Quality of Service(QoS) Quality-of-Service (QoS) is the use of mechanisms or technologies that work on a network to control traffic and ensure the performance of critical applications with limited network capacity. It enables organizations to adjust their overall network traffic by prioritizing specific high-performance applications. In other words, we can also define Quality of Service as something that the flow seeks to attain. Flow Characteristics e Reliability e Delay e Jitter e Bandwidth QoS is basically the overall performance of the computer network. Mainly the performance of the network is seen by the user of the Network.Basic phenomenon for QoS means in terms of packet delay and losses of various kinds. Advantages / points in favour of Qos / Measurement of Qos Latency Reduction Latency is the amount of time it takes for a packet to venture from the source to its intended IP address. Ideally, the latency of these packets should be as close to zero as possible. Still, it can result in an echo effect for the recipient or overlapping audio in IP audio and voice packets if latency occurs. Jitter Reduction Jitter is another ill-effect of network congestion and results in a degradation in voice quality, audio and video data. The irregular signal pulses often result in erratic distribution and speed of data packets between IP addresses — this cancause flickering effects, gaps in audio or imagery and out-of-sequence packet delivery. Packet Loss Prevention Packet loss is, as it sounds — the loss of data packets because of congestion on a network. Packet loss occurs when the router or switch has to disregard inbound data packets due to overload until the issue is resolved. With QoS effectively in place, the steady stream of traffic is supported, meaning packets don’t drop out completely. Prioritisation policies dictate that types of data are pipelined accordingly and eradicate jams within a congested network. Bandwidth: is the capacity of a network channel to transmit maximum possible data through the channel in a certain amount of time. QoS optimizes a network by managing its bandwidth and setting the priorities for those applications which require more resources as compared to other applications. ReliabilityIt is one of the main characteristics that the flow needs. If there is a lack of reliability then it simply means losing any packet or losing an acknowledgement due to which retransmission is needed. Reliability becomes more important for electronic mail, file transfer, and for internet access. Improved Security QoS has the ability to block unwanted or suspicious data traffic in its path, acting as a firewall to make it a key component of a more secure network infrastructure. Security policies also dictate that encrypted packets are ranked higher, ensuring that safe data packets take priority. Enhanced user experience Better resource management Unlimited application prioritizationInternetworking Internetworking is the practice of interconnecting multiple computer networks, such that any pair of hosts in the connected networks can exchange messages irrespective of their hardware-level networking technology. The resulting system of interconnected networks are called an internetwork, or simply an internet. Internetworking is combined of 2 words, inter and networking which implies an association between totally different nodes or segments. This interconnection is often among or between public, private, commercial, industrial, or governmental networks. To enable communication, every individual network node or phase is designed with a similar protocol or communication logic, that isTransfer Control Protocol (TCP) or Internet Protocol (IP). Once a network communicates with another network having constant communication procedures, it’s called Internetworking. Internetworking was designed to resolve the matter of delivering a packet of information through many links. There is chiefly 3 units of Internetworking: e Extranet e Intranet e Internet 1. Extranet — It's a network of the internetwork that’s restricted in scope to one organization or entity however that additionally has restricted connections to the networks of one or a lot of different sometimes, however not essential. It’s the very lowest level of Internetworking, usually enforced in an exceedingly personal area. Associate degree extranet may additionally be classified as a Man, WAN, or different form of network however it cannot encompass one local area network i.e. it should have a minimum ofone reference to associate degree external network. 2. Intranet — This associate degree computer network could be a set of interconnected networks, which exploits the Internet Protocol and uses IP-based tools akin to web browsers and FTP tools, that are underneath the management of one body entity. That body entity closes the computer network to the remainder of the planet and permits solely specific users. Most typically, this network is the internal network of a corporation or different enterprise. An outsized computer network can usually have its own internet server to supply users with browsable data. 3. Internet — A selected Internetworking, consisting of a worldwide interconnection of governmental, academic, public, and personal networks based mostly upon the Advanced analysis comes Agency Network (ARPANET) developed by ARPA of the U.S. Department of Defense additionally home to the World Wide Web (WWW) and cited as the ‘Internet’ todifferentiate from all different generic Internetworks. Participants within the web, or their service suppliers, use IP Addresses obtained from address registries that manage assignments. Internet Protocol (IP) The Internet Protocol (IP) is a protocol, or set of rules, for routing and addressing packets of data so that they can travel across networks and arrive at the correct destination. Data traversing the Internet is divided into smaller pieces, called packets. IP information is attached to each packet, and this information helps routers to send packets to the right place. Every device or domain that connects to the Internet is assigned an IP address, and as packets are directed to the IP address attached to them, data arrives where it is needed. Once the packets arrive at their destination, they are handled differently depending on whichtransport protocol is used in combination with IP. The most common transport protocols are TCP and UDP. Function The main function of the internet protocol is to provide addressing to the hosts, encapsulating the data into a packet structure, and routing the data from source to the destination across one or more IP networks. In order to achieve these functionalities, internet protocol provides two major things which are given below. e Format of IP packet e IP Addressing system IP Address IP (Internet Protocol) addresses are used to identify hardware devices on a network. The addresses allow these devices to connect to one another and transfer data on a local network or over the internet. Each address is a string ofnumbers separated by periods. There are four numbers in total. Each number in the set can range from 0 to 255. So, the full IP addressing range goes from 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255. The internet needs a way to differentiate between different computers, routers, and websites. IP addresses provide a way of doing so and form an essential part of how the internet works. We need billions of IP addresses to identify every computer, router and website on the internet. e Aninternet protocol (IP) address allows computers to send and receive information. e There are four types of IP addresses: public, private, static, and dynamic. e An IP address allows information to be sent and received by the correct parties, which means it can also be used to track down a user's physical location in some instances. How do IP addresses worke Your computer, smartphone, or any other Wi- Fi-enabled device firstly connects to a network that is further connected to the internet. The network is responsible for giving your device access to the internet. e While working from home, your device would be probably using that network provided by your Internet Service Provider (ISP). In a professional environment, your device uses your company network. e Your ISP is responsible to generate the IP address for your device. e Your internet request penetrates through the ISP, and they place the requested data back to your device using your IP address. Since they provide you access to the internet, ISP's are responsible for allocating an IP address to your computer or respective device. e Your IP address is never consistent and canchange if there occurs any changes in its internal environment. For instance, if you turn your modem or router on or off, it will change your IP address. Or the user can also connect the ISP to change their IP address. e When you are out of your home or office, mainly if you travel and carry your device with you, your computer won't be accessing your home IP address anymore. This is because you will be accessing the different networks (your phone hotspot, Wi-Fi at a cafe, resort, or airport, etc.) to connect the device with the internet. Therefore, your device will be allocated a different (temporary) IP address by the ISP of the hotel or cafe. Private IP addresses All the devices that are linked with your internet network are allocated a private IP address. It holds computers, desktops, laptops, smartphones, tablets, or even Wi-Fi-enabled gadgets such as speakers, printers, or smartTelevisions. With the expansion of loT (internet of things), the demand for private IP addresses at individual homes is also seemingly growing. However, the router requires a method to identify these things distinctly. Therefore, your router produces unique private IP addresses that act as an identifier for every device using your internet network. Thus, differentiating them from one another on the network. Public IP addresses A public IP address or primary address represents the whole network of devices associated with it. Every device included within with your primary address contains their own private IP address. ISP is responsible to provide your public IP address to your router. Typically, ISPs contains the bulk stock of IP addresses that they dispense to their clients. Your public IP address is practiced by every device to identify your network that is residing outside your internet network. Public IP addresses are further classified intotwo categories- dynamic and static. e Dynamic IP addresses As the name suggests, Dynamic IP addresses change automatically and frequently. With this types of IP address, ISPs already purchase a bulk stock of IP addresses and allocate them in some order to their customers. Periodically, they re-allocate the IP addresses and place the used ones back into the IP addresses pool so they can be used later for another client. The foundation for this method is to make cost savings profits for the ISP. e Static IP addresses In comparison to dynamic IP addresses, static addresses are constant in nature. The network assigns the IP address to the device only once and, it remains consistent. Though most firms or individuals do not prefer to have a static IP address, it is essential to have a static IP address for an organization that wants to host its network server. It protects websites and email addresses linked with it with a constant IPaddress. Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) works in the network layer of the OSI model and the internet layer of the TCP/IP model. It is used to send control messages to network devices and hosts. Routers and other network devices monitor the operation of the network. When an error occurs, these devices send a message using ICMP. Messages that can be sent include "destination unreachable’, "time exceeded", and "echo requests". e ICMP is a network layer protocol. e Since IP does not have an inbuilt mechanism for sending error and control messages. It depends on Internet Control Message Protocol(ICMP) to provide an error control. e ICMP can be used to report these errors andto debug those errors. Types of ICMP messages e Information Messages - In this message, the sender sends a query to the host or router and expects an answer. For example, A host wants to know if a router is alive or not. e Error-reporting message - This message report problems that a router or a host (destination) may encounter when it processes an IP packet. e Query Message - It helps a router or a network manager to get specific information from a router or another host. e Source Quench - It requests to decrease the traffic rate of message sending from source to destination. e Time Exceeded - When fragments are lost in a network the fragments hold by the router will be dropped and then ICMP will take the source IP from the discarded packet andinform the source, that datagram is discarded due to the time to live field reaches zero, by sending time exceeded message. Fragmentation Required - When a router is unable to forward a datagram because it exceeds the MTU of the next-hop network and the DF (Don't Fragment) bit is set, the router is required to return an ICMP Destination Unreachable message to the source of the datagram, with the Code indicating fragmentation is needed and DF (Don’t Fragment) set. Destination Unreachable - This error message indicates that the destination host, network, or port number that is specified in the IP packet is unreachable. This may happen due to the destination host device is down, an intermediate router is unable to find a path to forward the packet, and a firewall is configured to block connections from the source of the packet. Redirect Message - A redirect error message is used when a router needs to tella sender that it should use a different path for a specific destination. It occurs when the router knows a shorter path to the destination. ICMP Basic Error Message Format Type Code Checksum Subnetting: Subnetting is the procedure to divide the network into sub-networks or small networks. Dividing a large block of addresses into several contiguous sub-blocks and assigning these sub- blocks to different smaller networks is called subnetting. It is a practice that is widely used when classless addressing is done. When a bigger network is divided into smaller networks, to maintain security, then that is known as Subnetting. So, maintenance is easier for smaller networks.Supernetting It is the opposite of Subnetting. In subnetting, a single big network is divided into multiple smaller subnetworks. In Supernetting, multiple networks are combined into a bigger network termed as a Supernetwork or Supernet. Super netting is used in route aggregation to reduce the size of routing tables and routing table updates ARP The acronym ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol which is one of the most important protocols of the Network layer in the OSI model. Note: ARP finds the hardware address, also known as Media Access Control (MAC) address, of a host from its known IP address. Essentially, without ARP, a host would not be able to figure out the hardware address of another host.This protocol is used when a device wants to communicate with another device on a Local Area Network or Ethernet.Types of ARP Proxy ARP Proxy ARP protocol handles requests coming from IP addresses that aren't on the local area network. When the request packet comes from a system outside the host's network, the protocol configured router responds to the ARP request packet. However, instead of providing a MAC address of the target host, the router responds by pretending to be the destination and delivers its own MAC address instead. Gratuitous ARP A Gratuitous ARP works as an ARP response that is not evoked by an ARP request. It assists when a host needs to announce or update its IP address to MAC address mapping to the entire network. Reverse ARPInverse ARP An Inverse ARP (InARP) does the opposite of what a traditional ARP does — it maps IP addresses using the associated hardware addresses. Network Address Translation (NAT) e To access the Internet, one public IP address is needed, but we can use a private IP address in our private network. The idea of NAT is to allow multiple devices to access the Internet through a single public address. To achieve this, the translation of a private IP address to a public IP address is required. Network Address Translation (NAT) is a process in which one or more local IP address is translated into one or more Global IP address and vice versa in order to provide Internet access to the local hosts. Also, it does the translation of portnumbers i.e. masks the port number of the host with another port number, in the packet that will be routed to the destination e NAT conserves legally registered IP addresses. e It provides privacy as the device’s IP address, sending and receiving the traffic, will be hidden. e Eliminates address renumbering when a network evolves. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a network management protocol used to dynamically assign an IP address to nay device, or node, on a network so they can communicate using IP (Internet Protocol). DHCP automates and centrally manages these configurations.There is no need to manually assign IP addresses to new devices. Therefore, there is no requirement for any user configuration to connect to a DHCP based network. DHCP can be implemented on local networks as well as large enterprise networks. DHCP is the default protocol used by the most routers and networking equipment. DHCP is also called RFC (Request for comments) 2131. DHCP does the following: e DHCP manages the provision of all the nodes or devices added or dropped from the network. e DHCP maintains the unique IP address of the host using a DHCP server. e It sends a request to the DHCP server whenever a client/node/device, which is configured to work with DHCP, connects to anetwork. The server acknowledges by providing an IP address to the client/node/ device. DHCP IP configuration information can be stored in a single location and enables that administrator to centrally manage all IP address configuration information.