PRELIM
cannot be broken down by ordinary chemical means
Bio= life
Chemistry = how things interact
Biochemistry= the branch of science in which you
study the chemical and physical processes that occur
in an organism.
Principles of Biochemistry
Cells (basic structural units of living organisms) are
highly organized and constant source of energy is
required to maintain the ordered state. Living
processes contains thousands of chemical reactions.
Precise regulation and integration of these reactions
are required to maintain life
Certain important reactions E.g. Glycolysis is found in
almost all organisms.
All organisms use the same type of molecules: CHO,
proteins, lipids & nucleic acids. Instructions for
growth, reproduction and developments for each
organism is encoded in their DNA
Matter…
All matter, whether living or nonliving, is made of the
same type building blocks called atoms
An atom is the smallest basic unit of matter
All atoms have the same basic structure, composed of
three smaller particles
Proton – a positively charged particle in an atom’s
nucleus
Neutron – a neutral (no charge) particle which has
about the same mass as a proton and is also in the
nucleus
Electron – a negatively charged particle found outside
the nucleus. Electrons are much, much smaller than
proton and neutrons.
Elements…
Different types of atoms are called elements, which
substance – makes water “stick” together
Which element an atom is depends on the number of
protons in the atom’s nucleus For example- all
hydrogen atoms have 1proton and all oxygen atoms
have 8 protons Only about 25 different elements are
found in organisms However, atoms of different
elements can “link” or bond together to form
compounds.
Compound- Atoms form compounds in two ways
Ionic bonds – consists of ions and forms through the
electrical force between oppositely charged ions
An ion is an atom that has lost or gained electrons
Cation – an ion that loses electrons so becomes
positively charged
Anion – an ion that gains electrons so becomes
negatively charged
Covalent bonds – forms when atoms share one or
more pairs of electrons
A molecule consists of two or more atoms held
together by covalent bonds
Water’s Unique Properties
The STRUCUTRE of the water molecule gives water
its unique properties
Water is a polar molecule, which means that it
has a region with a slight negative charge (the oxygen
atom) and a region with a slight positive charge (the
hydrogen atoms)
The oppositely charged regions of water
molecules interact to form hydrogen bonds
Hydrogen bond is an attraction between a hydrogen
atom and a negative atom.
Important Properties of Water…
High specific heat – water resists changes in
temperature – it must absorb a large amount of heat
energy to increase the temperature
Cohesion – the attraction among molecules of a
Surface tension
Adhesion – the attraction among molecules of
DIFFERENT substances – makes water “stick” to
other materials
Capillary action
Expands when freezes – when water freezes its
volume becomes larger than in the liquid or gas state
(just the opposite of most other compounds)
Weathering and aquatic organisms
Important Properties of Water…
Water is the largest component of cells’ interiors, and
chemical reactions in the cell take place in water
When one substance dissolves in another – a solution
is made each solution is made up of two parts
Solute – what gets dissolved (usually in smallest
amount)
Solvent – what does the dissolving (usually in
the largest amount)
Carbon based molecules are the foundation for life
Many of these molecules are large and called
polymers.
Poly- many
A repeating unit of the same small molecule
(monomer) There are four main types of carbon-based
molecules in living things
 Carbohydrates
 Proteins
 Lipids
 Nucleic acids
Carbohydrates- produce by plants during
photosynthesis
After eating plant food, humans convert the
carbohydrates into glucose
Glucose – most abundant carbohydrates
- Preferred source of energy for the blood, brain,
and nervous system
 Carbohydrate- Rich plant foods make up the
foundation of diet all over the world
Classification of Carbohydrates
Simple Carbon
- Monosaccharide
-Disaccharide
-Perceived as sweeter than complex carbohydrates
- Oligosaccharide
Polysaccharide- Complex Carbohydrates
Monosaccharide
- Glucose- Blood glucose and blood sugar in the body,
Most abundant monosaccharide in the body.
-Fructose – Sweetest of Natural sugar
Found abundantly in fruits
Part if high fructose corn syrup
-Galactose- commonly occurs as part of disaccharide
lactose
Disaccharide
-Sucrose = Glucose + fructose
Most common (table sugar)
-Lactose = Galactose +glucose
Found in milk
-Maltose = Glucose + Glucose
Least common
Formed from digestion of starches
Polysaccharide
Plants store glucose in chain of starch
1.Starch- classified as two kinds of Starch
Amylose- Straight chain, more resistant to digestion
May improve health of digestive tract, glucose
tolerance nad stimulate growth of beneficial intestinal
bacteria.
Amylopectin- Branched chains, Easier to digest
2. Fiber- Non- digestible polysaccharides
- Provides no energy, classified into 2
SOLUBLE- Easily fermented by intestinal bacteria
(ex. Carbon Dioxide, Methane, sone fatty acids)
INSOLUBLE- Not Easily fermented
(cellulose, lignin, some hemicelluloses)
Soluble fiber
Slow gastric and may delay absorption of some
nutrients
Help to reduce serum cholesterol
Improve appetite control
Normalize glucose level, may protect in colon cancer
Insoluble fiber
Relieve constipation
Most plant food contain soluble and insoluble fiber
Polysaccharide
Glycogen – storage form of glucose in animals
Long branched chain of glucose
Stored in liver and muscle
Liver glycogen response to blood glucose
Oligosaccharide-
 Similar in length to simple carbohydrates
 Similar in makeup to polysaccharide
 Human lack the enzymes necessary to digest
them
 Intestinal microflora digest and ferment them
- Cause bloating discomfort and flatulence
- Food source
- Legumes, beans, cabbage, brussels sprouts,
broccoli
Absorption of carbohydrates
 Once digested to monosaccharide
- Absorb through the intestinal cell mucosa
- Transported through the live via the portal vein
- Metabolic needs direct fate of the
monosaccharide
- Galactose and fructose
- Used by liver for energy
- Convert to glucose
Glucose
 Used by the liver for energy
 Converted to glycogen through glycogenesis
 Converted to glycerol and fatty acid for storage
in adipocytes
 Digestion of carbohydrates begins in the
mouth
 Most carbohydrates digestion takes place in
the small intestine
 Carbohydrates are broken down to
monosaccharide for absorption
 Monosaccharide are converted to glucose in
the liver and
- Used as energy
- Stored as glycogen in the liver and mucle cells
- Stored as glycerol and fatty acids in the
adipocytes
 Fiber travels to the colon undigested and
most is eliminated from the body.
Lactose Intolerance
Deficiency of lactase, the enzyme that digest lactose
• Maldigestion- inability to digest lactose due to
low levels of the enzymes
• Intolerance- resulting in nausea, cramps,
bloating, flatulence, and diarrhea
Function of carbohydrates
- Provide energy
 4 kcal per gram
- Maintain blood glucose
 Carbohydrates intake
 Glycogenolysis 4 hrs after meal
- Spare protein
 Prevents the need for glycogenesis
- Prevent ketosis
How to maintain Blood glucose
- Goal for blood glucose is 70-100 mg/dl
- Insulin lowers blood glucose levels
 Needs for glucose to enter the cell from the
blood stream
- Exception: liver, kidney, brain cell
 Helps to convert glucose to fatty acid through
lipogenesis
 Inhibits lipolysis
Glucagon- increase blood glucose levels
 Stimulates the release of glucose into the blood
 Stimulates glycogenolysis
 Stimulates gluconeogenesis
Glucose is the body’s preferred source of energy
 Especially the brain and red blood cells
Adequate carbohydrates intake
 Maintain blood glucose levels
 Spares protein
 Prevent ketosis
Blood glucose level are maintained by two hormones
 Insulin which lovers the glucose level
 Glucagon which raised the glucose level
Epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol, and growth
hormone raised glucose levels
Glycemic Index
Classified the effects of carbohydrates-containing
foods glucose
May be helpful for diabetics
Glycemic Index refers to the measured upward rise
peak and falls of blood glucose following consumption
of high carbohydrates food
 Ranks foods according blood glucose
Glycemic Load
Glycemic load (GL)- adjust GI by taking into account
the amount of carbohydrate consumed in a typical
serving of food
Factors affecting GI
 Ripeness of fruits
 Cooking
 Processing
 Size of food piece
 Amount of fiber
 Combination of food eaten
Dietary Fiber
Chronic constipation can lead to diverticulosis and
diverticulitis
Prevention of constipation and diverticulosis
 Insoluble fiber helps reduce transit time for
food in the colon
 Soluble fiber helps make stool easier to pass by
increasing bulk and softening texture
Fiber helps reduce the incidence of several cancers
 Decrease the amount of time cancer-promoting
substances spend in contact with the intestinal
lining
 Encourages the growth of colon friendly
bacteria
 Reduces acid in colon
Helps prevent obesity
 Increase satiety
 Reduce food intake
Increase dietary fiber and fluid intake gradually
Diabetes Mellitus- Occurs when an individual either
does not make enough, or is unable to utilize, the
hormone insulin to regulate blood glucose levels.
Type 1
Usually begins in childhood or early adulthood
5–10% of diabetics
Immune system destroys beta cells of the pancreas
No insulin produced
Common symptoms of elevated blood sugar
  Polydipsia
 Polyuria
 Polyphagia
Require insulin and frequent blood glucose monitoring
Type 2
Overweight individuals develop this form frequently
90–95% of diabetics
Can go undiagnosed
Damages vital organs without individual being aware
of it
Polycystic ovary syndrome Hormonal imbalance in
women Have higher incidence of insulin resistance
and hyperinsulinemia Increased risk of developing
type 2 diabetes
Prediabetes - Impaired glucose tolerance Fasting
blood sugar between 100 mg/dl and 126 mg/dl High
risk of developing diabetes and heart disease
Diabetes
Long term damage from diabetes, Nerve damage, Leg
and foot amputation, Eye diseases, Blindness, Tooth
loss, Gums problem, Heart Disease
Slowing of onset of complication
Control level of blood glucose through
 Diet
 Insulin or oral medication
 Monitoring blood glucose
 Regular healthcare visits
Diabetes involves inadequate regulation of blood
glucose levels
Type 1 diabetes- inadequate production of insulin
Type 2 – insulin resistance
-Chronic high blood glucose can damage vital organs Fasting hypoglycemia may occur upon waking in the
-Diabetics need medication and/or insulin to manage morning
blood glucose
Can be caused by medication, illness, hormone,
-High-fiber diet and routine exercise play a key role in
imbalance, or excessive consumption of alcohol.
managing and preventing diabetes.
-Polycystic ovary syndrome increases the risk of Summary
developing type 2 diabetes
Carbohydrates are important part of a healthy diet
Hypoglycemia Whole grain, fruits, vegetable, ang lean diary, products
 Provide carbohydrates and vitamins and
A blood glucose level that is too low (usually below
minerals
70 mg/dl)
-Signs and symptoms  Should be the predominant source of
carbohydrates
 Hunger, nervousness, dizziness, lightheaded,
Whole grains, fruits, and vegetables are good source
confused, weak, shaky, sweaty
of fiber and phytochemicals
-Eating or drinking carbohydrates rich foods
 Adequate amounts of these can prevent many
 Relieves symptoms
chronic disease
 Raises blood glucose
Sugar foods should be eaten in moderation
Fasting Hypoglycemia
Natural VS. Added Sugar
-Occurs in the morning after an overnight fast Naturally occurring sugar
-Occurs during long stretch between meals or after  Sugar such as fructose and lactose found
exercise naturally in foods
-May be caused by  Tend to be nutrient dense
Medication, illness, drinking too much alcohol, certain Added sugar
tumors, hormone imbalance  Sugar added to processed foods and sweets
Review:  Empty Calories
Health Effects of Sugar
Symptoms of hypoglycemia
Sugar can contribute to
- Hungry, nervous, lightheaded, shaky, and/or sweaty
Diabetics who take medication and/or insulin and do  Dental carries
not eat properly are at risk  Elevated level of fat in the blood
Individuals w/o diabetes may experience reactive Lowing of HDL cholesterol
hypoglycemia several hours after meals Sugar does not cause
 Increase risk of diabetes
  Hyperactivity in children
Sugar is not considered an addictive substance
MIDTERM
PROTEINS
FUNCTION OF PROTEIN – Protein has a
critical physiological function. Protein is primary used
in the body to build, maintain, and repair body tissues.
In the event that protein intake is greater than that
required by the body for this primary function,
excessive protein is converted to energy for immediate
use or stored in the body as fat.
Protein energy will be used only after other energy
sources (carbohydrates and fat) are exhauster or
unavailable.
Amino Acid + Amino Acid = Dipeptide
Amino Acid + Dipeptide = Tripeptide
Amino Acid +Amino Acid + …. + Tripeptide =
Polypeptide
Essentials Amino Acids
- Cannot be synthesized within the body
• Threonine • Methionine
• Histidine • Methionine
• Tryptophan • Lysine
Included in protein that forms muscles. 30-40 percent
of amino acid.
 Valine DNA is too large to leave the nucleus (double
 Leucine stranded), but RNA can leave the nucleus (single
stranded).
 Isoleucine
• Part of DNA temporarily unzips and is used as
Protein Synthesis
a template to assemble complementary nucleotides
Proteins are composed of amino acids – there are 20 into messenger RNA (mRNA).
different amino acids
• mRNA then goes through the pores of the
Different proteins are made by combining these 20 nucleus with the DNA code and attaches to the
amino acids in different combinations ribosome.
• Step 2: Translation
Proteins are manufactured (made) by the ribosomes
• Function of proteins: Making a Protein—Translation
1. Help fight disease Second Step: Decoding of mRNA into a protein is
called Translation.
2. Build new body tissue
• Transfer RNA (tRNA) carries amino acids
3. Enzymes used for digestion and other chemical
from the cytoplasm to the ribosome.
reactions are proteins
- A. Messenger RNA is transcribed in the
(Enzymes speed up the rate of a reaction)
nucleus.
4. Component of all cell membranes - B. The mRNA then enters the cytoplasm and
attaches to a ribosome. Translation begins at
Making Proteins AUG, the start codon
- Each transfer RNA has an anticodon whose
Step 1: Transcription
bases are complementary to a codon on the
Making a Protein—Transcription mRNA strand. The ribosome positions the start
codon to attract its anticodon, which is part of
First Step: Copying of genetic information from the tRNA that binds methionine. The ribosome
DNA to RNA called Transcription also binds the next codon and its anticodon
Why? DNA has the genetic code for the - CODON – A codon is a sequence of three
protein that needs to be made, but proteins are made DNA or RNA nucleotides that corresponds
by the ribosomes—ribosomes are outside the nucleus with a specific amino acid or stop signal during
in the cytoplasm. protein synthesis.
 - ANTICODON - anticodon is found at one
end of a transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule. Base
pair with the codon on a strand of mRNA
during translation.
This action ensures that the correct amino acid
will be added to the growing polypeptide chain
- C. The Polypeptide “Assembly Line” The
ribosome joins the two amino acids-
methionine and phenylamine- and breaks the
bond between methionine and its tRNA.
- The tRNA floats away from the ribosome,
allowing the ribosome to bind another tRNA.
The ribosome moves along the mRNA, binding
new tRNA molecules and amino acids.
D. Completing the polypeptide- The process
continues until the ribosome reaches one of the
three stop codons The result is a complete
polypeptide.
• These amino acids come from the food we eat.
Proteins we eat are broken down into individual amino
acids and then simply rearranged into new proteins
according to the needs and directions of our DNA.
• A series of three adjacent bases in an mRNA
molecule codes for a specific amino acid—called a
codon.
• Each tRNA has 3 nucleotides that are
complementary to the codon in mRNA.
• Each tRNA codes for a different amino acid.
• mRNA carrying the DNA instructions and
tRNA carrying amino acids meet in the ribosomes.
• Amino acids are joined together to make a
protein.
• Polypeptide = Protein
• A protein consists of one or more polypeptide
chains.
The 8 Amino Acid
Leucine Isoleucine and Valine – for rebuilding and
repair of muscles, wound healing.
Lysine -The absorption of calcium from other foods:
the integrity of skin: for energy production in the
muscle at a cellular level (in conjunction with
methionine)
Methionine – Supporting the immune system in
prevention of allergies: the production of serotonin to
regulate mood and produce relaxation.
Phenylalanine – Creating insulin and helping to
regulate blood sugar levels, the structure of collagen
and elastin in the skin.
Threonine – supporting the immune system;
reducing/controlling inflammation, such as in eczema,
arthritis, and irritable bowel syndrome; the production
of collagen and elastin to support the integrity of the
skin.
Tryptophan -Maintaining mental function and
clarity through its conversion into serotonin; aiding
good sleep; the production of serotonin; regulating and
elevating mood.
Denaturation Leads to loss Protein Structure and
Function
The cellular environment is suited to maintaining the
weak forces that preserve protein structure and
function
External stress – heat, chemical treatment, etc. –
can disrupt these forces in a process termed
DENATURATION – the loss of structure and
function
The cooking of an egg is an everyday example
Ovalbumin, the principal protein in egg white, remains
in its native structure up to a characteristic melting
temperature, Tm
Above this temperature, the structure unfolds, and
function is lost.
Valine, Leucine & Isoleucine
 All of these 3 amino acids are called branched
chain amino acids (BCAAs).
 They perform the important functions of
increasing proteins and serving as an energy
source during exercise.
Alanine
 An important amino acid as it is an energy
source for the live
Arginine
 An amino acid needed to maintain normal
functions of blood vessels and other organs
Lysine
 It is a representative essential amino acid.
 Tends to be insufficient when we are on a diet
centered on bread or rice.
  Deficient in flour and polished rice. Threonine  hemoglobin is a protein that carries oxygen from
 Flour lacks lysine the most, especially when your lungs to body tissues.
compared to the ideal amino acid pattern.  An essential amino acid which is used to form
active sites of enzymes. Glucose transporters (GLUT) move
Aspartic acid glucose to your cells, while lipoproteins transport
Phenylalanine cholesterol and other fats in your blood.
 Contained in asparagus in large amounts.
 An amino acid which is most easily used as an  An essential amino acid which is used to
energy source. produce various useful amines.

Tyrosine FINAL
Glutamic Acid
Cation – Positive Charge
 Glutamic acid is often referred to as  Used to produce various useful amines and is
Glutamate. sometimes called aromatic amino acid together Anion – Negative Charge
 Contained in wheat and soybean in large with phenylalanine and tryptophan.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT OF URINE
amounts.
Tryptophan
 An amino acid which is most easily used as an INORGANIC
energy source.  An essential amino acid which is used to
• Chloride
produce various useful amines.
Proline • Sulfate
Glycine
 The main component of “collagen” which • Calcium
constitutes the skin and other tissues.  Used to produce glutathione and porphyrin, a
• Inorganic phosphate
 Serves as a fast-acting energy source. component of hemoglobin.
 Proline is a most important amino acid as a • Ammonia
natural moisturizing factor that brings moisture Serine
ORGANIC
to the skin
 Used to produce phospholipids and glyceric
acid • Urea
Cysteine
• Uric Acid
 Cysteine is easy to be deficient in the infants. Glutamine
 Synthesized from methionine in the human • Creatine
 An amino acid needed to maintain normal
body. functions of the gastrointestinal tract and • Ethereal Sulphate (Organic Sulphate)
 With infants the ability of this cysteine muscles.
synthesis activity is not sufficient. • Urobilinogen
 One of the amino acids contained most
abundantly in the body.
Urea - Organic  Urinary creatinine is formed from muscle Brownish Orange
creatine.
Daily excretion: 20/30 gm/day - Sign of dehydration or a possible sign of liver
INCREASE LEVELS disease
Urea is formed in the liver
 Muscular Disease Pinkish Red
End product of protein metabolism.  Myasthenia Gravis
- Possibly a sign of kidney disease UTI or tumor
INCREASE LEVEL  Thyrotoxicosis
 Starvation Blue or Green
 Fever  Uncontrolled Diabetes Mellitus
 Diabetes Mellitus ‘Increase Intake of Protein - Sign of a rare genetic Disease
DECREASE LEVELS
DECREASE LEVELS Foamy
 Renal Failure - Sign of kidney disease
 Liver Disease
 Metabolic / Respiration Acidosis URIBILINOGEN
 Nephritis  Increased urobilinogen concentration in urine
is a index of liver dysfunction or hemolytic Reading of Urine Color
URIC ACID disorder Clear: dilute may be secondary to overhydration
 Daily excretion: 0.6gm/day  Urobilinogen is present in excessive amount in
prehepatic and hepatic jaundice Stray Yellow: urine normal color which result of
 End product of purine metabolism
 Urobilinogen is absent in urine in post hepatic urobilin a breakdown product of haem metabolism.
 Increase levels of uric acid in urine is
URICOSURIA jaundice. Orange: concentrated urine is darker orange or brown,
eg. In dehydration or infection
INCREASE LEVELS COLOR OF URINE
Brown: increase bilirubhin a brown pigment from
 Leukemia Transparent
blood. Cause more blood breakdown (haemolytic
 Cancers disease)
- Sign of overhydration.
DECREASE LEVELS Red: blood from infection stone, tumor, nephiritis
Pale Yellow
 Purine Free Diet Blue/green: contrast medium eg after a scan drugs,
- Means a person is healthy and hydrated
 Gout genetic disease eg. Famillia hypercalcaemia
Transparent Yellow
CREATININE Cola: rhabdomyolysis from muscle breakdown eg.
- Normal After long lie, heavy exercise.
 Daily excretion: 2gm/day in males, 1gm/day in
females. Dark Yellow
- Normal but needs to drink more water
CHLORIDE INORGANIC PHOSPHATE include fluids that are excreted or secreted
from the body. Human blood, body fluids, and
Normal chloride excreted in 24hr urine sample is 8- Daily excretion: 1gm/day other body tissues are widely recognized as
15/day (NAaCl). INCREASE LEVELS vehicles for the transmission of human disease.
INCREASE LEVELS Bodily fluid includes the following:
 Rickets/Osteomalacia
 Polydipsia  Hyperparathyroidism  Aqueous humour and vitreous humour
 Use of Diuretics  Acidosis  Bile
 Addison’s Disease DECREASE LEVELS  Blood serum
DECREASE LEVELS  Breast milk
 Diarrhea
 Cerebrospinal fluid
 Excessive sweating, Fasting, Diarrhea,  Nephritis
 Cerumen (earwax)
Vomiting  Parathyroid Hypofunction
 Endolymph and perilymph
 Diabetes Insipidus  Pregnancy
 Female ejaculate
 Infections
 Gastric juice
 Cushing’s Syndrome
 Mucus (including nasal drainage and phlegm)
AMMONIA  Peritoneal fluid
 Pleural fluid
CALCIUM Daily excretion: 0.5 – 0.8gm/ day
 Saliva
Urinary ammonia is derived from glutamine and other  Sebum (skin oil)
Daily excretion – 2—mg/day
amino acids by kidney.  Semen
INCREASE LEVELS  Sweat
INCREASE LEVELS
 Hyper Parathyroids  Tears
 Ingestion of Acids Forming Foods  Vaginal secretion
 Renal Stones
 Diabetic Ketoacidosis  Vomit
 Hypervitaminosis D
 Urinary Tract Infection  Urine
 Multiple Myeloma
DECREASE LEVELS
DECREASE LEVELS Amniotic Fluid
 Alkalosis
 Tetany - Commonly called a pregnant woman’s water
 Nephritis
or water (Latin liquor amnii), is the proactive
BODY FLUIDS liquid contained by the amniotic sac of a
pregnant female.
- Body fluids are liquids originating from
Aqueous humour
inside the bodies of living humans. They
 - A transpatent, gelatinous fluid similar to
plasma, but contain low protein concentrations.
It is located in the anterior chamber of the eye.
- Vitreous Humour, which is located in the
posterior chamber the space between the lens
Rheum
and the cornea.
Breast Milk
- Is the milk produced by the breast (or
mammary glands) of a human female for her
infant offspring. Milk is the primary source of
Saliva
nutrition for newborns before they are able to
eat and digest other foods.
Cerumen (earwax)
- A yellowish waxy substance secreted in the ear
canal of human and other mammals. It also
protects the skin of the other human ear canal,
assists in cleaning and lubrication, and also
Sebum
provides some protection from bacteria, fungi,
insects and water.
Feces
- Feces (US) or faeces (UK), also known by
many other names, a solid waste product from
Semen
an animal digestive tract, discharged through
the anus or cloaca during a process called
defecation. Urine and feces together are called
excreta.
Lymph
- Is the fluis that circulates throughout the
lymphatic system
Mucus
- A slippery secretion. Mucous fluid is typically
produced from the cells found in mucous
glands. Mucous cells secreted products that are
rich in glycoprotein
- Is thin mucus naturally discharges from the
eye, nose or mouth during sleep. Rheum dries
and gather as a crust in the corners of the eyes
or the mouth, on the eyelids or under the nose.
- A watery substance located in the mouths of
the human and animals, secreted by the
salivary glands.
- Human saliva is 99.5 precent water, while the
other 0.5 percent consists of electrolytes,
mucus, glycoproteins, enzymes, antibacterial
- Sebaceous glands are microscopic exocrine
glands in the skin that secrete an oily or waxy
matter, called sebum to lubricate and
waterproof the skin and hair or mammals
- Semen also known as seminal fluid is an
organic fluid that may contain spermatozoa.
- It is secreted by the gonads (sexual glands) and
other sexual organs of male or hermaphroditic
animals and can fertilize female ova.
- In human semi, seminal fluid contains several
components beside spermatozoa: proteolytic
and other enzyme as well as fructose are
element of seminal fluid which promote the
survival of spermatozoa, and provide a
medium through which they can move or
“swim”
Serous Fluid
- In physiology, the term serous fluid or serosal
fluid (originating from the Medieval Latin
word "serosus", from Latin "serum") is used
for various bodily fluids that are typically pale
yellow and transparent and of a benign nature.
Smegma (soap)
- is a combination of shed skin cells, skin oils,
and moisture. It occurs in both female and
male mammalian genitalia.
- Both sexes can produce smegma. In males,
smegma is produced and can collect under the
foreskin; in females, it collects around the
clitoris and in the folds of the labia minora.
Sputum
- is mucus and is the name used for the coughed-
up material (phlegm) from the lower airways
(trachea and bronchi). This process is known
as sputilization.
Synovial Fluid
- a viscous, non-Newtonian fluid found in the
cavities of synovial joints
- the principal role of synovial fluid is to reduce
friction between the articular cartilage of
synovial joints during movement.
Sweat
- Perspiration, also known as sweating or
diaphoresis, is the production of fluids secreted
by the sweat glands in the skin of mammals
- Two types of sweat glands can be found in
humans: eccrine glands and apocrine glands.
The eccrine sweat glands are distributed over
much of the body.
Tears
- Tearing - lacrimation, or lachrymation, is the
secretion of tears, which often serves to clean
and lubricate the eyes in response to an
irritation of the eyes.
Urine
- is a liquid by-product of the body secreted by
the kidneys through a process called urination
(or micturition) and excreted through the
urethra.
Vaginal Lubrication
- a naturally produced fluid that lubricates a
woman's vagina. Vaginal lubrication is always
present, but production increases significantly
near ovulation and during sexual arousal in
anticipation of sexual intercourse.
- Vaginal dryness is the condition in which this
lubrication is insufficient, and sometimes
artificial lubricants are used to augment it.
Without sufficient lubrication, sexual
intercourse can be painful to women. The
vaginal lining has no glands, and therefore the
vagina must rely on other methods of
lubrication.
Vomit
- also known as emesis and throwing up, among
other terms, is the involuntary, forceful
expulsion of the contents of one's stomach
through the mouth and sometimes the nose
- Vomiting can be caused by a wide variety of
conditions; it may present as a specific
response to ailments like gastritis or poisoning,
or as a non-specific sequela of disorders
ranging from brain tumors and elevated
intracranial pressure to overexposure to
ionizing radiation.
Electrolytes (Dissolved Ions)
Major Positive Ions (Cation)
 Sodium Ions – Na
 Potassium ion – K
 Calcium ion – Ca
 Magnesium – Mg
Major Negative Ions (Anions)
 Chloride ions – Cl
 Bicarbonate ion – HCO3
 Phosphate ions – HPO4
 Sulfate ion - SO4