Anatomy & Physiology 5N0749

Structure and function of the human body

Recognise the human body as an entity
Interrelationships between body systems
Correct terminology, academic language
Difference between anatomy and physiology
Classify tissues into four main groups: epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
Benign and malignant tumours
Composition of bone, functions of the skeleton, structure of the long bone
Categories of joints and functions
Different types of muscle and connections to skeletons
Structure and role of blood and role in maintaining immunity
Structure and function of the heart
Components of the lymphatic system
Identify parts of the digestive system, associated organs
Composition of protein, carbohydrates and fats
Structure and role of the respiratory system
Gas exchange in the alveoli
Male & female reproductive system
Function of parts of the brain, nerve impulses
Central, peripheral, automatic nervous system
Endocrine and exocrine glands
Hormones of hormones in metabolic process, insulin, tyrosine, growth hormone, nervous
system response/hormonal response
Urinary system, kidney function
Structure and role of the skin

Assingments 40% (2x20%)

Exam 60%

Anatomy: structure of the body and the physical relationship between body parts; structure
of the heart and how it works with the lungs

Physiology: how the parts of the body work and the ways in which they cooperate together
to maintain life and health of the individual; when the body experiences fear the brain tells
the glands to release adrenaline which speeds up the heart and lungs

Pathology: study of abnormalities and how they affect body functions, often causing illness;
study the growth of abnormal cells i.e. cancer cells, and prognose the way they’ll affect the
body

Cell contains: Cell membrane; shape, support, control passage of substance

Nucleus: control centre, DNA is stored
Cytoplasm: watery gel containing structures
Mitochondria: control release of energy, produces ATP
Ribosomes: makes proteins, made of RNA
Endoplasmic reticulum: Transports materials in and out of cell
 Lysosomes: contains enzymes
Centriole: controls cell division
Centrosome: contains the centriole
Golgi apparatus: assembly area
Vacuole-sac: contains ingested substances, waste products, and
water which need to be transported
Nuclear membrane: structure surrounding the nucleus (phospholipid
bilayer)

Cell Division

Divide by a process called mitosis, takes place in body cells (somatic cells) such as skin and
bone. Information copied exactly from parent cell to daughter cell

Meiosis produces four daughter cells each containing only half of the cell’s information. This
is involved in reproduction. Contains half of the info as the other half comes from fertilisation.
Creates variation in the human race.

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Endocrine: Follows the blood

Exocrine: Follows its own set path
Epithelial Tissue:
Covers surfaces
Lines tubes and body cavities
Protects, absorbs, filters

Simple Squamous Epithelium

Single layer of flat cells attached to a basement membrane

Provides a smooth layer for the lining of the heart, blood vessels and alveoli

Cuboid Epithelial

Forms the lining of tubules of kidneys and glands, can absorb or secrete mucous
Columnar

Single layer of tall rectangular cells

Forms the lining of the digestive tract and urethra.
Some can absorb mucous, some secret it
Ciliated Columnar

Similar to columnar, but with hair-like projections called cilia

Cilia sweeps the mucous containing dust particles away from lungs into throat
Stratified

Two kinds: Keratinised and Non-Keratinised.

Keratinised is dry skin cells. Waterproof, protects deeper layers from drying out
Non-Keratinised has wet surface cells which provide lubrication. Found in mouth and eyes

Transitional

Surface cells are not flat and can change shape.

Found in organs that need to be waterproof but expandable, like the bladder and uterus

Tubular

Specialised cells, manufacture substances from the blood

Poor secretions into ducts. Found in small intestines and stomach

Ductless Glands
Used by the endocrine system
Release substances like hormones into bloodstream

Connective Tissue:

Found in all parts of the body

Composed of many types of cells
Separated by non-living matrix
Usually fibres present which vary in consistency depending on the position and function of
the tissue
Connect active tissue eg bone and muscle
Can be semi-solid, solid, and liquid, can have fibres present or not

Functions:

● Connecting active tissues

● Protection
● Transport
● Insulation

FILL IN CONNECTIVE TISSUES

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Areolar Tissue - Loose Connective Tissue

● Structure:
○ Consists of a semi solid matrix with elastic fibres, collagen fibres and
other cells
○ Fibroblasts
○ Fat cells
○ Mast cells - protection (histamine) and clotting (heparin)
○ Macrophages
● Function:
 ○ Found in almost all parts of the body giving elasticity and strength
○ Connects and supports
○ Found:
■ Under the skin
■ Between muscles
■ Supporting blood vessels and nerves
■ In the alimentary canal
■ In glands

Adipose Tissue - Fat

● Structure:
○ Made up of fat cells containing fat globules
○ Found under the skin, surrounding kidneys, behind eyes, in marrow of
bones

● Function:
○ Protect delicate organs, insulates from heat loss, acts as food reserve
White Fibrous Tissue
● Structure
○ Contains closely packed collagen fibres with only a few rows between
the fibres
○ Fibres in the same direction
● Function
○ Connects and protects parts of the body
○ Forms ligaments and periosteum of bones
○ Forms outer protection of organs
○ Forms dura of the brain
○ Forms the fascia of muscles and tendons
Yellow Elastic Fibrous Tissue
● Structure
○ Similar to white but fibres are more elastic and are yellow in colour
● Location
○ Found in the formations of the lungs and arteries
● Function
○ Allows stretch and recoil

Other connective tissues:

● Lymphoid Tissue
○ Specialised tissue found in the lymphatic system
 ● Blood
○ Connective tissue with a fluid matrix

Cartilage and Bone:

● Connective tissues of the skeleton
● In foetus skeleton is mostly cartilage
● Cartilage in adults is found forming:
○ Joints
○ In Chest wall
○ Respiratory system
○ Nose
○ Ears
● Cartilage has a firm elastic matrix and there are three types:
○ Hyaline
○ White fibrocartilage
○ Yellow elastic fibrocartilage
○ Bone

● Hyaline Cartilage (Articular Cartilage):

○ Structure
■ Has a smooth matrix and cells and a blueish white appearance
○ Function
■ Found on the end of bones at joints, and in trachea

White Fibrocartilage and Yellow Elastic Fibrocartilage

● Structure
○ Matrix contains dense bundles of white or yellow elastic fibres
● White
○ Forms the discs of the spine
 ● Yellow
○ Forms the ears and walls of respiratory passages

Bone:
Bone cells are surrounded by a matrix of collagen fibres strengthened by inorganic salts
(calcium)
This gives the bone strength

Muscle Tissue:
There are three types of muscle tissue:
● Voluntary, skeletal or striated
● Involuntary, smooth, visceral, or plain
● Cardiac

Voluntary, Skeletal, or Striated Muscle

● Structure
○ The cells are elongated and striated or striped with light and dark
bands. May contain nuclei
● Function
○ Forms the muscles which are responsible for the movement of the
skeleton. It is under the control of the will and is thus voluntary
● Location
○ Skeletal muscles

Involuntary, Visceral, Smooth, or Plain Muscle

● Structure
 ○ The tissue has elongated cells but no stripes. It is found in the walls of
the internal organs which are not under the direct control of the will
● Function
○ Contraction of internal organs not under the control of the will
● Location
○ Digestive tract

Cardiac Muscle
● Structure
○ The cells are elongated, striated and branched and contain only one
nucleus
● Function
○ Contract the heart muscle and pump the blood around the body
● Location
○ Heart

Endocrine System
● Controlled by hypothalamus in the brain
● Hypothalamus -> Pituitary system (brain) - anterior/posterier
● Endocrine Glands
○ Release hormones directly into the bloodstream
○ Lack ducts, often called ductless glands
○ Many have other functions; pancreas (endocrine (hormones;
glucogen, insulin) & exocrine (digestive enzymes, trypsin, amylase,
lipase) functions), ovaries, testes

● Endocrine and exocrine glands

 ○ Exocrine glands are glands that secrete their products into ducts eg
small intestines, sweat gland
○ Endocrine glands secrete their products directly into the bloodstream
eg thyroid
○ Pancreas is both endocrine and exocrine; releases glycogen and
insulin into the bloodstream, releases trypsin, amylase, and lipase into
small intestine

● Hormones:
○ Chemical messengers that help to regulate processes in the body.
○ Secreted by glands and travel to their target organs in the
bloodstream

● The Endocrine System

○ Hormones are released as a result of the following:
■ Direct nervous stimulation of the appropriate gland eg
secretion of adrenaline from the adrenal medulla occurs
following stimulation by the sympathetic nervous system
■ The presence of particular compounds in the blood such as
metabolites (release of insulin in response to glucose) or other
hormones secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland
○ Compounds are classed as hormones if they:
■ Are released into the blood by a ductless gland
■ Are carried by the bloodstream to a target organ
■ Stimulate a change in the activity of the target organ

What does the endocrine system do?

● Once a hormone is secreted it travels from the endocrine gland that produced
it through the bloodstream to the cells designed to receive its message.
These cells are called target cells.
● Along the way to target cells special proteins bind to some of the hormones.
These proteins act as carriers that control the amount of hormone that is
available for the cells to use
● Target cells have receptors that latch on to only specific hormones and each
hormone has its own receptor so that each hormone will communicate with
only specific target cells that have receptors for only that hormone
● When the hormone reaches its target cell it locks onto the cell’s specific
receptors and these hormone receptor combinations transmit chemical
instructions to the inner workings of the cell
● When hormone levels reach a certain amount the endocrine system helps the
body to keep that level of hormone in the blood.
● The thyroid gland has secreted the right amount of thyroid hormones in the
blood, the pituitary gland senses the normal levels in the bloodstream. The
pituitary gland adjusts its release of thyropin, the hormone that stimulates the
thyroid gland

Skeletal system
● Haemopoiesis - production of red blood cells in bone marrow
● Lipid and mineral storage
● Support
● Protection - surrounds and protects the major organs
● Facilitates movement
● Structure and composition:
○ Woven bone - appears in embryonic development and fracture repair
and can be laid down rapidly
○ Lamellar bone - adult skeleton, organised structure makes it stronger
than woven bone, divided into compact and spongy
● Compact bone:
○ 80% of bone mass
○ Outer shell of bone
○ Osteons (haversian systems): tube shaped units - alignments aid
strength
○ Consists of central canal (haversian canal)
○ Between osteons are interstitial lamellae - remnants of partially broken
bone systems

● Spongy Bone
○ Honeycomb appearance
○ Trabeculae - bony matrix network of fine columns
○ Consist on a few lamellae and osteocytes interconnected by canaliculi
○ Produces a light, porous bone that is strong against multidirectional
force
● Bone cells
○ Osteoblasts: bone forming cells, secrete collagen, found in deeper
layers of periosteum, centres of ossification
○ Osteocytes: as bone develops osteoblasts become trapped within and
become osteocytes
○ Osteoclasts: responsible for the reabsorption of bone to maintain the
shape, under periosteum to maintain shape of bones
● Types of bone
○ Long bone:
■ Long thin shape, longer than they are wide
■ Arms, legs
■ Act as levers
■ Primarily compact bone and may have spongy at the ends
○ Short bones:
■ Roughly cube shaped
■ Primarily spongy bone covered by thin layer of compact bone
○ Flat bone:
■ Flattened broad surface
○ Irregular bones:
■ Has a shape that does not conform to three above types
○ Sesamoid bone:
■ Embedded with a tendon or muscle
 ● Body plans:
○ Anterior & Posterior: Front and back
○ Superior & Inferior: Higher and lower
○ Proximal & Distal: closer/further away from origin
○ Medial & Lateral: close/further away from midline

Female Reproductive System

● Ovaries are located in the female pelvis
● Produce eggs and secrete the female hormones oestrogen and progesterone
● Oestrogen is involved when a girl begins puberty
● During puberty a girl will experience breast growth, will begin to accumulate
body fat around the hips and thighs, and will grow
● Oestrogen and progesterone are also involved in the regulation of a girl’s
menstrual cycle
● These hormones play a role in pregnancy

Reproductive Hormones
Female
● Follicle stimulating hormone (anterior pituitary) stimulate the small follicles in
the ovary which contain the developing egg
● Oestrogen, secreted by the developing egg, a mixture of hormones that
promote secondary sexual characteristics like uterine lining
● Luteinising Hormone (anterior pituitary) stimulates the follicle to produce
progesterone to maintain pregnancy after the release of the egg

Male
● Luteinising Hormones (anterior pituitary) stimulates a group of cells in the
testes to produce androgens
● Testosterone, the major androgen which initiates and maintains secondary
sexual characteristics in the male and stimulates sperm production

Circulatory System
● Consists of:
○ Heart
○ Blood vessels
○ Blood

Lymphatic System
● Consists of:
○ Lymphatic
○ Nodes
○ Ducts

Blood
● Carries around oxygen, nutrients, hormones, waste products, antibodies
around the body
● Fights infections
● Prevents Haemorrhaging
 ● Regulates body temp

Joints
● Fibrous (fixed)
○ Immovable joints with fibrous tissue between bones
○ Skull
○ Pelvis
● Cartilaginous (slightly moveable)
○ A pad of fibrocartilage between the ends of the bones that form the
joint which allows for very slight movement where the pad of cartilage
is compressed
○ ribcage
● Synovial (freely moveable)
○ Enable a wide range of movement
○ Knee
○ Hip
○ Shoulder
○ Ball and socket
○ Hinge
○ Gliding Join
■ Between two flat bones, held together by ligaments
○ Pivot Joint
■ Movement around one axis
■ Radius and Ulna
■ Neck
○ Condyloid & Saddle Joint
● Flexion
○ A movement that decreases the angle between two body parts
● Extension
○ Straightening that increases the angle between two body parts

Muscle Tissue
● 75% water, 20% proteins, 5% fat, mineral salts and glycogens
● 23% of female body mass, 40% of male body mass
● Skeletal Muscle
○ Striated or Voluntary or skeletal
○ Contractile tissue made up of bundles of muscle fibres
○ Bound together in bundles contained in a sheath (fascia)
○ Epimysium
○ Perimysium
○ Endomysium
○ Muscle fibre
○ Fascicle
○ Myofibril
○ Myofilaments
○ Thick filaments
○ Thin filaments
○ Sarcomere
 ○ Contract and produce movement
○ Stabilise joints
○ Maintain postural tone
○ Aid in temperature control
○ Needs blood and nerves to contract
○ Blood supplies glucose and oxygen
○ Nerve supplies impulse from nervous system
○ Starts off a series of chemical changes involving glucose and oxygen
○ This reaction leads the fibres to reorganise themselves in a way that
shortens the muscle
○ When the nervous system is gone the chemical process reverses and
the fibres rearrange again and the muscle relaxes
● Smooth Muscle
● Cardiac Muscle
○ Found in the walls of the heart
○ Not under conscious control
○ Allows heart to beat
1
1. Contractions, movement, stabilises joints, posture
2. Striated/skeletal, smooth, cardiac
3. Skeleton, arteries, heart
2
1. Striated; fibrous; movement, structure, contractions, stabilises joints;
voluntary
2. Smooth; thick and thin filaments; found in arteries; involuntary
 3. Cardiac; tubular chains of myofibrils; allows heart to pump; involuntary

Muscle Action:
When the more mobile bone is brought towards the more stable bone
● Muscles of the thorax
○ Muscles
■ Intercostal muscles
○ Functions
■ When contracted they raise upwards and tilts them outwards.
Increases size of thoracic cavity
● Abdominal muscle
○ Abdominal wall
○ Muscles
■ Four layers of muscle
○ Function
■ Maintain positions of abdominal organs
■ Helps in movement of the spine, breathing, coughing
● Pectoral muscles
○ Chest anteriorly
○ Muscles
■ Pectoral muscles
○ Function
■ Horizontal adduction
● Neck muscles
○ Neck, anterolaterally
○ Muscles
■ Sternocleidomastoid
○ Function
■ Flexes the neck and rotates the head
● Neck and back muscles
○ Muscles
■ Trapezius
○ Function
■ Retracts scapula, depresses shoulders, extends neck,
Provides postural support
● Back Muscles
○ Back
○ Muscles
■ Erector Spinae
○ Function
■ Extension of the spine and side to side rotation
○ Muscles
■ Latissimus Dorsi
○ Function
■ Adduction
■ Medially rotate
■ Extend arm at shoulder joint
● Shoulder Muscles
 ○ Shoulder
○ Muscles
■ Deltoid
○ Function
■ The muscle abducts the shoulder
● Forearm Muscles
○ Forearm and hand
○ Muscles
■ Anterior forearm muscles
○ Function
■ These muscles flex the wrist and the fingers
● Hip muscles
○ Hip posteriorly
○ Muscles
■ Gluteal
○ Function
■ Abduct, rotate, and extend the hip
○ Hip anteriorly
○ Muscles
■ Iliopsoas
○ Function
■ Flexes the Hip

Knee - hinge joint

Extension and flexion
Patella tendon
Dorsiflexion
Plantar flexion
Fibrous tissue that joins muscle to bone
Patella tendon

HIp joint - ball and socket joint

Quads
Extension of the knee
Origin - C
Insertion - A
Action - B

Bicep
Elbow flexion

Fibrous tissue connecting two bones

Posterior cruciate ligament

Glute
Rotation, abduction, extension
Erector spinae
Extension of the spine and side to side rotation

Central Nervous System

Reflex Arc
● Receptor in the skin detects a stimulus
● Sensory neuron sends impulses to a relay neuron which is located in the spinal cord
● Relay neurons connect sensory neurons to motor neurons
● Motor neurons sends impulses to effector
● Effector produces a response (muscle contracts to move hand)

Deep Tendon Reflex

● A reflex arc is an involuntary pathway by which the stimulus to a tendon elicits a
muscle response
● It is considered a monosynaptic reflex as only two neurons are involved; a sensory
and a motor neuron, with a single synapse between them
● Patellar Reflex
● Nerve Supply: femoral
● Segmental Innervation: L2-L4