MZUZU UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION SCIENCES

TO : PROFESSOR WINNER CHAWINGA

FROM : BERNADETTE MANDOLOMA

LEVEL : FOUR

SEMESTE : EIGHT

REG. No. : BLIS18/17

COURSE TITLE : DIGITAL CURATION

COURSE CODE : BLIS 4804

ASSIGNMENT NO. :1

TASK : DISCUSS ANY FIVE IMPEDMENTS TO DIGITAL CURATION.

FOR EACH PROVIDE A PRACTICAL SOLUTION TO MALAWIAN CONTEXT

DUE DATE : 08 FEBRUARY, 2022

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Table of Contents
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..2
Digital obsolescence………………………………………………………………………………4
Migration………………………………………………………………………………………......6
Financial constraints……………………………………………………………………………….7
Lack of training on digital curation…………………………………………….…………………10
Threats to Integrity, authenticity and privacy of digital data..…………………………………….12
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………….14
References...……………………………………………………………………………………15

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Introduction

It is evident that in today’s world, digital data/information is all around us. Data has been defined
by as “a representation of facts, concepts or instructions in a formalized manner suitable for
communication, interpretation, or processing by humans or by automatic means”. Heiss (2017),
illuminated two types of data namely quantitative and qualitative data. He continues to say
qualitative data is raw data i.e. pictures, texts, videos and audio recordings while quantitative data
is data that can be measured, counted or given a numerical value i.e. revenue in dollars, weight in
Kilograms, distance in kilometers and number of weeks in a year. The emergence of chaos with
the ever-growing demands of data and information within and across organizations has led to
growing need to curate this data born digitally or digitally reformed to allow future access. This
process is called data curation. Beagrie (2018), has defined data curation as “the creation,
management, and use of digital materials, for a wide range of activities for the purpose of adding
value to and maintain digital assets over time for current and future generations of users”. The core
purpose of digital curation is ensuring long term use of digital data. “long term” has been viewed
by Gladney (2006) as “long enough to be considered with the impacts of changing technologies,
including support for new media and data formats, or with a changing user community”. Digital
curation activities include the development of repositories for digital resources, the creation and/or
selection of digital assets; creation and management of metadata; file format identification and
management, and provision for dissemination and access to digital assets ( Beagrie, 2006). Digital
curation has proven to have quite a number of advantages as outlined by . the benefits of digital
curation entail Cost Savings. This involves creation of digital images and microfilm more
economically and efficiently than possible with in-house operations. Secondly, Longevity. this is
as to storage media is likely to have longer life span, preservation on such media can ensure long
lasting effect to digital asset. Thirdly, searchable Repositories. These enhance access to digitized
collections by creating searchable repositories. Fourthly, digital curation ensures protection of
resources. this entails preserving valuable resources in appropriate media can ensure protection
from heat, wet or other natural threats. Lastly, Loss prevention, as documents are preserved in
secure file system and user can access only certain image copy of the resources, digital preservation
can ensure protection from theft of resources. Like every other development out there, digital
curation has been facing quite a number of challenges in copping up with the transforming
technology involved in digital curation. Digital objects are fragile, our ability to access them, to

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render them into meaningful information is under constant threat from many directions. This paper
intends to outline five impediments to digital curation in Malawian context and their possible
solutions.
Digital Obsolescence

Digital obsolescence is one of the most faced challenges of digital curation. Information
technology is a rapidly advancing field, with new and improved technologies regularly being
developed. As new products are brought about in the market, existing products tend toc ease to
supported. The term obsolescence is derived from Latin and means to wear out to antiquate, to
lose value and lose prestige (Schallmo, 2012). Hence digital obsolescence refers to the risk of data
loss, which leads to the inability to access digital assets, due to the hardware or software required
for information retrieval being repeatedly replaced by newer devices and systems, resulting in
increasingly incompatible formats (Mason, 2018). Information now exists under software control
and use of hardware. However, the technological advances and in particular changes in software
and hardware pose serious threats to the continuing accessibility and use of this information. Such
concerns seem to imply that digital information, that can be accessed using one software
programme now, may fail to be accessed in the future because the programme may be outdated
and no new one available on the market. Examples of some of these software’s include MS
WORD, PDF, HTML, XML and JPEG (Keaokapa, 2008).Obsolete products become increasingly
difficult to obtain, and may cease to interoperate correctly with other technologies. Information
technologies are essentially obsolete every 18 months . Innovation in the computer hardware,
storage, and software industries continues at a rapid pace, usually yielding greater storage and
processing capacities at lower cost (Harvey, 2013). Devices, processes, and software for recording
and storing information are being replaced with new products and methods on a regular three- to
five-year cycle, driven primarily by market forces (Ogbebor, 2011). He continues to say “This
dynamic creates an unstable and unpredictable environment for the continuance of hardware and
software over a long period of time and represents a greater challenge than the deterioration of the
physical medium”. Schallmo (2018) has outlined two types of digital obsolescence namely;
absolute obsolescence and relative obsolescence. He continues to say absolute obsolescence caused
by usage, neglected maintenance and downtime while relative obsolescence occurs when products
or services are usable but replaced by newer and/or fancier products and services. Deljanin (2012)
further articulates these types into four categories and these include: Functional obsolescence, or

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the mechanical failure of a device that prevents information access, which can be the result of
damage through rough handling, gradual wear from extended usage, or intentional failure through
planned obsolescence; Postponement obsolescence, or intentionally upgrading some information
systems within an institution, but not all of them, that is often implemented as part of a "security
through obsolescence" strategy; Systemic obsolescence, or deliberate design changes made to
programs and applications so that newer updates are increasingly incompatible with older versions,
forcing the user to purchase newer software editions or hardware; Technical obsolescence, or the
adoption of newer, more accessible technologies with the intention to replace older, often outdated
software or hardware, occurring on the side of the consumer or manufacturer. The main issue
arising at hand is the long-term access of curated data. the world is technologically advancing at a
very fast rate. Osedo (2013) opines that “retrieval and playback technologies can become
obsolete in a matter of years When , more capable and less expensive storage and processing
devices are developed, older versions may be quickly replaced”. For example, information in the
1980’s was typed using WordStar, which was one of the most popular world processing
applications of that time and stored in a floppy disk. At present, it is impossible to access any
information stored in the floppy disk because floppy disks and disk drives became obsolete. Thus,
repositories, archives and organisations struggle to keep up with new trends of technology and
have a job in ensuring that all the data they have curated is still accessed throughout its entire
lifecycle.

Solution

In Malawian context, migration can be used as a tool to prevent digital obsolescence. Migration is
the most quoted and mostly widely used solution. Migration is the transferring of data from one
hardware or software generation to newer generations and system environments (Osedo, 2013).
He continues to say migration is a means of overcoming technological obsolescence by
transferring digital materials and resources from one hardware or software generation to the next
generation. Migration relates to copying digital information from a medium that is becoming
obsolete or physically deteriorating to newer one. Migration is undeniably an important strategy
for preserving digital objects. Even if that particular software or hardware becomes obsolete, data
can still be accessed through the current hardware or software which the data has been migrated
to. Adding to migration, emulation can be used to ensure access and long-term use of digital

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content. Fortunately, it is not necessary to preserve physical hardware to be able to run obsolete
software. Emulators are programs that mimic the behavior of hardware (Rothenberg, 1998)can be
created to take the place of obsolete hardware as needed. Emulators also ensure that old software
can function and information content can be read. Mzuzu University library for example, can use
emulation in tandem with migration to ensure digital data curated is forever accessed throughout
the institution’s existence. Furthermore, libraries, archives and repositories in Malawi should
prepare adequately ahead for software, hardware and operating systems obsolescence as this is the
way to go, when it comes to tackling technological obsolescence. The above-mentioned
institutions should also conduct assessments of their digital records in order to identify file
corruption and reduce the risks associated with file format obsolescence. Lastly, hardware
preservation can help reduce the impact of obsolescence. Hardware preservation ensures access to
data and process by maintaining the physical computing environment including hardware and
peripherals.

Migration
Another challenge to digital preservation, which arises from the challenge of digital obsolescence,
is migration. With the rapid growth of data, organizations constantly need to migrate data. Osedo
(2013), defines migration as the transferring of data from one hardware or software generation to
newer generations and system environments. For example, conversion of Microsoft Word to PDF
or from one operating system to another e.g., Windows to Linux or from one programming
language to another e.g., C to Java. This process involves scrubbing the legacy data, mapping data
from the old system to the new system, designing conversion programs, building and testing the
conversion programs that perform the conversion, and matching the converter. Data migration
could also refer to as the process of making an exact copy of an organization’s current data from
one device to another device (Hussein, 2021. )Data migration was first brought about as a
preservation tool for digital but data migration as a process leaves organizations with many
potential concerns and pain points. Data migration can be a complex process as testing must be
done to ensure data quality. Migration also can be very costly if best practices are not followed
and hidden costs are not identified in the early stage. One of the major risks associated with data
migration is loss of data quality. This normally happens when data from the source system may
not map directly to Target system because of its structure, and multiple source databases may have
different data models (Sarmah, 2018). This basically mean that files originally written for one

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computer system to appear slightly different on a new system. Colors and fonts may be altered. In
some cases, this may not be necessarily important but in others it may crucially alter the intellectual
content or meaning. Osedo (2013), opines by stating that “Resources that are migrated run the risk
of losing some type of functionality since newer formats may be incapable of capturing all the
functionality of the original format, or the converter itself may be unable to interpret all the nuances
of the original format”. Data migration also leads to data confusion and disorganization, and
compatibility issues and data loss (Sarma, 2018).

Solution

In the context of Malawi, there are a number of ways that problems associated with data
migration can be tackled. Firstly, this can be done by ensuring archives, repositories and
organisations develop migration strategies to mitigate any risk associated with loss of data. Best
mitigation policy is house full data backup of the source system before migrating to the target
system. Data confusion and disorganization can be tackled by developing a comprehensive data
migration plan. This not only establishes the scope and the goals of the project, but also develops
the timeline for carrying it out and identifies the people who will be responsible for making it
happen. Sarma (2018) adds in to say a data migration plan “highlights potential problem areas
ahead of time so risks can be mitigated effectively before they have a chance to derail the project
and delay implementation”. Data loss can be encompassed by simply backing up data elsewhere
before migrating it. This ensures that if something was to go wrong implementation, data will not
be lost. Data is critical to the success of today’s organizations and they shouldn’t take any chances
with it during a migration. Sarma (2018) states that compatibility issues can be solved by ensuring
the data migration plan includes a detailed assessment of the current system’s operational
requirements and how they must be to the new environment. All system requirements should be
documented ahead of time and closely monitored throughout the process. Only after thorough tests
have been run within the new system to validate its performance should the old operating system
be shut down. In this way, any organization that deals with curation of data in Malawi will barely
face any migration challenges when dealing with data curation.

Financial constraints
One of the most important components of institutional commitment to any project is financial
support and digital curation is no different. Unlike some shorter-term projects proposed to

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management in organisations, digital curation by its very nature is a long-term commitment with
no end in sight. Not only does sustainable digital preservation require financial resources, it
requires that those resources be ongoing. To implement an effective and efficient preservation
policy, there is need for commitment at both the institutional and national levels that preservation
of the knowledge resources will be an incremental process that will be carried on from one
generation to another. This effort entails that financial resources be committed to such a venture
over long periods of time . some archives, libraries and repositories are lucky enough to receive
some funding to relieve them of financial obligations although Suleman (2007), explains that “
Typically, there is little funding for digital preservation, and heritage preservation in general,
because of other priorities in many countries. Many preservation projects receive funding from
external international agencies (e.g., Mellon Foundation, Ford Foundation) but there are
sometimes restrictions placed by the agencies that limit who the data may be shared with”.
Ogbebor (2011) adds in to say “financial resources available for libraries and archives continue to
decrease and will likely do so for the near future. The argument for preserving digital information
has not effectively made it into public policy. There is little enthusiasm for spending resources on
preservation at the best of times and without a concerted effort to bring the issues into the public
eye, the preservation of digital information will remain a cloistered issue” Digital preservation is
essentially about preserving access over time and therefore the costs for all parts of the digital life
cycle are relevant. In that context even, the costs of creating digital materials are integral in so far
as they may need to include cost elements which will ultimately facilitate their long-term
preservation. Coroju et al (2016) states that ” digital curation stands as an umbrella term that
encompasses production, organization, storage, selection, valorisation, treatment and long-
term preservation of digital assets, diminishing the risk of obsolescence”. Digital curation
being a costly process, there is a high chance that organisations will not go through with long
term curation of their data. Osedo (2013), adds in to say “Regardless of how the responsibility
for digital preservation is distributed, societies only allocate a small and finite amount of resources
to preserving scholarly and cultural resourced”. Digital technology adds in extra in the preservation
of digital information resources. These are among others; technology comes in different formats,
the cost of maintaining international standards of digital formats is expensive as it is often based
on paying for upgrades to match the technology both the hardware and software. These come with
subscriptions costs (Umesh, 2005). So, in essence a library, information center, archival center or

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repository would have to subscribe to hardware or software and then to the electronic journal
which in the end is quite costly. Coroju et al (2016), has further outlined four possible costs that
may arise in the process of data curation. The first being costs associated with appraisal and
selection of data. This becomes costly as it needs to consider the materials ‘cost, type, condition,
quantity, accessibility, singularity and possibilities of future use. Second being cost associated with
storage. There has been a constant drop in the price of storage devices promote the use of a larger
capacity, although there are growing costs with energy, area, cooling and management of digital
storages. Thirdly, cost associated with dissemination. This has been viewed as a cost as
dissemination od data is not free, which instead implies significant costs identified relating to data
understandability (preparation and documentation using acknowledged meta-information schemes
– revision costs) to conclude that sharing should increase the cost, instead of decreasing it. Lastly,
costs associated with infrastructure which includes platforms and informatics components. Sarma
(2018), adds in to say data curation faces extra costs when dealing with data migration. She
continues to say “ A lot of companies often spend too much money because they over budgeted or
under budgeted and according to industry analysts in two thirds of the migrations companies
calculate wrong man hours/downtime requirements”. In addition to budgeting issues, Sarma
(2018), adds to say data migration entails data quality. Ensuring that data quality is top notch
becomes very costly. It is recommended that organisations invest on data quality software. This
is so because if the quality of data in target database/data warehouse is not up to the expectations,
the purpose of the entire application is not satisfied. Thus, it is evident that as much as data
curation paves way for repositories and archivists to digitize their data and ensure long access to
it, data curation is quite costly and often times not even affordable for companies that have regular
inadequate funding already in place.

Solution
Organisations, repositories and archives in Malawi should focus on planning for costs in the early
stage for its data’s lifecycle. The earlier they adequately plan financially the better. They should
Adequately plann on areas such as man hours, downtime to avoid any surprises on the cost
involved in the data migration (Sarma, 2018). Additionally, the above-mentioned institutions
should indulge into cost savings. This can be done by ensuring most operations are done in-house
instead of outsourcing and utilizing all of its available resources to the fullest. Automation has
proven to be a possible solution t financial constraint. Automation is the use or introduction of

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automatic equipment in a manufacturing or other process or facility. Automation can help reduce
cost in the sense that if archives, repositories and libraries where to automate, they would most
definitely increase productivity and increase profit. Errors would be reduced through
automation as well, and that can help reduce overall costs in a significant way. Lastly, the
government of Malawi, interested citizens and organisations should acknowledge and understand
the importance of digital curation throughout institutions in Malawi and provide adequate funding
in order to ensure these institutions have little financial restraints .

Lack of training on digital curation

In addition to digital obsolescence and digital migration, lack of training on digital curation is
another challenge impeding digital curation. The ability to employ and develop staff with
appropriate skills is made more difficult by the speed of technological change and the range of
skills needed. To make matters worse, it is evident that a large proportion of Africans lack technical
knowledge on the digital elements of electronic documents in preservation departments. Kanyengo
(2006), adds to say that the presence of preservation departments in most of the libraries and
information centers is really in name only as most of them concentrate on book and journal
binding. She continues to say “the level of education of general population in many African
countries is a problem. The number of literate individuals, as well as the number of individuals
with access to a computer and the internet is lower than elsewhere in the world”. This creates a
challenge for digital preservation both in terms of collection building, especially for end-user
submissions, and dissemination. Studies conducted by Studies by Ndhlovu & Matingwina (2018),
discovered that 86% of the library staff, believe lack of digital curation skills is a major challenge
when it comes to digital curation. This lack of knowledge extends to deficient know-how on the
equipment and software that is required for the preservation of digital information resources
(Drijfhout, 2006). An organization such as a library might be completely interested and intend to
digitize the available data or information it possesses but without adequate training digital curation
and its best practices, the task might seem impossible. Digital preservation remains a new and
developing discipline, requiring skills from wide range of curatorial and technological
backgrounds, and sufficient resources. Kavishe & Dulle (2016) adds to say If data curators or staff
lack the necessary skills and resources, this may lead to poor decision making, mistakes and
information loss. Knowing what to preserve, and the best method to use, is a major concern for
professionals, and one that requires specialized training. Therefore, the professional skills needed

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include technical proficiency in areas such as encryption, metadata schema coding, and
authentication, as well as traditional archiving skills, which include cataloguing and classification.
Poole (2014), exclaims that digital curation professionals represent ‘‘the human element of a
knowledge infrastructure supporting contemporary scholarly practices and are key to developing
and sustaining a global system of interoperable digital data and tools across the natural, physical,
and social sciences, as well as the humanities’’ An organization must ensure that its data curation
activities are carried out by sufficient staff with the appropriate skills. Unfortunately, many
organisations lack sensible data curation training that may ultimately develop, maintain or enhance
their digital curation expertise. One study finds only a small percentage of librarians engaging in
digital data curation not only because patron requests are infrequent, but also because these
librarians lack necessary technical skills ( Poole, 2014).
Solution
Malawi Library Association (MALA) as the regulatory body for the practice of librarianship in
Malawi should offer more digital preservation strategy and resources management training for
library and information managers all across Malawi. Librarians present in National libraries across
the country and their respective branches should ensure all patrons are attain some knowledge and
expertise in data curation by participation in data curation courses, self-directed learning,
attendance at data curation national and international seminars, workshops and conferences, study
visits, internships and working exchanges with other institutions and professionals of data curation
In particular, metadata techniques, emulation techniques and migration technique need to be
emphasized in such training. They may engage in professional development and education or offer
consulting services; they can join research and granting proposal teams as well. In addition to
training librarian to be experts in digital curation, Malawi should consider introducing digital
curation in all school curriculums to serve as a backbone for future digital curators in the country.
Helen (2015), backs this solution up by stating that “Traditional graduate school education is not
enough to meet the demands of digital curation. There is still need for training program for current
staffs in cultural repository would be an efficient supplement for that request, such as professional
workshops, and MOOCs (Massively Open Online Courses) in data curation and management.”
Yakel, Conway, Hedstrom, & Wallace (2011) further backup this claim by as they emphasize that
Universities should establish an Archives and Records Management curriculum has to deliver the
major concepts associated with digital curation in an archival context and to help students work

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within a lifecycle framework to address preservation and access problems for both analogue and
digital information.
Threats to Integrity, authenticity and privacy of digital data
Data curation entails a wide variety or processes that may pave way to threats to integrity. Data
quality is referred to as “Data Integrity.” It is maintaining and assuring the accuracy and
consistency of data over its entire life-cycle. An authentic record is one that is what it claims to be.
It is genuine. It has not been counterfeited or tampered with, and it is free from corruption (Milam,
2014). Data integrity means that the data is accurate and reliable. Data with “integrity” is said to
have a complete structure, i.e. all characteristics defining the data must be correct. The integrity of
a record basically refers to its wholeness and soundness: a record has integrity when it is complete
and uncorrupted in all its essential respects. This does not mean that the record must be precisely
the same as it was when first created in order for its integrity to exist and be demonstrated. Even
in the paper world, records are subject to deterioration, alteration, and/or loss with the passage of
time. Integrity and authenticity go hand in hand. Ahmad et al (2019), exclaims that this data is
very important, but without integrity, this data not have much value. Poole (2014) adds to say
‘‘A repository is Trusted if it can demonstrate its capacity to fulfill its specified functions, and if
those specified functions satisfy an agreed set of minimal criteria which all trusted repositories are
assumed to require’’. Just as archives have built up currency as trustworthy, so too should
repositories be curating data. Privacy concerns have recently surfaced in the field of digital
curation. This is so because the use of computers has enabled archives, libraries and repositories
to create databases that now handle huge amounts of data on-line, which is made accessible
anywhere and anytime. This has raised concerns that if the information is not properly managed,
it may be made available too easily, resulting in lack of protection for the citizen’s individual
rights. Further, the vast amount of information maintained about individuals by both government
and private organizations threatens their privacy. Ogbebor (2011), has highlighted some of the
privacy infringement as unauthorized acquisition of data, unauthorized penetration into computer
networks. Computers allow fast and inexpensive communication of information and the collection
and storage of large amounts of data. At the same time, these capabilities allow individuals and
organizations to access information Everybody must that the preservation practices of the source
of the data are adequate. that archive media are routinely verified and refreshed, that the facilities
are secure, the processes to verify and ensure the fixity of the data are operational, the

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geographically distributed copies of the data are maintained as a protection against catastrophe,
and that disaster recovery plans and procedures are in place (Poole, 2014). The ability to establish
the authenticity and integrity of a source is critical to users, whether it is generated by an individual,
created in the conduct of institutional business, or produced through a formal publication process.
There are a couple of ways integrity of data can be compromised. Integrity of data can be
compromised by easily being changed or deleted unintentionally, through human error. Data can
be compromised through malicious activity where people may attempt to alter or data for malicious
reasons. Storage media are subjected to physical decay and may naturally degrade to the point at
which the data is no longer recoverable. Floods, fire, earthquakes may ultimately lead to total loss
of storage medium; hardware and software failures may cause temporary or permanent data loss.
Even if an organisations has curated all its data, as long as the data lacks authenticity and integrity,
all the data the organisation hosts will be rendered unreliable and questionable.
Solution

In a Malawian context, solutions to threats to data integrity vary based on the cause. For example,
data that has been deleted, changed or lost through can be sorted by simply backing up the data
elsewhere. Backup entails data is copied and stored in multiple locations to create readily available
data replacements in case of equipment failure or a catastrophe. Libraries, archives and repositories
in Malawi must always ensure their digital data has been backed up elsewhere i.e. in a cloud. Data
backup been understood to be a requirement for protection of near-term data access. Kirchhoff
(2008) states that “backing up data is imperative for business continuity, and it is necessary to
ensure that access to content in the near term will not be interrupted for any length of time”. In
addition to backing up data, libraries, archives and repositories in Malawi should use digital
signatures and wrappers available that can safeguard authenticity and integrity and ensuring
security measures to control access to the digital material. Thirdly, archives, repositories and
libraries in Malawi must ensure the application of data integrity techniques and the maintenance
of audit trails to provide confidence that a digital object has remained unchanged and ensure to
maintain high quality preservation processes based on current best practice and validated by
appropriate audit and certification will be crucial. Osedo (2013) adds in another solution by stating
that libraries, archives and repositories in Africa,( including Malawi ) need storage systems that
would enable them handle digital information materials and resources in a wide variety of formats
which comprises of texts, graphics, sounds, etc. Ideally, storage media should have a long-life

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expectancy, a high degree of disaster resistance, sufficient durability to withstand frequent usage,
and must have very large storage capacity. A last possible solution would be libraries, archives
and repositories in Malawi acknowledging and understanding that authenticity and integrity
require the above-mentioned institutions to store much more than the content of digital documents
in order to ensure authenticity and integrity of data. Attributes such as formal document structures,
metadata that document the maintenance and use history of the document, time and date stamps,
and a series of references among documents are essential for determining authenticity and integrity
and for understanding the provenance of sources and placing them in a larger context (Osedo,
2013).

Conclusion

The importance and emergence of digital curation is one that cannot be over emphasized. Digital
curation has come into play to ensure information in institutions is forever accessed throughout is
lifecycle. Information is vital to institutions as Information and records form evidence of
organisational activities and are kept for administrative purposes and use in the daily operations.
Records are kept for their legal value, as proof evidence and for the purpose of compliance.
Institutions in the field of digital curation must encompass these challenges to digital preservation
with considerable keen interest and will require a concerted effort on the part of librarians and
archivists to rise up to these challenges and assert in public forums the importance of protecting
digital assets and ensure that they face little hiccups when digitizing their valuable data.

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