1

Perception of Attractiveness Across Gender Identity and Body Size

Jingyi Fang

Department of Psychology, Mount Holyoke College

PSYC-204: Research Methods in Psychology

Katherine Binder

May 8, 2022
 2

Perception of Attractiveness Across Gender Identity and Body Size

Types of bodies idealized within social hierarchies across the world have, in recent years,

shared a common goal of thin femininity (Volonté, 2017). An increasing number of studies show

that exposure to idealized thinness in the media has negative effects on women's self-body image,

and a majority of women have expressed the desire to lose weight (Morris & Katzman, 2003).

Compared to plus-sized and average-sized models, thin models are more likely to trigger

contrasting, negative self-evaluations in viewers (Groesz, Levine & Muren, 2002). Fueled by

this research, the media has been criticized for overemphasizing images of people with a slim

physique and providing negative stereotypes of fatness in the past ten years. In response, some

companies have shifted to advertising their product using a greater variety of models, deviating

somewhat from the standard of thinness and producing some evidence of marketing success.

However, on the topic of advertising and the idealized thin female body, very little has been

discussed about the role of gender identity on the perception of beauty standards - particularly

genders beyond the binary. To examine how different body sizes of models influence advertising

effectiveness, it is important to investigate other factors playing a role in people's perception of

the different body-sized models in the advertisement, including a discussion of gender identity

that is more representative of non-binary and transgender identities.

Several research studies have investigated disparities between different demographics’

prioritization of body weight as an indicator of physical attractiveness. It was found that people's
 3

sexual orientation is a critical factor that influences their feelings about their bodies (Epel et.al,

1996). Females tend to place a greater emphasis on physical attractiveness than males (Feingold,

1990), which is associated with females’ internalization of the masculine standard of beauty in a

largely heterosexual world (Bergeron & Senn, 1998). It was also found that this internalization

of male-dominated beauty standards for females was negatively correlated with females’

acceptance of different body types (Henrichs-Beck & Szymanski, 2017). In a prior study,

researchers asked heterosexual and homosexual women complete the Body Attitude

Questionnaire to assess their body image (Bergeron & Senn, 1998). The results showed that

homosexual females reported less negative attitudes toward their bodies and internalized fewer

sociocultural norms than heterosexual women.

Researchers have also investigated the relationship between the expression of the lesbian

identity and the risk of internalization of thin body ideals (Henrichs-Beck and Szymanski, 2017).

It was concluded that feminine presenting lesbians were more likely than masculine-presenting

lesbians to be dissatisfied with their bodies and to idealize thin body types. Based on the studies

that link a person’s gender identity and sexual orientation to their internalization of societal

norms around body image, we speculated that a similar connection would be present in our

study.

Research studies regarding the most attractive body types in advertising have yielded mixed

results, agreeing that thin beauty ideals cause negative side-effects for women, but diverging on
 4

whether thin or plus-sized models are more attractive to consumers (Pinhas et.al, 1999). Häfner

and Trampe (2009) concluded that thin models were considered more attractive when judged

quickly and impulsively by participants, while plus-size models were favored when judged in a

slower, reflective manner. Further, Puhl and Boland (2001) identified differences between three

body type categories (underweight, normal weight, and overweight), of whom the underweight

figures are favored among both male and female participants. The study concluded that thinness

and low waist-to-hip ratios were predictors of higher rates of attractiveness. These findings

support the social understanding that thinness is considered more attractive and is therefore

utilized in advertisements to produce an attraction to the product.

While several studies have examined the interaction between two binary genders and

perception of physical attractiveness in female models, as well as models’ body type on

attraction, few have broken beyond the gender binary. In a study that examined the relationship

between thin-ideal internalization and acceptance of body type, researchers asked participants to

rate the sizes and the attractiveness of models' bodies. Researchers found that men and women

rated models as similarly thin and attractive, wherein, relative to men, women rated ultra-thin

models to be much more attractive (Johnson & Engeln, 2020), which supports the interaction

between gender and body size. In addition, based on research that demonstrated that those who

did not identify themselves as traditional cis-gender females were less concerned with body

weight and shape than traditional cis-gender females (Epel et.al, 1996), we speculated that the
 5

interaction between participants’ gender identities and models’ body sizes will have a significant

impact on participants’ perception of attractiveness.

This study is a 2 (gender identity: cis-gender females versus non-cis-gender females) X 2

(body type: small-sized models versus plus-sized) mixed groups design, with the independent

groups variable being gender identity and the repeated measures variable being body size of

models. While much research has been done on the effectiveness of thin models in advertising,

and the subsequent effects on mental health and consumer behaviors, more modern

understandings of gender identity have not been taken into account. While sexuality research is

relevant to this study, as non-cisgender identities share commonalities with the general queer

umbrella, a direct investigation is lacking. Further, there are inconsistencies in the comparison of

thin to plus-sized models in how they are perceived by viewers. We hypothesize that participants

who do not identify as cis-gender females will rate the advertisements as more aesthetically

pleasing than participants who identify as cis-gender females. Secondly, we hypothesize that

small-sized models will be perceived as more aesthetically pleasing than plus-sized models. In

regards to the interaction between the two independent variables, we hypothesize that cis-gender

females will show a greater difference in perception of plus-sized models compared to thin

models, while non-cis-gender females will show a smaller difference.

Method

Participants
 6

A questionnaire was distributed to participants in the general Mount Holyoke College

community through WeChat, Facebook, and SONA. The final sample consisted of 60

undergraduate students from Mount Holyoke College. One incentive for participants to join the

study is to be granted 0.25 credits on SONA for their major requirement. Of these participants,

demographic information collected included age and gender identity. Participants are between 17

and 26 years old.

Materials

Photos of fashion models were collected from a variety of clothing companies

(including Wild Fang, JCPenney, and Naomi Watanabe styles) to account for style preferences

and isolate the perception of models’ body size. Five of the models included were of size S and

the other five were of size XL, model size being our first independent variable. A Likert scale

ranging from 1 (not very aesthetically pleasing) to 5 (very aesthetically pleasing)

was used to assess our dependent variable: how aesthetically pleasing participants

find the displayed images. We operationally defined gender identity, which was our second

independent variable, with an open write-in space at the end of the questionnaire(What is your

gender identity?). We later sorted the gender identities into two categories, cis-gender females,

and non-cis-gender females to isolate the relationship between gender and perception of models'

body size.

Procedure
 7

We administered the study through a Google survey platform and sent out the link to our

questionnaire through a variety of online platforms. All participants were required to provide

digital informed consent. Next, they were asked to rate each image based on aesthetic attraction

and to indicate their gender identities. This information was collected either through multiple

choice or short answer questions. Finally, all participants were debriefed, and our variables, as

well as hypotheses, were explained.

Result

First, we conducted a data cleaning procedure which included categorizing images into two

groups (Thin & Plus), gathering mean scores from the Likert Scale for small-sized and plus-sized

models, and recoded participants' answers regarding their gender identity into two groups

(Cis-gender females & Non-cis-gender females), and finally calculating the average values of

participants’ ratings on the Likert scale for images with either thin or plus-sized models in them.

And then, a 2 (gender identity: cis-gender females & non-cis-gender females) X 2 (body type:

small-sized & plus-sized) mixed groups ANOVA with gender identity and body size as the

independent variables and the average participants’ ratings for images with different sizes of

models as the dependent variable.

The participant’s gender identity did not have a significant main effect on the perceived

attractiveness, F (1, 59) = .42, MSE = .59, p = .519, η2p = .01. The overall average perceived
 8

attractiveness levels did not differ from cis-gender females (M = 3.05, SD = .65) to non

cis-gender females (M = 3.20, SD = .44).

The type of model’s body size did not have a significant effect on the perceived

attractiveness either, F (1, 59) = 1.35, MSE = .22, p=.249, η2p = .02. The overall average

perceived attractiveness levels did not differ from small-sized models (M = 3.16, SD = .60) to

plus-sized models (M = 2.97, SD = .66).

Finally, no significant interaction between participant’s gender identity and model’s body

size was indicated, F (1, 58) = 0.05, MSE = .22, p = .819, η2p = .00.

Discussion

This study examined whether participant’s gender identity and model’s body size have an

effect on participants’ perception of the attractiveness of the advertisements. Our first hypothesis

was that we would find a main effect of participants' gender identities such that participants who

identify as non-cis-gender females will rate the advertisements as more aesthetically pleasing

than participants who identify as cis-gender females, and this was not supported by our findings.

Our second hypothesis was that small-sized models will be perceived as more aesthetically

pleasing than the plus-size models, and this was not supported by our findings. Our third

hypothesis was that we would find a significant interaction between the participant's gender

identities and the model's body sizes. For those who do not identify as cis-gender females, the

difference between the ratings of the average-sized and plus-sized models will be small, but for

the participants who do identify as cis-gender females, the difference will be much larger. This
 9

third hypothesis was also unsupported by our study. As all of our results were not consistent with

our hypotheses, we turned to the literature for potential explanations.

In our first hypothesis, we conjured that participants who do not identify as cis-gender

females will rate the advertisements as more aesthetically pleasing than those who identify as

cis-gender females. Our findings that the average ratings of cis-gender females and

non-cis-gender females were not significantly different are inconsistent with those of past

research. Past studies have shown that identification with femininity was related to more

negative appearance appraisals and higher beauty standards while the opposite is true for those

who identified themselves with masculinity(e.g., Henrichs-Beck & Szymanski, 2017; Beck, 2017;

Cash et al., 1997), but such findings were not replicated by our study. One explanation for the

inconsistency between our results and those of prior studies on gender identities might be the

difference between the traits of our samples. In our study, we recruited 60 female participants

with no deliberate screening, 54 of which were cis-gender females and only 6 of which were

non-cis-gender females. Whereas, in a study that revealed that lesbians with more masculine

stereotypical traits were related to a lower level of body dissatisfaction(Henrichs-Beck &

Szymanski, 2017), researchers recruited 416 lesbians as their participants without asking

participants about their gender identities. Therefore, the inconsistency might be caused by the

difference in the sample distribution between our study and prior studies.
 10

In our second hypothesis, we reckoned that advertising pictures with small-sized models will

be perceived as more aesthetically pleasing than those with plus-sized models in them. Our

finding that participants' average ratings for advertising pictures with both groups of models

were not significantly different from each other was not consistent with those of past research

either. Past studies have suggested that thin models are unconsciously perceived to be more

beautiful than round models(eg., Häfner & Trampe, 2009; Pinhas et al., 1999; Essel et al., 2022),

but such findings were not supported by our study. One explanation for the inconsistency

between our result and those of prior studies on the model's body size might be that there were

several confounding factors in the questionnaires that we designed. Specifically, in our study, we

chose advertising pictures with different sizes of models from different online sources. Thus, we

did not control many factors, such as the model's face, clothing styles, the background of the

pictures, etc. For comparison, in a study that demonstrated that people's automatic, implicit

reaction is to prefer thin models rather than round models, experimenters used computer

morphing technology to keep the consistency in models’ features beyond their body sizes, which

eliminated several confounding factors. In light of our results, the findings of this prior study

suggested that by implementing more strategies for eliminating the confounding factors in the

advertising images, we may see the main effect of models' body sizes that is consistent with both

our second hypothesis and past research.

 11

Our third hypothesis was that we would find a significant interaction between participants’

gender identities and models’ sizes, and this was not supported by the results of our data. Our

findings that the aesthetic attractiveness ratings for plus-sized models of cis-gender females were

not significantly different from those of non-cis-gender females on average, and that the average

aesthetic attractiveness ratings for small-sized models of cisgender were not significantly

different from those of non-cis-gender females either are inconsistent with those of past research.

Past study shows that people’s gender expression is an important factor that influences their

internalization of thin-ideal(Henrichs-Beck & Szymanski, 2017), and in turn, impact their

openness to different body sizes(e.g., Ahern et al., 2010; Henrichs-Beck & Szymanski, 2017;

Beck, 2017 ), but such findings were not replicated by our study. One explanation for the

inconsistency between our results and those of prior studies might be that our research focus was

not entirely the same. In our study, we were asking our participants about their gender identities.

For comparison, in a study that demonstrated that lesbians with masculine gender expressions

had a lower level of thin-ideal internalization and were more open to different body sizes,

whereas, the opposite is true for lesbians with feminine gender expressions(Henrichs-Beck &

Szymanski, 2017), researchers asked their participants about their gender expression. As a result,

the incongruity between our study and prior studies might be caused by the fact that the prior

research mainly focused on gender expression while our study focused more on gender identity.
 12

There are many research approaches that may build off of our study. For instance, we could

perform a replication of this study, but strengthening the effects of both gender identity and body

size to explore whether they have significant impacts on the perception of models' attractiveness.

Such a study might include balancing our samples by recruiting more non-cis-gender females

and eliminating the confounding variables in presented advertising images by employing

computer morphing technologies. By doing these, we may find that participants' gender identities

and body sizes of models have both individual and collective effects on participants' perception

of the attractiveness of presented images. These potential findings may have some practical

implications. On one hand, it may provide additional support for past studies showing that thin

models are considered to be beautiful by people implicitly and automatically(e.g., Häfner &

Trampe, 2009; Anschutz et al., 2008; Lennon, 1988). However, past research studies showed that

thin-ideal internalization is closely correlated with eating disorders(e.g., Keel & Forney, 2013;

Harrison, 2001; Hawkins et al., 2004). Meanwhile, a negative correlation between feminist

ideology and internalization of the thin ideal was also found(Murnen & Smolak, 2009). Based on

prior studies, our potentially significant results may indicate the importance of deconstructing the

current standard of beauty and of the education of feminist ideologies to the general public. On

the other hand, past research has found that including thin models in advertisements is an

effective way of attracting people most of the time(e.g., Janssen & Paas, 2013; Häfner & Trampe,

2009; Westover & Randle, 2009). Thus, if the results are significant after we revise our study,
 13

they may provide extra support for the effectiveness of using thin models for advertising.

However, in a prior study, researchers found that the advertisements with either average-sized

models or thin models were equally effective, wherein, thin models induced greater

body-focused anxiety(Halliwell & Dittmar, 2004). Thus, the negative influence of thin models in

advertisements on some people and our potentially significant results may hint at the importance

of using other sizes of models which are equally effective as thin models.

Finally, our study highlights an area that desperately needs attention from future researchers:

the relationship between gender identity and perceived attractiveness. In the grand scheme of

perception of attractiveness, our potential finding may provide further support for small-sized

models, indicates the potential of thin models in helping attract customers and point towards the

relationship between gender identity and perception of attractiveness as an area that would be

benefited by future research.

 14

References

Ahern, A., Bennett, K., Kelly, M., & Hetherington, M. (2010). A Qualitative Exploration of

Young Women’s Attitudes towards the Thin Ideal. Journal Of Health Psychology, 16(1),

70-79. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105310367690

Anschutz, D. J., Engels, R. C. M. E., Becker, E. S., & van Strien, T. (2008). The bold and

the beautiful. influence of body size of televised media models on body dissatisfaction

and actual food intake. Appetite, 51(3), 530–537.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2008.04.004

Beck, C. L. (2017). Lesbian body dissatisfaction: The roles of gender identity, body-gender

identity incongruence, and internalized appearance ideals [Doctoral dissertation,

University of Tennessee]. https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_graddiss/4604

Bergeron, S. M., & Senn, C. Y. (1998). Body image and sociocultural norms. Psychology of

Women Quarterly, 22(3), 385–401. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1998.tb00164.x

Cash, T. F., Ancis, J. R., & Strachan, M. D. (1997). Gender attitudes, feminist identity, and

body images among college women. Sex Roles, 36(7-8), 433–447.

https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02766682

Dittmar, H., & Howard, S. (2004). Professional hazards? the impact of models' body size on

advertising effectiveness and women's body-focused anxiety in professions that do and

 15

do not emphasize the cultural ideal of thinness. British Journal of Social Psychology,

43(4), 477–497. https://doi.org/10.1348/0144666042565407

Epel, E. S., Spanakos, A., Kasl-Godley, J., & Brownell, K. D. (1996). Body shape ideals across

gender, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, race, and age in personal

advertisements. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 19(3), 265–273.

https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1098-108x(199604)19:3<265::aid-eat5>3.0.co;2-k

Essel, K. D., Fotang, J., Deyton, L., & Cotter, E. W. (2022). Discovering the Roots: A

Qualitative Analysis of Medical Students Exploring Their Unconscious Obesity Bias.

Teaching and Learning in Medicine, 1-14.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10401334.2022.2041421

Feingold, A. (1990). Gender differences in effects of physical attractiveness on romantic

attraction: A comparison across five research paradigms. Journal of Personality and

Social Psychology, 59(5), 981–993. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.59.5.981

Groesz, L. M., Levine, M. P., & Murnen, S. K. (2001). The effect of experimental presentation

of thin media images on body satisfaction: A meta-analytic review. International

Journal of Eating Disorders, 31(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.10005

Häfner, M., & Trampe, D. (2009). When thinking is beneficial and when it is not: The effects of

thin and round advertising models. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 19(4), 619-628.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2009.06.004
 16

Halliwell, E., & Dittmar, H. (2004). Does size matter? the impact of model's body size on

women's body-focused anxiety and advertising effectiveness. Journal of Social and

Clinical Psychology, 23(1), 104–122. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.23.1.104.26989

Harrison, K. (2001). Ourselves, our bodies: Thin-ideal media, self-discrepancies, and eating

disorder symptomatology in adolescents. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology,

20(3), 289–323. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.20.3.289.22303

Hawkins, N., Richards, P. S., Granley, H. M., & Stein, D. M. (2004). The impact of exposure to

the thin-ideal media image on women. Eating disorders, 12(1), 35-50.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10640260490267751

Henrichs-Beck, C. L., & Szymanski, D. M. (2017). Gender expression, body–gender identity

incongruence, thin ideal internalization, and lesbian body dissatisfaction. Psychology of

Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 4(1), 23–33.

https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000214

Herzog, D., Newman, K., Yeh, C., & Warshaw, M. (1992). Body image satisfaction in

homosexual and heterosexual women. International Journal Of Eating Disorders,

11(4), 391-396.

https://doi.org/10.1002/1098-108x(199205)11:4<391::aid-eat2260110413>3.0.co;2-f

Janssen, D. M., & Paas, L. J. (2013). Moderately thin advertising models are optimal, most

of the time: Moderating the quadratic effect of model body size on ad attitude by
 17

fashion leadership. Marketing Letters, 25(2), 167–177.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11002-013-9249-y

Johnson, S., & Engeln, R. (2020). Gender Discrepancies in Perceptions of the Bodies of Female

Fashion Models. Sex Roles, 84(5-6),

299-311.https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01167-5

Keel, P. K., & Forney, K. J. (2013). Psychosocial risk factors for eating disorders. International

Journal of Eating Disorders, 46(5), 433–439. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22094

Kozee, H., Tylka, T., & Bauerband, L. (2012). Measuring Transgender Individuals’ Comfort

With Gender Identity and Appearance. Psychology Of Women Quarterly, 36(2),

179-196. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684312442161

Lennon, S. J. (1988). Physical attractiveness, age, and body type. Home Economics Research

Journal, 16(3), 195–203. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077727x8801600304

Murnen, S. K., & Smolak, L. (2009). Are feminist women protected from body image problems?

A meta-analytic review of relevant research. Sex roles, 60(3), 186-197.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9523-2

Morrison, M. A., Morrison, T. G., & Sager, C.-L. (2004). Does body satisfaction differ between

gay men and lesbian women and heterosexual men and women? Body Image, 1(2),

127–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2004.01.002
 18

Morris, A. M., & Katzman, D. K. (2003). The impact of the media on eating disorders in

children and adolescents. Paediatrics & child health, 8(5), 287-289.

https://doi.org/10.1093/pch/8.5.287

Pinhas, L., Toner, B., Ali, A., Garfinkel, P., & Stuckless, N. (1999). The effects of the ideal of

female beauty on mood and body satisfaction. International Journal Of Eating

Disorders, 25(2), 223-226.

https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1098-108x(199903)25:2<223::aid-eat12>3.0.co;2-b

Richins, M. L. (1991). Social comparison and the idealized images of advertising. Journal of

Consumer Research, 18(1), 71. https://doi.org/10.1086/209242

Seid, R. P. (1994). Too "close to the bone": The historical context for women's obsession with

slenderness. In P. Fallon, M. A. Katzman, & S. C. Wooley (Eds.), Feminist perspectives

on eating disorders (pp. 3–16). Guilford Press.

Taylor, C., & Costello, J. (2017). What do we know about fashion advertising? A review of the

literature and suggested research directions. Journal Of Global Fashion Marketing, 8(1),

1-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/20932685.2016.1255855

Volonté, P. (2017). The thin ideal and the practice of fashion. Journal Of Consumer Culture,

19(2), 252-270. https://doi.org/10.1177/1469540517717775

 19

Westover, M., & Randle, Q. (2009). Endorser Weight and Perceptions of Brand Attitude and

Intent to Purchase. Journal Of Promotion Management, 15(1-2), 57-73.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10496490902908717