CLASS 11 NCERT

FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

1. Geography as a discipline
1. Geography as a discipline
1. Geo(Earth) and Graphos(Description)
2. Geography studies the Nature and Human interactions and their cause and effects
3. Geography identifies the patterns of distribution of natural and cultural features
through time and space asking what, where and why
2. Geography as an integrating discipline (Fig 1.1)
1. Branches of Geography
1. Based on Systematic approach
1. Physical Geography
1. Geomorphology
2. Climatalogy
3. Hydrology
4. Soil Geography
2. Human geography
1. Demography
2. Social Geography
3. Economic Geography
4. Political Geography
5. Historical Geography
3. Bio-Geography
1. Plant Geography
2. Zoo Geography
3. Ecology and Environmental Geography
2. Based on Regional approach
1. Regional Studies
2. Regional Planning
3. Regional Development
4. Regional Analysis (using GIS, surveys etc)
2. Physical geography and its importance
1. To manage natural resources
2. The Earth
1. Origin and evolution of earth
1. Big bang theory
1. Tiny ball (zero volume, infinite temperature, infinite density)
2. Tiny ball explodes and some energy is converted to matter
3. Temperature dropped and gave rise to atomic matter
2. Star formation
1. The uneven distribution in energy and matter gave rise to differences in
gravitational forces 
2. Hydrogen gas accumulates forming large gas clouds called nebula
3. Several lumps of gas are formed which grow denser and denser to make
stars
3. Planet formation
1. The lumps of gas has a core and a rotating disc around it
2. The gas disc condenses into planetisimals
3. Planetisimals aggregate to form planets
 4. Evolution of earth
1. Evolution of lithosphere
1. The earth was in a volatile state of molten liquid 
2. The liquid components got rearranged due to change in density
3. The top layers cooled and solidified
2. Evolution of atmosphere and hydrosphere
1. Early atmosphere was stripped off from solar wind and had
hydrogen and helium
2. When earth cooled, gases and water vapour were released by
volcanic eruptions
3. The carbon dioxide in the atmosphere dissolved into rainwater,
decreasing temperature and increasing rainfall
3. Evolution of life
1. Somewhere in the hydrothermal vents as a result of a methane
chemical cycle life was born
5. Moon formation
1. A body 1x-3x of mars collided with Earth 
2. Interior of earth
1. Sources of information about the interior of earth
1. Direct sources
1. Deep drill at Kola, Arctic Ocean (12 km)
2. Volcanic eruptions
2. Indirect sources
1. Gravitation (gravity directly proportional to mass of material)
2. Magnetic field (field indicates distribution of ferrous materials)
3. Seismic activity (shadow zones indicate material distribution)
2. Structure of earth
1. Crust (100 km)
1. Oceanic Crust (5 km)
2. Continental Crust (30 km)
2. Mantle (2900 km)
1. Outer Mantle
2. Inner Mantle 
3. Core (5100 km)
3. Volcanoes
1. Shield volcanoes
2. Composite volcanoes
3. Calderra
4. Flood Basalt Provinces
5. Mid Ocean Ridge Volcanoes
4. Volcanic Landforms
1. Intrusive landforms
1. Batholith
2. Lacolith
3. Phacolith
4. Sill
5. Lapolith
6. Dyke
3. Distribution of oceans and continents
1. Continental drift (Alfred Wagner)
1. Theory
 1. All continents formed a contiguous mass called Pangea
2. All oceans formed a contiguous mass called Panthalasa
3. Pangea split into two - Laurasia (north piece) + Gondwanaland
(south piece)
4. This split was caused by pole fleeting force (due to rotation of
earth) + tidal force
5. Further broke into today's continents
2. Evidence in support of the continental drift
1. Jig Saw fit of continents (Shorelines of Africa and South America)
2. Rocks of same age across oceans (Belts of rocks 2000 million
years old in Brazil and West African coasts)
3. Tillite (sedimentary rock formed by glacier deposits) found in
Gondwana system of India, Australia, Antarctica, Africa
4. Gold placer deposits in Ghana coast and its source rock in Brazil
Plateau
5. Distribution of fossils (Lemurs in Africa, India and Madagascar)
3. What the theory could not explain
1. His estimate of drift rates do not match with current evidence
which is much slower
2. Plate tectonics (McKenzie and Parker, Morgan)
1. Theory
1. A tectonic plate is a mass of solid rock having both continental
crust and oceanic crust
2. If continental crust portion is more the oceanic crust, then we call it
continental plate(Eurasian plate) or else oceanic plate(Pacific plate)
3. Earth has 7 major plates and several minor plates, each surrounded
by 3 types of boundaries
1. Divergent Boundaries
2. Convergent Boundaries
3. Transform Boundaries 
4. Indian plate collided with Asian plate 40-50 million years ago
causing uplift of the Himalayas
5. Around 60 million years ago volcanoes erupted to form the Deccan
Plateau
3. Landforms
1. Minerals and rocks
1. Minerals (naturally occurring substance having definite physical and chemical
composition)
1. Metallic minerals
1. Ferrous 
2. Non Ferrous
2. Non-Metallic minerals
2. Rocks (aggregate of one or more minerals)
1. Igneous
1. Cooling and solidification of magma
2. Sedimentary
1. Weathering, transportation, deposition, consolidation of sediments
3. Metamorphic
1. Action of pressure and temperature on rocks
3. Rock cycle (Fig 5.1)
1. Inter-transformational cycle 
2. Geomorphic processes
1. Endogenic processes (Energy from within the Earth like radioactivity, rotation, tidal
friction and primordial heat)
1. Diastrophism (Forces that morph Earth's crust)
1. Orogenic (Mountain building force)
2. Epirogenic (Continental building force)
3. Earthquakes
4. Plate Tectonics 
2. Volcanism
2. Exogenic processes (Energy from the Sun and gravity)
1. Weathering (mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition of
rocks by various agents)
1. Mechanical
1. Freezing and Thawing
2. Salt Weathering
3. Temperature Changes
4. Vertical unloading and resulting expansion
2. Chemical
1. Solution
2. Carbonation
3. Hydration
4. Oxidation
5. Reduction
3. Biological
1. Borrowing
2. Wedging
3. Ploughing
4. Decaying 
2. Mass movements of rock debris
1. Types
1. Soil creep 
2. Solifuction (frozen sub soil not allowing percolation
leading to mudflow)
3. Talus Creep
4. Rockslide/Landslide
5. Earthflow/Mudflow
6. Avalanche
2. Causes
1. Removal of support material from beneath by natural or
artificial agents
2. Increase in gradient
3. Overloading 
4. Unloading
5. Earthquakes, explosions etc
6. Heavy ground water draw down (sludge soil)
7. Deforestation
3. Why it is prominent in Himalayan Region
1. It is seismically active
2. Slopes are steep
3. Mechanical weathering due to constant weather changes 
4. Heavy rainfall in short periods of time
3. Erosion and deposition
 1. Running water
2. Ground water
3. Wind
4. Waves
3. Soil formation
1. Weathering of parent rock material
2. Increase in organic matter due to bacteria, plants, mosses, litchen, animals
etc
3. Roots, borrowing lead to porous and spongy texture
4. Type of soil depends on 
1. Parent rock material
2. Climate (moisture and temperature changes dictate weathering
patterns)
3. Topography (affects drainage and amount of exposure to sunlight)
4. Biological activity 
5. Time
3. Landforms and their evolution
1. Running water landforms
1. Erosional landforms
1. Valleys
2. Potholes
3. Plunge Pools
4. Incised/Entrenched Meanders
5. River Terraces
2. Depositional landforms
1. Alluvial fans
2. Deltas
3. Floodplains
4. Natural levees
5. Point Bars
6. Meanders
7. Braided Channels
2. Ground water Landforms/ Kurst topography
1. Erosional Landforms 
1. Pools
2. Sinkholes
3. Lapies
4. Limestone Pavements
5. Caves
2. Depositional Landforms
1. Stalactities
2. Stalagmites 
3. Pillars
3. Glacier Landforms
1. Erosional Landforms
1. Cirque
2. Horns
3. Serrated Ridges
4. Glacial Valleys/Troughs
2. Depositional Landforms
 1. Morraines
2. Eskers
3. Outwash plains
4. Drumlins
4. Waves and Current Landforms
1. Erosional Landforms
1. Cliffs
2. Terraces
3. Caves
4. Stacks
2. Depositional Landforms
1. Beaches
2. Dunes
3. Bars
4. Barriers
5. Spits
5. Wind
1. Erosional Landforms
1. Pediments
2. Pediplains
3. Playas
4. Deflation Hollows and Caves
5. Mushroom Tables and Pedestal Rocks
2. Depositional Landforms
1. Sand dunes
4. Climate
1. Formation of the atmosphere
1. Early atmosphere was likely made of H2 and Helium because these
were the gases in the disk spinning around the sun or perhaps was
stripped off during a solar wind 
2. Like the early earth, the early atmosphere too was very warm and the
gases became hot enough to escape earth's gravity 
3. The "second atmosphere" of the earth came from the earth itself ie the
volcanoes released three main gases - CO2, NH3 and H2O vapour - As
hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen and oxygen were readily available in the
molten earth liquid concoction 
4. Much of the CO2 was dissolved into the sea water as the earth cooled
and organisms that could take sunlight and CO2 and turn it into food,
releasing O2 into the atmosphere evolved (diatoms) 
5. The NH3 was broken down by sunlight and H2 being too light first
rose up and then escaped the earth's gravity 
2. Composition and structure of the atmosphere
1. Composition 
1. Nitrogen - 78%
2. Oxygen -21%
3. Argon - 0.9%
4. Carbon Dioxide - 0.0038% etc 
2. Structure (km)
1. Troposphere - Most of water vapor is here so all weather
phenomena takes place here
 2. Stratosphere - Planes fly here using jet streams and to avoid
weather conditions - Due to ozone layer the temp raises with
altitude (O3 absorbs UV radiation)
3. Mesosphere - Meteorites burn up completely here 
4. Thermosphere - Lower layer is made of charged atomic matter
called ions and hence called Ionosphere - Temp increases with
height here due to absorption of heat from incoming solar
radiation by the thin concentration of molecules which fly at
very high speeds unobstructed (Temp is directly proportional to
speed of atoms)
5. Exosphere - Gas molecules escape of into space here
periodically
3. Solar radiation, heat balance and temparature
1. Solar radiation
1. Variability of insolation on the surface of the earth (R)
1. Rotation of the earth
1. Earth's axis of rotation is inclined at 66.5' to the
plane of orbit of earth around the sun
2. Moon's axis of rotation is inclined at 5' to the
plane of orbit of earth around the sun
2. Angle of inclination of sun's rays varies across surface
3. Transparency of atmosphere is different (learn heat budget) 
4. Surface topography 
2. Why does aphelion and perihelion have no effect on variation of insolation
on Earth
1. Aphelion (152 million km) and Perihelion (147 million km)
2. This difference is masked by effect of distribution of land and sea,
atmospheric circulation etc 
3. Heating and cooling of atmosphere
1. Lower layers get heated by conduction
2. Upper layers get heated by convection and advection 
2. Heat balance
1. Heat budget of the Earth 
2. Variation in net Heat Budget at the Earth's surface
3. Temperature
1. Factors controlling temperature distribution of atmosphere
1. Latitude 
2. Altitude
3. Distance from the sea
4. Air mass 
5. Ocean currents
2. Distribution of Temperature on Earth's surface (Fig 9.4 a,b,c)
3. Normally the temperature decreases with height (normal lapse rate) but
sometimes it is increases 
1. This is called Inversion of temperature 
2. Occurs ideally in long winter nights with clear skies and still air, in
polar areas, in hills due to sinking air 
3. Terrestrial heat is radiated off at night and by early morning earth
is cooler than the air above
4. Smoke, fog gets collected beneath inversion layer leading to smog 
4. Atmospheric circulation and weather systems
 1. Atmospheric Pressure
1. Vertical variation (Vertical variations >> Horizontal variation but countered
by gravity, hence we don't see upward winds) [Jet Streams]
2. Horizontal variation 
3. World distribution of sea level pressure (diagram)
2. Factors affecting velocity of wind
1. Pressure gradient force
2. Air friction force
3. Coriolis force
3. General circulation of the atmosphere (R)
1. Latitudinal variation in atmospheric heating
2. Emergence of pressure belts 
3. Migration of belts following apparent path of the sun 
4. Distribution of continents and oceans 
5. Rotation of the earth
4. Important terms
1. Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (5'S - 5'N)
2. Sub tropical jet stream, Polar jet stream
3. Southern oscillations leading to El Nino
5. Factors that cause local deviation from the general circulation system
1. Seasonal Winds (due to shifting pressure belts)
1. Loo
2. Monsoon
2. Local Winds (difference in local heating of earth's surface)
1. Kal Baisakhi
2. Mango Showers
3. Land and Sea breeze (equilibrium effect in coastal areas)
4. Mountain and Valley winds (mountain slopes get heated faster in day, cool
faster in night)
5. Air masses (Large homogenous masses of air that have almost same temp
and pressure throught. Occur above areas where conditions are homogenous
like vast ocean or plain surfaces like deserts, ice sheets)
6. Fronts (Boundary between two air masses)
1. Warm front (warm air moves toward cold air)
2. Cold front (cold air moves toward warm air)
3. Stationary front
4. Occluded front (when warm air is lifted above cold air
completely/vice versa)
7. Extra-tropical cyclone (cyclones occuring beyond tropics in the mid-
latitudes, move west to east, less destructive, can originate over land and
seas)
1. Western DIsturbances
8. Tropical cyclone (cyclones occuring in tropics, move east to west, more
destructive, can originate over seas only) 
6. Thunderstorm and Tornadoes
5. Water in the atmosphere
1. Absolute humidity (weight of water vapor/ unit volume of air)
2. Relative humidity (% of water present in atmosphere compared to full capacity)
3. If humidity is 100%, air is said to be saturated and the temp at which condensation
occurs is called dew point
4. Condensation
1. Occurs when 
 1. Temp drops below dew point
2. Volume decreases due to drop in temp
3. Moisture is added to saturated air by evaporation
2. Forms of occurence
1. Dew (when dew point is above freezing point, water drops form)
2. Frost (when dew point is below freezing point, ice crystals form)
3. Fog (when temp of saturated air drops suddenly, it condenses on
dust particles forming a cloud close to ground called fog. Typically
occur when warm air comes in contact with cold air)
4. Mist (Mist contains more moisture than fog. Typically occurs when
in mountains when rising warm air meets cold air on surface)
5. Smog (fog + smoke)
6. Clouds (condensation occurring onto dust particles in free air,
water and tiny ice crystals create clouds) 
5. Precipitation
1. When weight of condensation in free air exceeds air resistance, it comes
down by gravity
1. Rainfall (when dew point temp > 0'C)
2. Snowfall (when dew point temp < 0'C)
3. Sleet (when dew point temp  of upper layer cloud > 0'C but dew
point of lower layer cloud is < 0'C, raindrops freeze and fall)
4. Hail (when rain passes through many layers < 0'C, they grow in
size and fall)
2. Types of rainfall
1. Convectional (water evaporates, condenses as cloud, rains)
2. Orographic (saturated air mass is pushed up a slope, temp falls,
rains on windward slope, when dry winds descend on leeward side,
they pick up moisture leading to dry slopes called rain-shadow
area)
3. Cyclonic rain 
6. Distribution of world rainfall
6. World climate and climate change
1. Classification of World Climate 
1. Empirical (based on observed data like temp, ppt)
2. Genetic (based on causes)
3. Applied (based on specific purpose)
2. Keoppens Scheme of Classification of Climate or Empirical Classification (see fig)
1. Basis: How mean annual and mean monthly temp and precipitation are
related to vegetation
2. 5 major groups (4 based on temp + 1 based on ppt) 
3. Big letters: A,C, D, E -> humid climates and B -> dry climate (B has S->
Semi arid and W -> Desert)
4. Small letters
1. f -> no dry season, m-> monsoon climate, w -> winter dry season -
> s -> summer dry season (humidity order)
2. a>b>c>d (decreasing order of temperature) 
3. A- Tropical Humid Climate
1. Occur between the tropics
2. Sun is directly overhead throughout the year and existence of ITCZ makes it
hot and humid 
3. Types
1. Tropical Wet 
 1. Avg temp of coldest month 18'C
2. Regular heavy rainfall, thunderstorms in afternoon
3. Tropical Evergreen Forests 
2. Tropical Monsoon
1. Heavy rains in summer, dry winter 
3. Tropical Wet and Dry Climate 
1. Temp is higher and wet season is drier that the previous
two 
2. Deciduous and grasslands 
4. B- Dry Climate 
1. Evaporation > Precipiation
2. Occur between 15' - 60' N and S of the equator and cover a large area of the
planet
3. Types
1. Subtropical Steppe and Subtropical Desert, Mid-Latitude Steppe
and Mid-Latitude Desert 
1. Located in transition zones between humid and dry zones 
2. Steppe receives slightly more rainfall than the desert, thus
sparse grasslands are here
3. High variability in temp and rainfall, leading to famine. It
affects life in steppe more because more people live here
than in desert
5. C- Warm temperate (Mid-Latitude) Climate 
1. Avg temp of coldest month is between 3'C - 18'C
2. Occur between 30'-50' latitudes mainly in eastern and western margins of
continents 
3. Warm summers and Mild winters
4. Types
1. Humid Subtropical Climate 
2. Mediterranean Climate 
3. Humid Subtropical Climate 
4. Marine West Coast Climate 
6. D- Cold Snow Forest Climates 
1. Avg temp of coldest month < 3'C
2. Occur in 40'-70' N only 
3. Types
1. Cold Humid Winter
2. Cold Dry Winter 
7. E- Polar Climates
1. Avg temp of coldest month < -10'C
2. Occur poleward beyond 70' N and S
3. Types
1. Tundra Climate 
2. Ice Cap Climate
8. Climate Change 
1. Earth has witnessed constant climate change over eons. Today's climate is
just seen since past 10000 years
2. Evidence of climate change on Earth over eons
1. Sediments in glacial lakes reveal warm and cold periods
2. High altitude and high latitude features show traces of advance and
retreat of glaciers
3. Climate in recent past 
 1. Temperatures have been rising since 1885
2. 1885-1940 shows steady rise, 1940-1970 was almost constant and
since 1970 very rapid rise in temperature
4. Causes of Climate Change 
1. Astronomical Causes
1. Change in solar input
1. If sunspots (cool patches) increase on sun,
variations in earth's axial tilt and wobbling in
orbital path
2. Terrestrial Causes
1. Volcanism
2. Greenhouse gases causing global warming
9. Global Warming 
1. Main green house gases of today are CO2, CFC's, CH4, N2O, O3
2. Gases like CO and NO react with these above gases and affect their
concentration 
3. These gases allow incoming insolation but absorb long wave radiation
emitted by earth's surface 
4. Largest concentration green house gas today is CO2, rising by 0.5%
annually. They come from fossil fuel combustion and their sinks are forests
and oceans, so deforestation affects the concentration
5. CFC's destroy stratospheric ozone, forming a hole which allows ultra-violet
rays to pass 
6. Once global warming sets in, it will be difficult to reverse it. It will lead to
melting of glaciers and ice caps, sinking low lying areas
5. Water (Oceans)
1. Water (Oceans)
1. Hydrological cycle (Fig 13.1)
2. Relief of the ocean floor 
1. Major divisions
1. Continental Shelf
2. Continental Slope
3. Deep Sea Plain 
4. Oceanic deeps
2. Minor divisions
1. Mid Oceanic Ridges
2. Submarine Canyons
3. Guyots 
4. Atoll 
3. Temperature of Ocean waters
1. Factors affecting temperature distribution
1. Latitude
2. Unequal distribution of land and water
3. Prevailing wind
4. Ocean currents
2. Vertical temperature distribution
1. First layer (0-300 meters) - constant temp of ~22'C [surface sea]
2. Second layer (300-1000 meters)- rapid drop to ~4'C [thermocline]
3. Third layer (1000-9000 and above)- gradual drop to near 0'C [deep
sea]
4. Salinity of ocean waters
1. Causes
 1. Runoff from land carrying sediments
2. Opening in ocean like hydrothermal vents releasing sea
water which seeps into ocean floor dissolving some
crust minerals on the way 
2. Factors
1. Salinity in the surface layers 
1. Evaporation rate 
2. Precipitation rate 
3. Fresh water in-flow from rivers in coastal regions
4. Thawing and freezing of ice in polar regions
2. Salinity below surface 
1. Ocean currents 
2. Movements of Ocean Water
1. Waves: Action of wind on surface , originate near shallow waters
2. Tides: Action of gravity between sun, moon and earth - originate near deep waters 
1. Types
1. Based on amplitude
1. High Tide (twice in one day)
2. Low Tide (twice in one day)
2. Based on frequency
1. Semi-diurnal tide (two high tides and two low tides a day)
2. Diurnal tide (one high tide and one low tide a day)
3. Mixed tide (general variations in height) 
3. Based on sun, moon and earth positions
1. Spring tides - Difference between high tide and low tide is
maximum
2. Neap tides - Difference between high tide and low tide is
minimum 
4. Importance of tides
1. Assist in navigation near estauries or low lying
ports
2. Help in desilting rivers and canals
3. Tidal power generation
5. Facts
1. Time between high tide and low tide when tide
is falling is called ebb and vice versa is called
flow 
2. Tidal ranges are highest during perehelion and
perigee and lowest during aphelion and apogee
3. Ocean Currents
1. Forces that cause ocean currents
1. Primary forces that initiate movement of water
1. Heat from solar radiation (water near equator
expands and creates a gradient down which
water flows towards poles) [main cause of
surface currents]
2. Winds ( friction between wind and upto 400m of ocean
surface)
3. Gravity (which causes tides)
4. Coriolis force 
2. Secondary forces which influence currents 
 1. Changes in water density (in deep water currents
where themohaline ocean currents operate)
[main cause of deep water currents]
2. Types of ocean currents
1. Based on depth
1. Surface ocean currents (upto 400 m depth) mainly driven
by primary forces -10% 
2. Deep water ocean currents (mainly driven by secondary
forces) - 90%
2. Based on temperature
1. Cold currents - bring cold water to warmer areas
1. West coast of continents in middle and
high latitudes (N and S) [cause low temp
and low range of temp]
2. East coast of continents in high latitudes
(N)
2. Warm currents - bring warm water to colder areas
1. East coast of continents in low and
middle latitudes (N and S)
2. West coast of continents in high latitudes
(N)
3. Based on vertical cross section
1. Upwelling
1. Set up by differential potential in water
density that moves sediment rich water
upwards 
2. Downwelling
1. When ocean currents hit coasts, the
weight of water pushes downwards
leading to downward current 
3. Effects of ocean currents 
1. Drive up nutrients from ocean currents for plankton to
feed ( Thermohaline currents)
2. Ocean currents act much like a conveyor belt,
transporting warm water and precipitation from the
equator toward the poles and cold water from the poles
back to the tropics. Thus, ocean currents regulate global
climate, helping to counteract the uneven distribution of
solar radiation reaching Earth’s surface. Without
currents in the ocean, regional temperatures would be
more extreme—super hot at the equator and frigid
toward the poles—and much less of Earth’s land would
be habitable
3. Warm currents lead to evaporation, which turns into the
rain for the coastal areas
4. Cold currents do not give rise to moisture-laden winds
and, therefore, there is no rainfall in the coastal regions.
The conditions cause desertification in the affected
coastal regions, such as the Kalahari
 5. Some currents might be too strong and end up
destroying planktons. For instance, El Nino currently
destroys planktons along the Peruvian coasts. It also
brings with it several diseases that kill fish.
6. In Antarctica, strong upwelling currents pump nitrogen
and phosphates up from the deep sea to blooms of algae
and other plants. The planktons are eaten by crustaceans
called krill. The krill in turn feed penguins, seabirds,
seals, and the baleen whales – the largest animals on
earth
7. save up on time and costs during sailing 
8. Warm ocean currents are responsible for keeping the
ports in polar regions operational
6. Life on Earth
1. Life on earth
1. Ecology
2. Types of ecosystem
1. Terrestrial
1. Forest 
2. Grassland
3. Desert
4. Tundra
2. Aquatic 
1. Marine
2. Freshwater
3. Structure of ecosystems
1. Abiotic factors
1. Rainfall
2. Temperature
3. Humidity
4. Soil conditions etc
2. Biotic Factors
1. Producers
2. Consumers
1. Primary (Deer)
2. Secondary (Wolf)
3. Tertiary (Human)
3. Decomposers
4. Movement of energy within the ecosystem
1. Food Chain
2. Biogeochemical cycle
1. Water cycle
2. Carbon cycle
3. Oxygen cycle
4. Nitrogen cycle
5. Equillibrium 
1. Ecological balance
2. Biodiversity and Conservation
1. Levels of Biodiversity
1. Genetic diversity
 2. Species diversity 
3. Ecosystem diversity 
2. Significance of Biodiversity
1. Ecological 
1. Each organism performs a specific function in an ecosystem
2. Loss of system will disrupt equillibrium
2. Economic
1. Biodiversity is necessary for obtaining different types of food,
crops, livestock, forests, fish, medicines etc 
2. Without crop diversity, diseases will rise and yield might fall
3. Scientific
1. For scientific study 
3. Loss of Biodiversity
1. Endangered species
2. Vulnerable species
3. Rare species
4. Conservation of biodiversity 
1. Conventions (Convention of Biodiversity at Earth Summit, Rio 1992)
2. Acts (WPA 1972)
3. Hotspots (IUCN) [Fig 16.5]

INDIA: PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

1. Introduction (map + numbers)

1. India-Location
1. Latitude and Longitude (map)
1. Latitudinal extent: ~ 30 degrees and 3200 km
2. Longitudinal extent:~ 30 degrees and 2900 km [which causes a time
difference of two hours]
1. (R) Distance between latitudes is constant but distance between
longitudes decreases towards poles
2. The single time zone is a legacy of British Rule and a symbol of
unity
3. Messy time zones = Sleep deprivation = Loss of productivity =
Loss of GDP
3. Standard Meridian of India: 82'30'' E (map and states, cities it passes
through)
1. Places it passes through UP, MP, Chattisgarh, Orissa, AP
2. Size
1. Areal extent: 3.28 million sq km [2.4% of world's land and 7th largest
country]
2. Coastline: 6100 km (7500 km if islands are included) 
3. Indian subcontinent includes Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, India
3. Neighbours
2. Physiography (map)
1. Structure and physiography
1. Geological divisions (based on geological structure and formation)
1. Peninsular block (volcanic origin consisting of ancient gneisses and granite,
has many hills and valleys due to vertical movement and block faulting of
the Indo-Australian plate)
 2. Himalayas and other peninsular mountains (young, weak and flexible,
tectonic origin having lot of river valleys)
3. Indo-Ganga Brahmaputra plain (Originally a geo-synclinal depression
between the Himalayas and the peninsula, now filled with sediments
brought down by Himalayan and Peninsular rivers)
2. Physiographic divisions (physiography means structure, process and stage of
development of an area)
1. Northern and NE mountains
1. Himalayas
1. Greater Himalayas+ Middle Himalayas + Lesser
Himalayas (based on parallel series of mountains)
2. Kashmir or NW Himalayas + Himachal and Uttarakhand
Himalayas + Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas +
Arunachal Himalayas + Eastern Hills and Mountains 
2. NE mountains
2. Northern Plains
1. Bhabar
2. Tarai
3. Alluvial Plains
1. Khadar
2. Bhangar 
3. Peninsular Plateau
1. Deccan plateau
2. Central Highlands
3. NE plateau
4. Indian Desert (Was under the sea during Mesozoic era, it was an extension
of the peninsular plateau but due to arid conditions, its physiography has
been changed by weathering and winds)
1. North part sloping towards Sindh
2. South part sloping towards Rann of Kutch
5. Coastal Plain
1. Western coastal plain (example of submerged coastal plains, rivers
don't form delta here)
1. Kathiawar coast in GJ
2. Konkan coast in MH
3. Goan coast in Karnataka
4. Malabar coast in Kerala
2. Eastern coastal plain (example of emergent coastal plains, rivers
form delta, broader hence difficult to make ports)
6. The islands
1. Bay of bengal group
2. Arabian sea group
2. Drainage systems of India
1. Important Terms
1. Drainage - Process of causing water to run out/ dry out
2. Drainage basin - Area drained by river and its tributaries
3. Catchment area/ River basin - The area from which a river drains water
4. Watershed - Boundary line separating two drainage basins. Sometimes if
river is small, its catchment area is called a watershed
2. Indian drainage systems
1. Arabian Sea drainage + Bay of Bengal drainage ( based on sea in which
water is discharged)
 2. Major river basins + Medium river basins + Minor river basins (based on
size of watershed)
3. Himalayan rivers + Peninsular rivers (based on origin) 
3. Himalayan drainage
1. River system of the himalayan drainage
1. Indus system
1. Left bank tribs:
2. Right bank tribs: Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas,
Sutlej
2. Ganga system
1. Left bank tribs: Ramganga, Ghagra, Kali,
Gandak, Kosi
2. Right bank tribs: Yamuna, Chambal, Banas,
Sind, Betwa, Ken, Son, Damodar
3. Brahmaputra system
1. Left bank tribs: Dibang, Lohit, Dhansiri, Kolong
2. Right bank tribs: Kameng, Manas, Raidak,
Jaldhaka, Teesta, Subansiri
4. Peninsular drainage
1. River systems of the peninsular drainage 
1. Draining into Arabian Sea: Narmada, Tapi, Mahi
2. Draining into Bay of Bengal: Mahanadi, Godavari,
Krishna, Kaveri 
5. Himalayan vs Peninsular drainage
1. Origin: From glaciers || From peninsular plateau and central highlands
2. Nature of flow: Perennial (water comes from melting glaciers, snowfall and
rainfall) || Seasonal (water comes from monsoon rainfall)
3. Type of drainage: Antecedent || Consequent
4. Valley: Deep V shape || Narrow 
5. Nature of river: Large course, river meanders and shifts course || Small
course, river does not meander 
6. Catchment area: Very large basin || Relatively smaller basin
7. Age of river: Young || Old 
6. River regimes (Pattern of flow of water in a river is known as regime)
1. Ganga, the south Indian rivers max out after monsoon in Aug and Sept, and
falls later 
2. There is huge variation between max and min discharge in these rivers due
to their dependability on monsoon rains
7. River problems
1. Water in seasonal rivers run out in dry seasons
2. Water in monsoon rain fed regions flood 
3. River water pollution
4. Silting of agricultural fields while flooding
5. Uneven seasonal flow
6. River water disputes between states
8. 1 markers of Indian Rivers 
1. Brahm > Indus > Ganga  (if total length is considered)
2. Ganga > Indus > Brahm (if length flowing in India is
considered) 
3. Godav> Krishna > Narmada > Yamuna etc 
3. Climate, Vegetation and Soil
1. Climate
1. Unity and diversity in the monsoon climate 
1. Monsoon dominates climate of India but there are several regional
variations as far as temperature, winds and rainfall
2. Temp: Thar desert clocks 55'C in summer while Leh clocks -45'C in winter.
In Kerala due to proximity to coast, the range of temperature between day
and night is 7-8'C while in Thar desert it is 30-35'C
3. Precipitation: It snows in the himalayas while it only rains in the rest of
India. Most of India receives rain in June-Sept while TN receives rain in
December. While Mawsynram in Meghalaya receives >1000 cm of
rainfall/year, Jaisalmer in RJ receives <10 cm rainfall/year
4. Despite these variation climate of India is monsoonal in rhythm and
character
2. Factors determining the climate of India
1. Location and relief factors
1. Latitude (upper half of India lies in sub-tropical zone (high range
of temp, less hot) while lower half lies in tropical zone (low range,
more hot))
2. Himalayan mountains (climatic divide against cold northern winds
from central asia, make monsoon winds give rain and snow)
3. Distribution of land and water (differential pressure belts on oceans
and land cause reversal of monsoon winds)
4. Distance from the sea (coastal climate)
5. Altitude (Mountains are colder than plains)
6. Relief (Windward side of western ghats receive heavy rains while
southern plateau receives less rain)
2. Air pressure and wind factors
1. Mechanism of weather in winter season
1. Surface pressure and winds
2. Jet stream and upper air circulation
3. Western cyclonic disturbances and tropical cyclones
2. Mechanism of weather in summer season
1. Surface pressure and winds
2. Jet stream and upper air circulation
3. Eastern jet stream and tropical cyclones
3. Nature of Indian monsoons
1. Onset of the monsoon
2. Rain bearing systems and rainfall distribution
3. Break in the monsoon
4. Rhythm of seasons
1. Cold weather season
2. Hot weather season
3. SW monsoon season
4. Retreating monsoon season
5. Distribution of rainfall 
6. Variability of rainfall
7. Climatic regions of India
8. Monsoon and economic life in India
9. Global warming 
2. Natural Vegetation
1. Types of forests
1. Tropical evergreen and semi evergreen forests
 2. Tropical deciduous forests
3. Tropical thorn forests
4. Montane forests
5. Littoral and swamp forests
2. Forest cover in India
3. Forest conservation
1. Steps initiated
1. Social forestry
2. Farm forestry
4. Wildlife conservation
1. Reasons for decline
2. Steps taken
3. Biosphere reserves
3. Soils
1. Soil found at a place (factors)
1. Parent Rock Material
2. Climate 
3. Vegetation 
4. Relief 
2. Soil Types
1. Based on size of particles
1. Sandy (coarse particles > fine particles)
2. Clayey (fine particles > coarse particles)
3. Loamy (coarse particles ~ fine particles)
2. Which soil is best for which plants ?
1. Inter particle space is too much in sandy to hold air and
water but too little in clay to retain air and water, loamy
is just perfect
2. For cotton, millets, tobacco soil with good draining
capacity and air holding capacity is needed => sandy
and loamy 
3. For pulses and lentils soil with good draining capacity is
required => Loamy 
4. For cereals (rice, wheat) soil with retaining capacity is
required => Clayey and Loamy 
3. Soil cross section (From Top to Bottom)
1. Hummus ->organic matter
2. Top soil -> organic matter + mineral matter, roots, worms 
3. Sub soil -> leached organic and clay particles, minerals begin
4. Parent Material -> weathered bed rock, minerals
5. Bed rock -> igneous/sedimentary/metamorphic 
4. Major Indian Soils 
1. Alluvial (48%)
2. Black (20%)
3. Red (15%)
4. Laterite 
5. Forest-Mountain 
6. Arid-Desert
7. Saline-Alkaline
8. Peaty/Marshy 
5. Features of Soils
1. Alluvial
1. Loamy +/-,  rich in potash, poor in phosphorus
2. Regions -> Northern Plains, Peninsular Indian Deltas
and Estuaries
3. Classification
1. Bhangar (old alluvium) vs Khadar (new
alluvium)
1. Upper river bed (near mountain top) ||
Lower river bed (plains)
2. Coarser (Less Fertile) || Finer (More
Fertile)
3. Dark Yellow || Light Yellow
2. Black 
1. Clayey-, rich in alumina, poor in P,N,Humus
2. Black color is due to traces of titaniferous magnetite
and iron
3. Retains moisture well and self ploughing capacity
(develops deep cracks)
4. Regions -> Deccan Traps, Gujarat, Parts of AP and TN
3. Red
1. Loamy +/-
2. Lower Layers are yellowish, Upper layers are reddish
due to Ferric Oxide
3. Regions -> NE, E, S India
4. Laterite
1. Gravels+Clayey
2. In places where high temp and heavy rainfall lead to
continous weathering-erosion cycles, top layer of lime
and silica (so poor in P,N) is washed away and rich Fe-
Al soil is left behind
3. Needs fertilizer+irrigation and can grow cash crops 
4. Best for brick making 
5. Forest-Mountain Soil 
1. Heterogenous depending on parent material of
mountains
2. Best for cash crops but require fertilizers
3. Lack P,N but rich in humus 
6. Arid-Desert
1. Rich in P,N so with irrigation hardy crops can grow
7. Saline-Alkaline
1. In places where excess irrigation by canals, areas of
high water table in sub soil, Gulf of Khambat
2. Salts make it unfit for cultivation
8. Peaty-Marshy 
1. Parts of Kerela, TN, Odisha, WB backwaters
2. Clayey-Loamy ->good for cereals
6. Soil degradation
1. Soil Erosion 
1. Causes
 1. Natural Causes : Agents like water (running
water, ground water, tides, glacier) and water
2. Human Causes : Deforestation
2. Effects
1. Top Soil (Organic Matter + Inorganic nutrients
matter) is washed off => Low soil fertility
2. Ground Water table will rise which further
decreases soil fertility 
3. Floods and drought become more frequent 
4. Further accelerates erosion => further damage !
3. Solutions
1. Afforestation
2. Decline in soil fertility 
1. Factors affecting soil fertility 
1. Mineral composition
2. Soil pH (5-5.7)
3. Soil Texture (Sandy, Loamy, Clayey) -> Affect
moisture retention capacity 
4. Organic Matter (P,N composition)
2. Reasons for loss in soil fertility 
1. Over Cropping
2. Unscientific rotation of plants 
3. Chemical fertilizer abuse
4. Chemical pesticides abuse
3. Solutions
1. Leave land for sometime to regain fertility 
2. Plant leguminous plants to increase soil fertility 
3. Water Logging
1. It cuts off oxygen supply to the soil so yield will be sub
par
2. Solution is to construct proper water drainage system
not just irrigating system 
4. Salinity and Alkalation
1. In regions which abuse irrigation, the silt of rivers
which logs the air vents of soil causing water logging
problem
2. Much of the silt is calcium carbonate (kankar) which
increases soil pH
5. Slash and Burn agriculture/Jhumming 
1. A form of cultivation where forest is cut, then set on fire
(to increase potash content) and then cultivated 
2. Once yield drops another patch of land is cultivated
(shifting cultivation). The old land is left alone to
naturally regain fertility
3. Nowadays due to overpopulation the time for
recultivating a piece of land has reduced from 10-20
years to 2-3 years
4. Effects
1. Deforestation
2. Air pollution
 3. Soil erosion
4. Loss of habitat for wildlife
7. Soil Conservation Methods
1. Afforestation
2. Contour ploughing (cultivation against the direction of the
wind)
3. Strip cultivation (cultivation in strips)
4. Flood control by government initiatives
5. Reclamation of bad lands
6. Wind breaks in land; like trees at borders
7. Organic farming
8. Control/restrict shifting cultivation
9. Construction of proper drainage
10. Leveling of gullies, ravines etc
11. Control of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in the market
12. Proper awareness about the need of conservation

Study Natural Disaster Risk Distribution Charts on Page 90 onwards 

CLASS 12 NCERT

FUNDAMENTALS OF HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

1. Unit I
1. Human geography: nature and scope 
1. Nature of human geography
1. Naturalization of humans and humanization of nature
1. Distribution of human features across time and space
2. Interrelationship with physical geography 
3. Causes and effects of human geographical phenomena 
2. Human geography through time
1. Over time we have become naturalized humans who
have humanized nature 
3. Field and sub-fields of human geography
1. Social Geography
2. Political Geography 
3. Economic Geography 
4. Demography 
5. Settlement Geography 
2. Unit II
1. World population: Distribution, density and growth
1. Patterns of population distribution in the world (map)
2. Density of population
1. Factors 
1. Geographical factors
 1. Availability of water (people live where freshwater is
easily available)
2. Landforms (people live in plain and gentle hill slopes due
to fertile soil, river water in valleys and easiness in
building roads and industries)
3. Climate (people don't like to live in deserts, ice caps or
heavy rainfall regions)
4. Soils (people live where soil is fertile)
2. Economic factors
1. Minerals (people live where minerals are abundant since
they lead to industries and employment)
2. Urbanization (people move to urban areas as they have
more employment opportunities, better living standards
and civic amenities)
3. Industrialization (people live near industrial areas due to
employment opportunities)
3. Social and cultural factors (people live in areas with stable cultural
and political environments)
3. Population growth 
1. Components of population change (Pop Change = Births - Deaths + In
Migration - Out Migration)
2. Migration (Push factors, Pull factors)
3. Trends in population growth
1. Doubling time of world population (0-1 billion : >1million years,
1-2 : 100 years, 2-3 : 30 years, 3-4 : 15 years, 4-5 : 12 years, 5-6:
12 years, 6-7: 12 years
2. Spatial pattern of population change (population is inversely
related to economic development)
3. Impact of population change (depletion of resources, stress on
ecological balance, little rate of growth is good for economy tho)
4. Demographic transition 
1. Stage 1: High birth rate and high death rate (to
make up for deaths due to epidemics and
variable food supply, most people are in
agriculture where large families are an asset)
1. 200 years ago every country was in this
stage 
2. Stage 2: In the first half, birth rates remain same
but death rates fall rapidly (improvements in
sanitation and health care). In the second half
the death rates remain constant but birth rates
rapidly fall (economic development where large
families are a liability) 
3. Stage 3: Both birth rate and death rates remain
same and low (due to technological progress,
education)
5. Population control measures
1. Family planning 
1. Propaganda (one child policy of China)
2. Free contraceptives
3. Tax disincentives
2. Population composition
 1. Sex composition
1. Low number of females may indicate their low socio-political-
economic status, cultural practices against them, male out
migration
2. Russia has more females than men (men die prematurely due to
war, alcoholism, suicides)
2. Age structure
1. Age-Sex pyramid
1. Expanding population (Under developed-Nigeria)
2. Constant population (Developing-Australia)
3. Contracting population (Developed-Japan)
3. Rural-Urban composition
1. Literacy (indicates socio-economic development, status of females)
2. Occupational structure (economic sector wise- indicates economic
development)
3. Human development
1. Human Growth vs Human Development (Quantitative pop growth vs Qualitative
improvement in lifestyle (higher std of living, more opportunities) , Growth doesn't
necessarily lead to development) 
2. Four pillars of human development (SEPECS)
1. Equity
2. Sustainability
3. Productivity 
4. Empowerment 
5. Cooperation
6. Security 
3. Approaches to measure human development
1. Income approach (economic development)
2. Welfare approach (socio-political development)
3. Basic needs approach (socio-political development)
4. Capability approach (technological development)
4. Measuring human development
1. Human development Index (life expectancy at birth, mean
years of schooling and expected years of schooling, gross
national income per capita)
2. Human poverty Index
3. Gross National Happiness
5. International comparisons
1. Countries with high HDI spend a lot on social sector, are
politically stable and economically prosperous 
3. Unit III
1. Primary activities 
1. Hunting, Fishing and gathering 
2. Pastoralism
1. Nomadic herding
2. Commercial livestock rearing
3. Agriculture
1. Subsistence agriculture 
1. Primitive subsistence agriculture 
2. Intensive subsistence agriculture (India)
 1. ISA dominated by wet paddy cultivation (coastal and NE
India)
2. ISA dominated by other crops cultivation (Rest of India)
2. Plantation agriculture (
3. Extensive commercial grain cultivation (semi-arid regions)
4. Mixed farming (highly developed nations)
5. Dairy farming
6. Mediterranean agriculture
7. Market Gardening and Horticulture
8. Cooperative farming (farmers form groups to pool resources for better
profit)
9. Collective farming (farmers collectively own means of production like
USSR)
4. Mining 
1. Factors affecting profitability of mining
1. Quality of minerals found
2. Demand,Tech available, Transportation available to
ports and industries
2. Methods of mining
1. Surface mining/Open mining
2. Underground mining/ Shaft mining 
2. Secondary activities 
1. Manufacturing
1. Characteristics of modern large scale manufacturing (fact
1. Specialization of skills and methods of production
2. Mechanization
3. Technological innovation
4. Organizational structure and stratification
5. Uneven geographic distribution (factors)
1. Access to market
2. Access to raw material
3. Access to labor 
4. Access to sources of energy
5. Access to transport facilities
6. Government policy
7. Access to agglomeration economies /Link between
Industries
2. Classification of manufacturing industry
1. Industries based on size
1. Household industries/Cottage manufacturing
2. Small scale manufacturing
3. Large scale manufacturing
1. Traditional large scale industrial regions
clustered in few highly developed countries
2. High Tech large scale industries which have
diffused to less developed countries
2. Industries based on inputs
1. Agro based
1. Food processing
2. Textile
3. Rubber
 4. Spices
2. Mineral based
1. Metallic 
1. Ferrous (Iron,Steel)
2. Non-ferrous (Aluminium, Copper)
2. Non-metallic (Cement, Pottery)
3. Chemical based (Petrochemical, fertilizer)
4. Forest based (Furniture, Bamboo)
5. Animal based (Leather, wool)
3. Industries based on outputs
1. Basic industries/Capital goods (industries whose products
are used as inputs for other industries)
2. Consumer goods (industries whose products are used as
inputs by consumers)
4. Industries based on ownership
1. Public
2. Private 
3. Joint
3. Tertiary activities
1. Trade and commerce
1. Wholesale trade
1. Urban supply houses
2. Rural mandies
2. Retail trade
1. Urban
1. Chain stores
2. Mail order
1. Telephone
2. Internet
3. Convenient shopping centre
4. PDS
2. Rural
1. Periodic markets
2. Stores
3. Street peddling
4. PDS
2. Transport
1. Rail 
2. Road
3. Water
1. Inland 
2. Oceanic
4. Air
1. Passenger
2. Cargo
3. Communication
1. Means of transport
2. Telecommunication
1. Telephone
2. Landline
 3. Audio-visual
1. Films
2. Radio
3. Tv
4. Social media
5. Print media
1. Newspaper
2. Magazines
4. Services
1. Financial Banking
2. Insurance
3. Real Estate
4. Personal and professional
1. Private
2. Government 
3. NGO
4. Quarternary activities
1. Knowledge sector (Mutual fund manager, Tax consultants, Software developers,
Statisticians, doctors, teachers, officers)
2. R&D based (CEO)
5. Quinary activities
1. Specialist (creation, interpretation, innovation of new tech)
2. Decision makers
3. Consultants
4. Policy formulators
6. Tourism
1. Factors affecting
2. Tourist attractions
3. Medical tourism
7. The digital divide
4. Transport and communication
1. Land 
1. Roads
2. Railway
2. Water 
3. Air
4. Pipeline
5. Cyber space
6. Satellite communication
5. International trade
1. History of international trade
1. Why does International trade exist
2. Basis of international trade
1. Difference in natural resources
1. Geological structure 
2. Mineral resources
3. Climate
2. Population factors
1. Culture factors
2. Size of population
 3. Stage of economic development
4. Extent of foreign investment 
5. Transport
3. Important aspects of International trade
1. Volume of trade
2. Composition of trade
3. Direction of trade
4. Balance of trade
5. Types of international trade
1. Bilateral trade
2. Multilateral trade
6. Case for free trade
7. WTO
8. Regional Trade Blocs
9. Concerns related to international trade
10. Gateways of international trade 
1. Ports
1. According to cargo handled
1. Industrial ports
2. Commercial ports
3. Comprehensive ports
2. Basis of location
1. Inland ports 
2. Outland ports
3. Based on specialized functions
1. Oil ports
2. Ports of call
3. Packet station
4. Entrepot ports 
5. Naval ports 
6. Unit IV 
1. Human settlements
1. Classification of settlements 
1. Rural Urban dichotomy 
1. Based on population size
2. Based on economic activities 
3. Based on facilities available 
2. Types and pattern of settlements 
1. Compact/Nucleated (river valleys and fertile plains)
2. Dispersed (hills and
3. Rural settlements
1. Factors affecting location
1. Water supply (rivers, lakes, springs, sea)
2. Land (fertility, irrigation, climate)
3. Upland (avoid flooding)
4. Building material (availability)
5. Defence (political instability)
6. Planned settlements (usually govt planned)
7. Rural settlements patterns 
1. Based on setting 
 1. Plain villages
2. Plateau villages
3. Coastal villages
4. Forest villages
5. Desert village
2. Based on function
1. Farming village
2. Fisherman village
3. Lumberjack village
4. Pastoral village
3. Based on shape of settlements
1. Linear (along road,railway or river)
2. Rectangular (plains)
3. Star shape (build up along roads when several
roads converge)
4. T, Y shape (at tri-junction)
2. Problems of rural settlements 
1. Poor infrastructure
2. Poor sanitation and disease outbreaks
4. Urban settlements
1. Types of urban settlements
1. Towns
2. City
3. Conurbation (merger of cities and towns like Manchester)
4. Megapolis
5. Million city
2. Classification of urban settlements 
1. Based on population size
2. Based on economic activities
3. Based on administration (settlement if it has
municipality/cantonment board/notified area council)
4. Based on location (industrial town, silicon city, mining town)
3. Function of urban settlements
1. Administrative towns (Delhi, Mumbai)
2. Trading towns (Agra)
3. Cultural towns (Varanasi)
4. Classification of towns on the basis of forms
5. Problems of urban settlements
1. Economic 
1. Unemployment
2. Cost of living
3. Lack of economic infrastructure
2. Socio-cultural
1. Lack of social infrastructure
3. Environmental
1. Air pollution
2. Water stress
3. Waste management 
4. Sanitation 
5. Traffic 
INDIA PEOPLE AND ECONOMY 

1. Unit I
1. Population: Distribution, density, growth and composition
1. Distribution 
1. Highly uneven
2. Top 3 states: UP, MH, BI
3. Top 3 cities: Mumbai, Delhi, Bangalore
2. Density
1. Gangetic plains, Sundarbans and South tip are highest density
3. Growth
1. Phases of population growth
1. Phase 1 (1901-1921)
1. High birthrate and high mortality
2. Poor health, illiteracy, sanitation, inefficient food
distribution
2. Phase 2 (1921-1951)
1. Steady growth
2. Improvements in health, sanitation, improved food
distribution
3. Phase 3 (1951-1981)
1. Population explosion
2. Improving economy and increased immigration from Pak,
Bangladesh, Tibet
4. Phase 4 (1981-2021)
1. High growth rate with signs of slowing down
2. Women empowerment, raise in mean marriage age
2. Regional variation of population growth
1. North plains belt - high growth rate
2. South India- low growth rate (Kerala lowest)
4. Composition
1. Rural-Urban composition
1. 68.8% population in rural areas but urbanization rates are growing
rapidly
2. Bihar, Sikkim highest rural population while Goa, Maharashtra
lowest
2. Linguistic composition
1. 179 languages (Linguistic Survey of India)
2. 22 languages in schedule 
3. Religious composition
1. 80% Hindu, 14% Muslim, and others
2. Muslim concentrated in Kashmir valley, areas in West Bengal,
Kerala, Delhi, Lakshadweep
3. Christians in Goa, Kerela, NE states
4. Jains in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharastra
5. Buddhist in Maharashtra, NE
4. Labor composition
1. Main workers (works for atleast six months)
2. Marginal workers (works for less than six months)
3. Non workers (60%)
 2. Migration: Types, causes and consequences
1. Streams of migration
1. Domestic
1. R-R, R-U, U-R, U-U
2. R-R dominated by females (marriage migration)
3. R-U dominated by males (work migration)
2. International 
1. Immigration
1. 96% from bangladesh, pakistan and nepal
2. Refugee migration problem of India in NE and Kashmir
2. Emigration
1. Biggest diaspora in the world - 17.5 million
2. Top 5 destinations- UAE, US, Saudi, Pak, Oman
2. Spatial variation of migration
1. Largest net out-migrants from UP and Bihar
2. Largest net in-migrants Maharashtra, Delhi, Gujarat
3. Causes of migration
1. Push factors
2. Pull factors
4. Consequences of migration
1. Economic consequences
1. Remittances is our major forex source
2. Overcrowding of cities and slum developments
2. Demographic consequences
1. Sex ration imbalances in rural and urban areas
2. NE state issue
3. Social consequences
1. Social exclusion
2. Evolution of composite culture
3. Regionalism
4. Environmental consequences
1. Unplanned urban settlements
2. Pressure on infrastructure
3. Slums
5. Other consequences
1. High skilled labor migration is detrimental to India
3. Human development Index
1. http://hdr.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/IND/
2. Unit II
1. Human settlements
1. Types of Rural settlements
1. Clustered settlements (NE states)
2. Semi-clustered settlements
3. Hamleted/Fragmented clustered settlements (Gangetic plains)
4. Dispersed settlements (Western Ghats and Himalayas)
2. Types of Urban settlements
1. Evolution of towns in India
1. Ancient towns (Varanasi, Patna)
2. Medieval towns (Delhi,Hyderabad)
3. Modern towns (Mumbai, Chennai)
 3. Urbanization in India
1. Classification of towns on the basis of population size 
1. Class I-VI
2. 60% population resides in class I towns
2. Functional classification of towns
1. Administrative towns and cities 
2. Industrial towns
3. Transport cities
4. Commercial towns (Kolkata)
5. Mining towns (Dhanbad)
6. Garrison cantonment towns (Jalandar)
7. Educational towns (Kota)
8. Religious and cultural towns 
9. Tourist towns
3. Unit III
1. Land resources and agriculture
1. Land use categories
1. Forests
2. Land put to non-agricultural uses
3. Barren and Wasteland
4. Area under permanent pastures and grazing lands
5. Area under Miscellaneous tree crops and groves
6. Cultivable waster land (>5 years)
7. Current Fallow (<1 year)
8. Fallow other than current fallow
9. Net Area Sown
2. Land use changes in India (R)
1. Size of economy 
2. Structural change of economy
3. Reduction of contribution by agriculture over time
3. Common property resources
1. State owned land allowed for herding, forestry, public services
2. Helpful for vulnerable people
4. Agricultural Land use in India
1. Cropping seasons in India
1. North India
1. Kharif (June-Sept)
1. Rice Cotton Bajra Maize Jowar Tur
2. Rabi (Oct-March)
1. Wheat Gram Rapeseed Mustard Barley
3. Zaid (April-June)
1. Vegetable Fruit Fodder
2. South India
1. Temperatures are high enough to grow tropical crops
through out the year given irrigation
2. Three kharif crops possible in a year
3. Rice, Maize, Ragi, Jowar, Groundnuts,Vegetable, Fruit
and fodder 
2. Types of farming 
1. Irrigated (intent)
 1. Protective
2. Productive
2. Rainfed (soil moisture adequacy)
1. Dryland farming 
1. In regions <75 cm annual rainfall
2. Drough resistant crops like Ragi, Bajra
2. Wetland farming
1. Excess rainfall
2. Water intensive crops like rice, sugarcane
3. Foodgrains
1. Cereals
1. Fine grains
1. Rice
2. Wheat
2. Coarse grains
1. Jowar
2. Bajra
3. Maize 
4. Oilseeds
1. Groundnut
2. Rapeseed
3. Mustard
4. Soyabean
5. Sunflower
5. Fibre crops
1. Cotton
2. Jute
6. Other crops
1. Sugar cane
2. Tea
3. Coffee
5. Agricultural Development in India
1. Strategy of development
1. Pre-Independence
1. Subsistence agriculture
2. Droughts and Famines
3. British exploitation
4. Cash crop cultivation
2. Green Revolution 1965
1. HYV wheat (Mexico) and rice (Phillipines)
2. Chemical fertilizers
3. Irrigation 
3. Addressing regional disparities 1980's
1. Agro-climatic planning for rainfed non-irrigated areas
2. Emphasis on animal rearing and horticulture
2. Growth of agricultural outputs and technology
1. Productivity and Yield 
2. Irrigation coverage
3. Diffusion of modern tech like fertilizer and machinery
6. Problems of Indian Agriculture
 1. Dependence on erratic monsoons
2. Low productivity
3. Constraints of financial resources and indebtness
4. Lack of land reforms
5. Small farm size and fragmentation of land holdings
6. Lack of commercialization
7. Vast under-employment
8. Degradation of cultivable land
2. Water resources
1. Water resources in India (issues)
1. Surface water resources
1. Low degree of replenishable utilization (32%) (R) Hydrological,
Topographical and other constraints
2. South Indian rivers have been harnessed but Gangetic and
Brahmaputra (60% of total) yet to be harnessed
2. Groundwater resources
1. Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu utilization exceeds
replenishable utilization
2. Kerala, Chattisgarh and Orissa have low utilization
3. Lagoons and backwaters
1. Vast coastlines can be better utilized
2. Brakish water can be used for fishing, cultivation
2. Water demand and utilization
1. Agriculture 92%
2. Industrial 5%
3. Domestic 3%
3. Emerging water problems
1. Overuse of groundwater resources
2. Increase in fluoride and arsenic concentration in groundwater due to
overwithdrawal
3. Water stress
4. Ganga and Yamuna are extremely toxic 
4. Water conservation and management
1. Prevention of water pollution
1. Water (Prevention and control of pollution) Act 1974
2. Environmental Protection Act 1986
3. Water Cess Act 1977
2. Recycle and reuse of water
3. Watershed management
4. Rainwater harvesting
5. India's water policy
3. Mineral and Energy Resources
1. Types of mineral resources
1. Metallic Minerals
1. Ferrous minerals
1. Iron ore
2. Manganese
2. Non-Ferrous minerals
1. Bauxite
2. Copper
2. Non-metallic minerals
 1. Fuel Resources
1. Coal
2. Petroleum
3. Natural Gas
2. Non-Fuel Resources
1. Mica
2. Distribution of major minerals belts in India (learn maps in NCERT book)
1. NE plateau region
1. States: Jharkhand, Orissa, West Bengal and Chattisgarh
2. Minerals: Iron ore, Bauxite, Coal, Manganese, Mica
2. SW plateau region
1. States: Goa, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerela
2. Minerals: Iron ore, Manganese, Limestone, Bauxite
3. NW region
1. States: Rajashtan (Aravalli), Gujarat
2. Minerals: Copper, Zinc, Sandstone, Granite, Marble, Gypsum,
Limestone
4. Himalayan Belt
1. Minerals: Copper, Zinc, Lead, Cobalt, Tungsten
5. Assam Valley
1. Minerals: Mineral oil deposits
6. Mumbai High
1. Minerals: Petroleum, Natural gas
3. Non-conventional energy resources
1. Hydel
2. Nuclear
3. Solar
4. Wind 
5. Tidal
6. Geothermal
7. Bio-energy
4. Conservation of mineral resources
1. Enabling economic development while ensuring sustainability
2. Mitigating ecological consequences
3. Increasing the usage of renewable sources of energy
4. Recycling metals like iron
5. Reduction in export of strategic and scarce resources
4. Manufacturing Industries
1. Types of Industries
1. Basis on ownership
1. Public sector
2. Private sector
3. Joint/Cooperative sector
2. Basis of use of products
1. Basic goods industry
2. Capital goods industry
3. Intermediate goods industry
4. Consumer goods industry
3. Basis of raw materials used
1. Agriculture based industry
 2. Forest based industry
3. Mineral based industry
4. Industrially processed raw material based industry
4. Basis of nature of manufactured products
1. Metallurgical industry
2. Mechanical industry
3. Chemical and allied industry
4. Textile industry
5. Food processing industry
6. Electricity generation industry
7. Electronics and communication industry
2. Factors affecting location of industries  (examples)
1. Raw material
1. Sugar mills are located in sugarcane growing areas
2. Power
1. Aluminium and synthetic nitrogen manufacturing industries tend to
located near sources of power
3. Market
1. Heavy machines and intensive chemical industries are located near
high demand areas as they are market oriented
2. Cotton textile industry are located in large urban cities as they use
non-weight reducing raw material
3. Petroleum refineries are located near ports and petrochemical
industries as transport is easier
4. Transport
1. Concentration of Industries in Mumbai, Chennai, Delhi and
Kolkata is due to good transport
5. Labor
1. Infosys, TCS and Wipro in Bangalore due to availability of high
skilled cheap labor
6. Historical factors
1. Colonialism impetus Mysore, Coimbatore, Surat
7. Industrial policy
1. Iron and steel industry location in Bhilai and Rourkela due to govt
policy to develop backward areas
3. Major Industries
1. Iron and steel industry (factors influencing location)
1. Proximity to iron ore and coking coal deposits as both are weight
losing materials
2. Proximity to rivers for steel manufacturing process and hydel
power
3. Proximity to railway lines to transport product to ports 
4. Proximity to thermal power plants incase hydel power is not
available
5. New steel plants in Vizag, Salem and Vijaynagara are away from
raw material sources
6. Moreover there are more than 200 scrap iron steel plants across the
country
2. Major Integrated steel plants
1. TISCO
2. IISCO
3. VISL
 4. Roukela steel plant
5. Bhilai steel plant
6. Durgapur steel plant
7. Bokaro steel plant
8. Other steel plants 
3. Cotton and Textile Industry
1. Not weight losing raw material so proximity to source is not
required
2. Trend is to set up industries near markets since market feedback is
highly variable
3. Major states (use map)
4. Issues: Competition by synthetic cloth,
4. Sugar Industry
1. Weight losing and also needs to be processed with 24 hours of
harvest so located near source
2. Major states
5. Petrochemical industries (industries that use crude oil as raw material)
1. Polymers
2. Synthetic fibres
3. Elastomers
4. Surfactant intermediates
6. Knowledge based Industries
1. IT and IT enabled business process outsourcing industry 
2. High employment potential and exportability
4. LPG reforms and new Industrial policy 1991
1. Reasons
1. increase productivity and employment
2. attain international competitiveness
2. Reforms
1. Abolition of industrial licensing
2. Free entry of foreign technology
3. Foreign investment policy
4. Access to capital market
5. Open trade
6. Abolition of phased manaufacturing programme
7. Liberalized industrial location 
5. Industrial regions in India (map)
1. Major industrial regions
2. Minor industrial regions
3. Industrial districts
5. Planning and Sustainable development in Indian context 
1. Target area planning 
2. Hill area development planning
3. Drought prone area programme
4. Sustainable development
1. Measures for promotion of sustainable development
4. Unit IV
1. Transport and Communication
1. Land transport
1. Road transport
1. National Highways
 2. State Highways
3. District roads
4. Rural roads
5. Other roads
2. Rail transport
2. Water transport
1. Inland waterways
2. Oceanic routes
3. Air transportation
1. Air India
2. Oil and gas pipelines
3. Communication networks
1. Personal communication system
2. Mass communication system
1. Radio
2. Tv
3. Satellite
4. International trade
1. Changing pattern of composition of Indian exports
2. Changing pattern of composition of India imports 
3. Direction of Trade
4. Sea ports as gateways of International trade
5. Airports
5. Unit V
1. Geographical perspectives on selected issues and problems
1. Environmental pollution
2. Water pollution
3. Air pollution
4. Noise pollution
5. Urban waste disposal
6. Rural-urban migration
7. Problems of slums
8. Land degradation

GC Leong (Diagrams are important)

1. Earth and Universe

1. Exploring the Universe
1. Milky Way galaxy has more than 100,000 stars
2. Alpha Centuari is the closest star to the Earth after the Sun
3. Light takes 8 minutes to reach the Earth from the Sun
2. Solar System
1. Mercury
1. Smallest and closest 
2. Venus
1. Earth's twin because of similar mass, density and size
3. Earth
 4. Mars 
1. Next colonial destination
5. Jupiter
1. Gas giant with alternative light and dark bands
6. Saturn
1. It has 3 rings around it 
7. Uranus
1. Bluish Green planet and unlike others revolves from east to west 
8. Neptune 
1. Twin of Uranus 
9. Pluto
1. It is too small and it's orbit is too irregular to be considered a planet
3. Shape of the Earth 
1. Geoid ("earth shaped")
2. Polar diameter is 86 miles shorter than Equatorial diameter
4. Earth's movement
1. Rotation around axis from west to east in 24 hours, causing day and night
2. Revolves around sun from west to east in 365 1/4 days, causing seasons and years
5. Varying lengths of day and night
1. Earth's axis is tilted at an angle of 66 1/2 ° to the eliptical plane of it's orbit
2. At 66 1/2 ° North and South, the sun never rises for an entire day on December 22
and June 21 called winter and summer solstice 
3. As we move from 66 1/2 ° to 90 ° N and S, the nigh time increases  
4. At 90 ° N and S, the night is 6 months long at a time 
5. So, the land north of Arctic circle is called Land of the Midnight Sun
6. Altitude of the Midday Sun
1. The sun is vertically overhead the equator on March 21 and September 23 and it is
called equinoxes ("equal nights")
2. The sun appears to move towards the Tropics, which mark the limit of
movement.Hence only within the tropics, we can observe summer, winter, spring,
and autumn. Days and Nights are almost equal duration here
7. Dawn and Twilight
1. Time between before sunrise and full daylight is Dawn 
2. Time between after sunset and full darkness is Twilight
3. These occur because Earth receives refracted light from Sun when it is still below
horizon too
4. These are longer away from equator as the refraction increases with angle of
inclination of rays 
8. Locating Places on the Earth
1. Using parallels of latitudes and meridians of longitudes
2. Latitude is the angular distance of a point (in degrees) from the centre of the Earth,
on the Earth's surface [1 ° = 111km from equator]
3. Longitude is the angular distance of a point (in degrees) along the equator, east or
west of prime meridian [1 °= 111 km along equator]
9. Longitude and Time
1. Earth rotates 360° in 24 hours => 1° in 4 minutes
2. Earth rotates from West to East => Sun rises from East to West 
3. As we move eastwards we gain time and as we move westwards we lose time at the
rate of 4 minutes for every 1° 
10. Standard Time and Time Zones
 1. Since countries are huge, we accept one longitude as standard meridian to adjust our
clocks to avoid confusions
11. International Date Line
1. Moving East from the Prime Meridian we start gaining time. When we reach 180 E,
we would have gained 12 hours
2. Similarly Moving West from the Prime Meridian to 180 W we would have lost 12
hours
3. But the time at 180 has to be same right? So we add a day when we move west to
east and subtract when moving east to west.
2. Earth's crust 
1. Structure of the Earth
1. Atmosphere
1. Air Mass
2. Hydrosphere 
1. Water Mass
3. Lithosphere
1. Crust (brittle solid)
1. Upper Layer
1. Granitic Rocks (sial)
2. Lower Layer
1. Basaltic Rocks (sifema)
2. Mantle (molten)
1. Olivine layer
3. Core (solid)
1. Nife layer 
2. Classification of Rocks
1. Igneous (cooling and solidification of Magma)
1. It is crystalline, non-stratified, doesn't have fossils
2. Types (by origin)
1. Plutonic rocks (intrusive) [Granite]
2. Volcanic rocks (extrusive) [Basalt]
2. Sedimentary (denudation, erosion, deposition, consolidation of sediments)
1. It is non crystalline, stratified, has fossils
2. Types (by origin)
1. Mechanically formed (cementation of sediments) [Sandstone]
1. Conglomerate (round fragments)
2. Breccia (angular fragments)
2. Organically formed (decomposition of living organisms)
[Limestone, Chalk]
1. Calcareous (sea shells of corals, shellfish etc) [limestone]
2. Carbonaceous (plant and animal remains) [coal]
3. Chemically formed (chemical process on pre-existing rocks)
[Gypsum]
3. Metamorphic (temparature and pressure effects on rocks)
1. Granite -> Gneiss
2. Sandstone ->Quartzite
3. Coal -> Graphite
3. Influence of Rock Types on Landscapes
1. Soft rocks (clay, shale) get eroded quickly and resistant rocks (granite, quartzite)
withstand denudational effects resulting in basic landform variations
4. Earth Movements and Major Landforms
 1. From the dawn of geological time only 9 orogenic (mountain building) movements
have occurred. Over the years, these mountains have been denuded by agents to give
different landforms
2. The oldest Pre-Cambrian movements [3500 million years ago] to youngest Alpine
movements [30 million years] 
3. The new young alpine mountains like Alps, Himalayas, Andes, Rockies are tall
because of less denudational effects
5. Types of Mountains (mode of formation)
1. Fold Mountains (large scale earth movements due to stress in earth's crust)
1. Stresses may be due to
1. Increased loading of overlying rocks
2. Flow movements in mantle
3. Magmatic intrusions into crust
4. Expansion/Contraction of some part of Earth
2. Stresses lead to folding along faults 
3. The pushed up part is Anticline and the pushed down part is Syncline
4. Types of folds
1. Simple fold
2. Asymmetric fold
3. Overfold
4. Recumbent fold
5. Nappe
5. Features
1. Have many volcanoes (Circum Pacific fold mountain system)
2. Rich mineral resource (Sn, Au, Cu, Petroleum)
6. Examples
1. Himalayas, Rockies, Andies, Alps
2. Block Mountains (faulting of earth's crust)
1. Reasons for faulting of earth's crust
1. Tension and Compression in the crust tends to pull the crust apart,
forming faults 
2. Types of Block Mountains
1. Horsts (tension) [Hunsruck Mountains, Black Forest of Rhineland]
2. Graben/Rift Valley (compression) [East African Rift Valley]
3. Volcanic Mountains (ejected material from volcanoes)
1. Materials include
1. Lava
2. Volcanic bombs
3. Cinders
4. Ashes
5. Dust
2. Examples
1. Mt Fiji
2. Mt Mayon 
4. Residual Mountains (denudation of surrounding surface exposing peaks)
1. Highlands of Deccan Plateau
2. Scottish Highlands
6. Types of Plateaux (mode of formation)
1. Tectonic Plateau (tectonic movements)
1. Types
 1. Continental Blocks (blocks of land uplifted from continent)
[Deccan Plateau]
2. Intermont Plateau (plateau surrounded by fold mountains) [Tibetan
Plateau between Himalayas and Kunlun]
2. Volcanic Plateau (lava)
1. NW part of Deccan Plateau, Columbian Snake Plateau 
3. Dissected Plateau (denudation effects on existing plateau)
1. Scottish Highlands
7. Importance of Plateau's
1. Rich in minerals
1. African Plateau: Gold, Diamonds, Copper, Manganese, Chromium
2. Brazilian Plateau: Iron, Manganese
3. Deccan Plateau: Manganese, Iron, Coal 
4. Australian Plateau: Gold, Iron
8. Types of Plains (mode of formation)
1. Structural Plains (structurally depressed areas of the World)
1. Russian Plains, USA plains
2. Depositional Plains (sediment deposition)
1. Types
1. Alluvial plains (alluvium deposition by rivers)
2. Flood plains (deposition during floods)
3. Deltaic Plains
4. Outwash Plain (Glaciers/Icebergs deposit huge quantity of fluvio-
glacial sediments)
5. Till Plain (Glaciers/Icebergs deposit huge quantity of boulder clay
sediments)
6. Coastal Plain 
7. Loess Plain (Aeolian loess deposits)
2. Examples
1. Nile Delta, Ganga Delta, Pampas of Argentina
3. Erosional Plains
1. Types
1. Peneplains (in humid regions, denudation of hills by rivers
resulting in plains)
2. Pediplains (in arid regions, denudation of hills by wind resulting in
plains)
3. Vulcanism and Earthquakes
1. Landforms associated with Volcanic Activities
1. Intrusive Landforms
2. Extrusive Landforms
2. Landforms of Igneous Intrusion
1. Sills (horizontal intrusion on sedimentary rock bed)
2. Dykes (vertical intrusions)
3. Liths (based on shapes)
1. Laccolith (dome-shaped igneous mound) [Henry Mountains, Utah, USA]
2. Lopolith (saucer-shaped igneous mound) [Bushveld Lapolith, Transvaal,
SA]
3. Phacolith (lens-shaped igneous mound) [Corndon Hills, England]
4. Batholith (huge mass of igneous rocks, usually granite) [Wicklow
Mountains, Ireland]
3. The origin of Volcanoes
 1. Crustal disturbances mainly along faults
2. Types of lavas
1. Basic Lava (hotter, highly fluid so large areas spread, FeMa so darker)
which forms flattened shield/dome shaped volcanoes
2. Acid Lava (cooler, highly viscous so less spread, Si so lighter) which forms
steeply sloped volcanoes
4. Types of Volcanoes
1. Active, Dormant, Extinct
2. All volcanoes have the above three phases. It is not possible to accurately declare a
volcano extinct. 
5. Extrusive Landforms
1. Lava Plains
2. Lave Plateaux
3. Volcanic Cones
4. Caldera (Mouth of volcano blows off)
5. Composite Cones (multiple eruptions from the main conduit)
6. Parasitic Cones (Cones formed on main volcano by material erupting from conduits)
6. Distribution of Volcanoes in the World
1. In regions that have been folded or faulted 
2. Occur mainly along coastal mountain ranges and  in offshore islands 
3. Sometimes occur in middle of continents as well
4. 2/3 of Volcanoes occur in Circum-Pacific Region/ Pacific Ring of Fire
7. Geysers and Hot Springs
1. Groundwater near volcanic regions get superheated and released explosively through
conduits. All are located in 3 regions: Iceland, North Island of New Zealand,
Yellowstone Park of USA
2. Hot Springs are similar but are not released explosively. Located in Iceland, Japan,
Hawaii
8. Earthquakes
1. Crustal movements, usually along faults 
2. After effects cause greater damage like Tsunami, Landslides, Opening fissures
9. Distribution of Earthquakes
1. Coincides with the distribution of volcanoes
2. 70% epicentres are usually along Pacific Ring of Fire, 20% near Himalayan-
Mediterranean belt
4. Weathering mass movement and ground water
1. Weathering
1. Chemical Weathering (disintegration of rocks by exposure to water and air)
1. Solution (exposure to water forming solutions, occurs in warm wet climates)
[limestone by rainwater]
2. Oxidation (exposure to air/water and reacting with oxygen) [Iron content in
rocks by rust formation]
3. Decomposition by organic acids (bacteria in the soil gets dissolved in water
forming acids etc) 
2. Physical/Mechanical Weathering
1. Repeated temperature changes (stresses)
2. Repeated Wetting and Drying (outer layers absorb moisture and quickly lose
it on drying, on repetition induce stresses)
3. Frost Action 
4. Biotic Factors (borrowing, roots, human action)
2. Mass movement
 1. Soil Creep (slow gradual continuos movement of soil downwards a slope,
water acts as lubricant between soil particles) 
2. Soil Flow/Solifluction (soil acts as liquid when water completely saturates
it, also due to thawing of frozen grounds)
3. Landslides (rapid movement of large mass of soil, rain water, steep slope
undercut by river/sea, EQ or volcanic eruption)
3. Groundwater 
1. Rainwater is subjected to evaporation, transpiration, run-off, or ground water
2. Amount of groundwater recharged depends on porosity and permiability (clay is
porous but impermeable, granite is ulta)
4. Water Table
1. Groundwater on percolation accumulates on the impermeable strata of rock
2. The permiable rock which stores water above the impermeable strata is called aquifer
3. Surface of the saturated area is called water table
4. Depth of water tables varies with relief and type of rock
5. Spring and Wells
1. Spring 
1. Groundwater stored in rocks comes to surface at points called spring
2. Wells
1. Holes dug in ground to capture groundwater 
5. Landforms made by running water
1. Development of river system
1. Rain = Seepage + Evaporation + Run off
2. Run off = erosion + transportation + deposition 
3. Source of river = Spring/ Lake/ Marsh, generally upland region (heavy precipitation
+ steep slope)
1. Uplands are hence called catchment areas of rivers
2. Crest of mountain is called divide/ watershed 
4. Streams flow down on either side of watershed
5. Streams = Consequent stream (main stream) + Insequent streams (oblique tributaries)
+ Subsequent streams (right angle tributaries)
1. If rock resistance is uniform then IS (dendritic pattern)
2. If rock resistance is alternate hard and soft then SS (trellised pattern)
2. Mechanism of Humid Erosion
1. Soil creep (water acts as lubricant between soil particles)
2. Landslides (water saturates soil particles)
3. Processes of River Action
1. Erosion
1. Classification of eroded material (load)
1. Materials in solution (solutes)
2. Materials in suspension (sand, silt, mud)
3. Materials pushed by river (rocks, pebbles)
2. Amount of material eroded depends on
1. Velocity of water
2. Volume of water
3. Properties of load carried
2. Transportation
1. Processes occurring during transportation of load
1. Corration/Abrasion (Lateral + Vertical)
2. Corrosion (Solution)
3. Hydraulic Action 
 4. Attrition (wearing of transported materials on abrasion)
4. Course of a River
1. Classification of course of a river
1. Youth/Upper (Steep slope => Vertical Corration dominant => deep cut
valleys [resistant rock = gorges / arid region and precipitous valley =
canyon) + (Less volume = Erosion dominant)
1. Features found
1. River Capture
2. Rapids
3. Cataracts
4. Waterfalls
2. Mature/Middle (Medium slope => Lateral corration dominant) +
(Interlocking Spurs = More Volume => Transportation dominant)
1. Features found 
1. Meanders
2. River Cliff
3. Slip off Slopes
4. Interlocking Spurs
3. Old/Lower (Flat slope => Lateral corration is more ) + (More volume + less
velocity => Deposition dominant)
1. Features found
1. Flood plain
2. Ox-Bow Lakes
3. Delta
1. Types
1. Bird's foot delta
2. Arcuate/ Fan shaped delta
3. Estuarine delta (partly submerged in
sea)
4. Cuspate delta/ tooth like 
2. Conditions favorable for delta formation
1. Heavy load 
2. Calm sea coast
3. Shallow coast
4. No large lakes in river course to filter
off sediments
5. River Rejuvenation
1. Why 
1. Movements of earths crust 
2. Types
1. Negative movement (Uplift of land => Fall in sea)
1. Features formed
1. Terraces
2. Knickpoint
3. Gorges
4. Meanders
2. Positive movement (Depression of land => Rise in sea)
1. Features formed 
6. Human Aspects of Rivers
1. Commerce and Transport 
 2. Silting of Natural Harbours due to sediments deposition (Sol: Artificial harbor or
dredge)
3. Course changes (Floods, Marshes => Disease)
4. Hydroelectric Power
5. Irrigation canals
6. Flood plains and deltas are very fertile
7. Fishing 
8. Political boundaries 
6. Landforms of glaciation
1. The Ice Age 
1. 30000 years ago during Ice Age, most of temperate latitude lands were covered in Ice
sheets 
2. Warmer climates followed => Ice sheets retreated 
3. Today two major ice caps are present = Antarctica and Greenland 
2. Glaciation
1. Lands above snowline are covered in Ice. Snowline depends on latitude 
2. Surface snow melts and refreezes repeatedly to form granules called Neve/Firn. Firns
move downward valleys by gravity initiating glaciation.
3. Glacier flows like tongue shaped as velocity is highest in middle 
4. Processes involved
1. Erosion
1. Plucking (encapsulate rocks by freezing it and rolling it off)
2. Abrasion (scraping)
2. Deposition
3. Types of Ice Masses
1. Glaciers (Ice caps are collasal => huge weight => land sinks under them gradually =>
ice creeps out all directions called glaciers)
2. Nunataks (Peaks of mountains rising above ice caps)
3. Ice Shelves (Ice sheets extending into sea break off and float)
4. Ice Bergs (Ice shelves breaking into blocks)
5. Snowfields (Heavy winter + Light summer)
4. Landforms of Highland Glatiation (Erosion dominant)
1. Corrie
2. Cirque
3. Cwm
4. Aretes
5. Pyramidal Peaks 
6. Bergschrund
7. U-shaped Glacial trough
8. Hanging valleys
9. Rock Basin
10. Rock Steps
11. Morraine
5. Landforms of Lowland Glatiation (Deposition dominant)
1. Roche Mountain
2. Crag and Tail
3. Boulder and Clay
4. Erratics
5. Drumlins
6. Eskers
7. Terminal moraines
 8. Outwash plains 
6. Human aspects of Glaciated Landforms 
1. Glaciation removes most of top soil
2. So cattle are driven uplands to graze called transhumance 
3. Glacial sediments are fertile forming loess plains in Europe and central USA,
Morraines and Outwash plains 
4. Morrainic deposits may form lakes later, which if removed can form rich agri
grounds
5. Tourism
6. Lakes for navigation
7. Rivers
7. Arid and desert landforms
1. Facts 
1. 1/5th Earth is deserts
2. If no vegetation then "true desert"
3. Most deserts occur between 15'-30' latitudes N and S, and to West of continents
(Sahara, Arabian,Thar,Australian deserts)
1. Trade winds exit from west and are off shore here
2. They meet cold currents on sea, producing "desicating effect", so moisture
doesn't easily condense into precipitation
4. Deserts occuring in continental interiors (Gobi, Turkestan) have extremes of temp
2. Types of Desert (based on landforms)
1. Rocky desert/Hamada
2. Stony desert/ Reg
3. Sandy desert/ Erg
4. Badlands 
5. Mountain deserts 
3. Mechanism of Arid Erosion
1. Factors 
1. Insufficient rain
2. Erratic rain
3. Rapid evaporation
4. Areal denudation
2. Process
1. Weathering by heat stresses. Outer surface peels off (Exfoliation)
2. Weathering by rain water entering crevices and refreezing cycles 
3. Wind erosion by Deflation + Abrasion + Attrition
4. Landform of Wind Erosion in Deserts
1. Rock Pedestal/Mushroom Rocks
2. Zeugen
3. Yardang
4. Mesas
5. Buttes
6. Inselberg
7. Ventifact 
8. Deflation hollows
9. Oasis 
5. Landforms of Wind Deposition in Deserts 
1. Dunes
1. Barchan
2. Seifs
 2. Loess
6. Landforms due to Water Action in Deserts 
1. Gullies
2. Ravines
3. Dry Delta
4. Exotic streams
5. Temporary lakes
6. Bajada
7. Pediment
8. Playas
8. Limestone and Chalk landforms
1. Facts
1. Both are formed by corals and shells accumulation in the sea
2. Both dissolve in water and with moisture in air form carbonic acid
3. Limestone = CaCO3 
4. Dolomite = CaCO3 + Mg
5. Chalk = Pure limestone + white 
6. Region with large limestone has distinct topography and called Karst 
2. Characteristic feature of a Karst Region
1. Less runoff more seepage 
2. When water hits hard rocks it resurfaces forming springs (resurgence)
3. Grikes
4. Clints
5. Limestone Pavement
6. Sink holes
7. Limestone gorge
8. Doline 
9. Uvala
10. Caves
11. Stalactites
12. Stalagmites
13. Coombes
3. Major Limestone Regions of the World
1. NW Yugoslavia
2. South France
3. Kentucky USA
4. Human Activities of Karst Regions
1. Barren lands
2. Lead is found in veins
3. Cement and building materials
9. Lakes
1. General
1. Lakes come in variety of size, shape and depth
2. Lakes formed by accumulation of water in depressions by heavy rains are temporary
3. Lakes formed by river water tend to be permanent
4. Eventually all lakes will dry out in terms of short geological time by alternating
drainage and silting up 
2. Formation of Lakes
1. By Earth Movement
1. Tectonic lakes (depression)
 2. Rift valley lakes (faulting)
2. By Glaciation
1. Cirque Lake/Tarns/Corrie lakes (glacier melting in corries)
2. Kettle Lakes (glacier melting in outwash plain, irregular because of uneven
morraine deposits)
3. Rock Hollow Lakes (glacial ice-scouring of rock chunks)
4. Morrianic Debris dam lakes
5. Drumlin lakes
3. By Volcanic Activity 
1. Crater lake
2. Caldera lake
3. Lava blocked lake (Lava damming a valley)
4. Crust of hollow lava flows collapsing form lakes
4. By Erosion
1. Karst Lakes (limestone erosion)
2. Wind deflated lakes (wind erosion of deserts when it reaches ground water
table)
5. By Deposition
1. Ox-Bow lakes  (river deposits)
2. Lagoons/Haffs (when tides cut out bars and they get filled at high tide)
3. Barrier Lakes  (landslide and avalanches may create dams)
6. By Human and Biological Activities 
1. Man made (concrete damming a river valley)
2. Animal made (beaver dams made of timber)
3. Others (ornamental lakes)
3. Human Effects of Lakes
1. Transport of heavy goods, coal, iron, timber, grains etc
2. Economic and industrial development by waterways
3. Water storage 
4. Hydro power generation
5. When lakes dry out they leave fertile beds of alluvium
6. Irrigation
7. Rivers with lakes don't often experience floods as they regulate volume. That's why
we build Bhakra Nagal Dam on Sutlej 
8. Weather moderating effect 
9. Fish 
10. Source of rock salts like Gypsum and Borax, so adjacent chemical industries can be
found
11. Tourist attraction and health resort 
10. Coastal landforms
1. Action of waves, tides and currents 
1. Waves constantly hit shores. On calm days, winds are low and little damage is done
to shore. In storms, winds are fast and massive pressures are exerted on shores
2. Tides cause marine erosion
3. Currents move eroded debris and deposit them on coast
2. Mechanism of Marine Erosion
1. Wave movement: Winds over waves in the sea -> rolling effect  -> when waves hit
shore, shallow waters reduce speeds -> gradually wave breaks -> approaching trough
reduces water level and crest water rushes back to maintain equilibrium 
2. Forces causing marine erosion in the coast
1. Corrasion (rock debris carried by waves vs base of cliffs)
 2. Attrition (larger rocks and pebbles vs one another forming sand)
3. Hydraulic Action (waves enter and exit crevices of shore rocks, shattering
them)
4. Solvent Action (limestone coasts)
3. Factors affecting rate of marine erosion 
1. Type of shore rock
2. Intensity of waves, tides and currents
3. Human interference on coast
3. Coastal features of Erosion
1. Capes 
2. Bays/Coves
3. Cliffs
4. Notch
5. Wave cut platforms
6. Cave
7. Arch
8. Stack
9. Stump
10. Gloups
11. Geos
4. Coastal features of Deposition
1. Beaches
2. Spits 
3. Bars
4. Marine Dunes
5. Dune Belts
5. Types of Coasts
1. Coastlines of submergence
1. Ria coasts
2. Fiord coasts 
3. Dalmatian coasts
4. Estuarine coasts 
2. Coastlines of Emergence
1. Uplifted lowland coast 
2. Emergent upland coast 
11. Island and coral reefs
1. Island is a piece of land surrounded by water on all sides 
2. Types
1. Continental islands
1. Former parts of continent but has now detached and is an island
2. They become separated by subsidence of part of continent or rise in sea
level. May have shallow lagoon or deep channel
3. Similar flora and fauna are found on both parts of the island
4. Types
1. Individual islands
2. Archipelagos/Island groups
3. Festoons or island arcs (around mainland)
2. Oceanic islands 
1. No connection with continent mainland. Sometimes 1000's of miles away
2. The flora and fauna are totally unrelated 
 3. Types
1. Volcanic islands (top part of mostly extinct volcanoes)
2. Coral islands (built up by coral animals)
3. Coral reefs
1. Tropical waters are home to many coral animals and marine organisms like coral
polyps (most abundant, most important), calcareous algae, shell-forming creatures
and lime-secreting plants
2. These creatures are very tiny, live in colonies, secrete calcium carbonate to form
shells. When they die, these shells gets cemented into coralline limestone forming a
landform called a reef
3. The reef-building coral polyps need the following conditions to survive
1. Warm waters (20'C) ie tropical and subtropical regions/ Warm currents like
Gulf stream are also ideal
2. Shallow water under 180 feet as sunlight is too faint for photosynthesis for
microscopic algae, which coral polyps eat
3. Water has to salty, free from sediment. Hence corals are not found in deltas 
4. Best develops on seaward side as waves bring food and fresh oxygenated
water 
4. Types of coral reefs
1. Fringing reefs
2. Barrier reefs
3. Atolls
5. Probable origin of coral reefs
1. Many theories (One or the other can be used to explain every coral reef)
1. Subsidence theory - Charles Darwin
1. Corals start growing in the fringes of land -> Due to
down-warping of Earth's crust, the island subsided ->
Corals grew up  to negate the effect -> Seaward edges
grew faster -> First barrier reefs -> Then on further land
subsidence, atolls
2. Galcial control theory - Daly
1. During Ice age, water was too cold for coral growth ->
Islands eroded by marine erosion -> Glaciation of ice
sheets led to rise in sea level -> Corals grew in warm
waters and upwards to negate rising sea levels -> Fringe -
> Barrier -> Atolls
12. The oceans
1. The Relief of the ocean 
1. The continental shelf (shallow platform extension of continent)
1. May extend 100's of miles (NW Europe) or be non-existent in mountainous
coasts like Rocky, Andes 
2. They have gentle slopes (1 in 500)
3. Formation (ways)
1. When Ice Age ended -> Ice sheets melted in temperate latitudes ->
Rise in sea level -> Submergence 
2. Wave erosion 
3. Deposition of river sediments 
4. Significance 
1. Sunlight penetrates due to shallow water -> large plankton and
other micro-organisms -> rich fishing grounds 
2. Limited depth -> Block cold under-currents 
3. Limited depth -> Increase tide height -> Ideal for sea ports 
2. The continental slope (rapid dip at the edge of continental shelf)
 1. Steep slope (1 in 20)
3. The deep sea plain 
1. Cover 2/3rd of ocean floors 
2. Have many geographic features although named plain, like submarine
ridges, plateaux, islands etc 
4. Ocean Deeps
1. Located close to continents
2. Deepest is marina trench (36000 feet) 
2. Oceanic deposits of the ocean floor
1. The material eroded from continents if not taken by rivers into delta and coasts, are
very slowly settled on ocean floor
3. Salinity of ocean
1. Salinity is the degree of saltness of water (parts per 1000). Avg ocean salinity is 35
ppt. Dead sea is upto 250 ppt but highest is in Lake Van 330 ppt
2. Lines joining places with equal salinity is Isohalines 
3. Factors affecting salinity 
1. Rate of evaporation -> High salinity 
2. Amount of freshwater added by precipitation, icebergs, streams (mainly
where huge rivers drain, baltic arctic and antartic) ->diluted sea 
3. If sea is wholly or partially enclosed (Mediterranean, Caspian) -> no free
mixing by currents and waves-> High salinity 
4. Temperature of ocean water 
1. Generally temp falls with depth and on moving towards poles. The range of temp is
much smaller (10'F) than over lands (high specific heat capacity of water)
2. The temp falls rapidly till about 500 fathoms (rate of 1'F per 200 fathoms) and then
the drop is not noticeable at all. Hence ocean deeps never freeze as they have temp
just above freezing points 
3. But ocean temp is never constant due to warm and cold currents + winds + air
masses. As a result norwegian coast is ice free throught the year even if it is at 70' N
5. The Movements of Ocean Currents 
1. Ocean currents are huge masses of surface water that circulate around the world in
well defined patterns
2. Reasons/Factors affecting movement 
1. The planetary winds 
1. Trade winds blow from equator towards poles and westwards
(operate in tropical latitudes)
2. Westerlies blow from tropics towards north east (operate in
temperate latitudes)
3. Monsoon winds blowing from NE is winter and SW in summer
(operate in northern Indian ocean)
2. Temperature 
1. Warm water from equator moves poleward and cold water from
poles rush to fill the vaccuum (convection current)
3. Salinity 
1. Waters of high salinity being denser sinks and low salinity water
rises (convection current)
4. The earth's rotation
1. It turns currents clockwise in northern hemisphere and anti-
clockwise in southern hemisphere
5. Land
1. Landmass obstructs and diverts the current 
6. Indian Ocean circulation
 1. In North Indian Ocean there is complete reversal of direction of currents between
summer and winter due to changes in direction of monsoon winds
2. June-Oct : SW monsoon winds are dominant so currents flow clockwise
3. Dec - Mar: NE monsoon winds are dominant so currents flow anti-clockwise 
13. Weather
14. Climate 
15. The Hot, Wet Equitorial climate
16. Tropical monsoon and Tropical marine climates
17. The Savanna or Sudan Climate
18. The Hot Desert and Mid-Latitude Desert Climate
19. The Warm Temperate Western Margin (Meditteranean) Climate 
20. The Temperate Continental Steppe Climate 
21. The Warm Temperate Eastern Margin

MoEFCC-2019:20

1. Natural resources survey and exploration

1. Zoological survey of India
2. Botonical survey of India
2. Conservation
1. Biodiversity conservation
2. Conservation and management of mangroves and coral reefs
3. Biosphere reserves
4. Biosafety
5. Forest conservation
6. Forest policy
7. Forest protection
8. Wildlife conservation
9. Wildlife crime control bureau
10. Central Zoo Authority 
11. Project Tiger
12. Project Elephants
13. National plan for conservation of aquatic eco-system
3. EIA
1. EIA
2. Coastal Regulation Zone
3. Society of Integrated Coastal management
4. Abatement of pollution
1. Control of pollution
2. CPCB
3. Hazardous substances management
4. Development of clean technology and waste management strategy
5. Regeneration and eco-development
1. National afforestation and eco-development board
 2. National green Indian mission
6. Research
1. Eco-sensitive zone
2. Research in environment
3. National natural resource management system
4. National mission on himalayan studies
7. Education and awareness
8. Environmental information
9. Legislation and Institutional support
10. Climate change
1. Climate change
2. Ozone layer
3. United Nation convention to combat desertification
11. International cooperation
1. International cooperation
2. Externally aided projects

Supplementary Materials List 

1. Desktop -> Geography -> India's Problems (Land Use, Water Resources, Mining
sector, Agriculture sector, Urbanization issues) [Related to Geography]
2.