INTRODUCTION

Skin is the soft outer tissue which covers vertebrates. In humans, it is the body’s
largest organ, covering a total area of about 20 square feet. It protects our internal
organs from the environment using a multi-layered system of cushioning, a cellular
barrier, and protective oils.

Skin is more than just a protective barrier between our insides and the environment
– it also plays an active role in maintaining our health, such as regulating body
temperature by sweating and flushing when we’re hot, and raising goosebumps
when we’re cold. It can also produce Vitamin D, which is important for the health of
our bones, from sunlight.

Skin can vary greatly between species, and even between individual people! Here we
will discuss the structure of human skin, the proper care of different skin types
found among humans, and functions of skin throughout the animal kingdom.

We’ll even talk about some functions our own skin performs that we may not know
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SKIN STRUCTURE

In mammals, there are two major layers of the skin: the epidermis, which faces the
environment directly, and the dermis, which lies beneath. Both are vital to the many
functions skin performs. Here’s a bit more about the layers of our skin:

Epidermis

This is the layer of our skin that keeps pathogens out, and keeps water in. It is
composed of layers of flat cells called “squamous” cells. The term “squamous”
means “scale-like,” and describes their flat, squashed appearance.
Cell in the epithelium include keratinocytes, which protect us from pathogens,
Langerhans cells, which help with immune response if an infection does occur, and
melanocytes, which make the pigments that give your skin its color.

Most burns and skin injuries are injuries to the epidermis, which can heal quickly.
Deeper injuries that also injure the dermis can be more serious.

Basement Membrane

The basement membrane is a thin sheet of fibers between the dermis and the
epidermis. It controls what can pass between the two, serving as an additional line
of defense against invaders, and an additional guard against loss of water and other
vital substances.

When skin needs to grow or heal, the basement membrane can become more
permissive, allowing water and nutrients to reach the injured epidermis and help
with the healing process.

Dermis

The dermis is the deeper layer of skin, which acts as a cushion protecting the body
from harsh impacts. It contains many complex structures, including
nerves, blood vessels, hair follicles, sweat glands, and “sebaceous glands,” which
produce the waxy, oily substance that coats your skin to protect it from
environmental damage.
Skin Across the Animal Kingdom
All vertebrates have skin, but it can be quite different from species to species.

Mammals have hair – strands of protein that grow out of the skin, and which
keeps the animal warm by trapping warm air close to the skin. Even humans
have tiny, vestigial hairs all over our bodies.

The image below shows a diagram of the human skin, including the tiny
“arrector pili” muscles that allow our hairs to stand on end when we get
goosebumps:

Birds have feathers, which play a similar role to hair, but which also enable
flight. Birds’ feathers grow from follicles in the skin, just like mammals’ hairs
do.
Reptiles and fish have hard, protective scales growing from the skin all over
their bodies.

Amphibians are perhaps the strangest of all. Their thin, permeable skin allows
air and water to pass through easily. This allows them to breathe underwater
by absorbing oxygenated water through their skin! Some species of amphibian
are so good at this that they never develop lungs.

Despite the many different kinds of skin, all skin has a few common functions.
Our own skin even does some things that we may not realize, which we
inherited from our animal ancestors!

Functions of the Skin

Skin can serve many different functions which are beneficial to the organism. These
include:

Protection from the environment

Skin keeps pathogens such as viruses and bacteria out of our tissues, so that they
can only enter through breaks in the skin such as injuries, or orifices like the nose
and mouth.

Preventing water loss

Amphibians with very thin skin need to be near water all the time, to keep from
drying out. Humans and most other land animals, however, have thick skins that
lose very little water. When humans live in desert conditions, their skin actually
becomes thicker to prevent water loss to the dry air!

Allowing for sensation

Skin is laced with nerves, which communicate information about pressure, texture,
heat, cold, pain, and pleasure to the brain. This allows us to respond appropriately
to our environment.

Temperature regulation

The skin of humans and some other mammals can lose water on purpose, through
the process of sweat. By releasing water onto the skin, the body can cool itself
through evaporation. Since the warmest molecules of water evaporate first, the end
result is carrying heat away from the body.

Camouflage

Many animals have skin which produces colors and patterns specially designed to
blend in with their surroundings and avoid being spotted. This is important for both
predator and prey species. Prey species can’t be eaten if their predator cannot see
them; and predators can’t be avoided if they are invisible to their prey.A few species,
however, have evolved skin that goes above and beyond. Chameleons and octopi
are among species whose skin has cells that can release different amounts of
pigment at will.

Storage

Many animals store fat and water in the tissues of their skin. This allows these
material to act as extra insulation while they are sitting around, waiting to be used.

Many animals who live in cold climates have taken this ability to survive.

Excreting scent signals

Our skin and the sweat it secretes can also serve another purpose – acting as a
signal to other animals. Many animals mark their territory with their own unique
“scent markers” from glands in their skin. Those markers can even contain
information about the animal’s age, gender, health, and availability to mate!