most stems, the dermal cells secrete a waxy
coating called the cuticle which helps prevent water loss.

2. Vascular Tissue System.

- The vascular tissue system is made up of the xylem and phloem tissues which provide
support and long-distance transport between the root and shoot systems.

3. Ground Tissue System.

- Tissues that are neither dermal nor vascular make up the ground tissue system. The
ground tissue system makes up most of the bulk of a young plant, filling the spaces
between the epidermis and vascular tissue system. Ground tissue internal to the
vascular tissue is called the pith, while those external to the vascular tissue are called
the cortex. The ground tissue system has many functions such as photosynthesis,
storage, and support.
● Interphase
- Non dividing phase
- Longest stage of cell cycle
- The cell grows and copies its chromosomes in preparation for cell division

● G1 Phase
- First Gap Phase
- Cell increases in volume
- Cell preparing all the chemicals necessary for DNA synthesis
- Duplication of organelles

● S Phase
- Synthesis Phase
- There is an active synthesis of histones
❖ Histones - is a protein that provides structural support for chromosomes
- Genetic material of each chromosome is replicated
 Image Example

● G2 Phase
- Second Gap
- Start of mitotic spindle formation
- Chromatin fiber starts to fold to form a chromosome.

● M Phase
- Mitotic Phase
- Cell division proper
- Dividing Phase
- It is a multistep process for the the formation of two new identical daughter cell
- Can be divided into two types

● G0 Phase
- Cells in this phase are not actively
preparing to divide
- There has to be an external signal to
trigger the onset of first gap phase
 ● Mitosis
- Also known as karyokinesis
- Divided into a series of phases: PMAT [ prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and
telophase]

Images used in

Prophase

Metaphase

Anaphase Telophase
● Meiosis
- Types of cell division in which the chromosomes number of the two daughter cell
is reduced into half
- Composed of two successive cell division

➢ Meiosis I
- Reduction Division
- Homologous Chromosomes come in pair
- Composed of four stages
➢ Meiosis II
- Equational Division
- Sister chromatids of each chromosomes separate leading to
formation of four mature sex cells
- Composed of four stages

● Prophase Five Events

- Leptotene - Almost similar to the early stage of prophase in mitosis
- Zygotene - Synapis occurs forming TETRADS
- Pachytene - Crossing Over
- Diplotene - Disintegration of nuclear envelope
- Diakinesis - Formation of spindle fibers, Spindle fibers starts to be attached to
the tetrads.