Dr. Carl E.

Balita Review Center

CBRC Headquarters
2nd Flr., Carmen Building, 881 G. Tolentino St. corner España Blvd., Sampaloc, Manila 1008

Academics and Services Department (ASD)

Agriculture Review

CBRC E-Hand Outs

AGRICULTURIST LICENSURE EXAMINATION

SOIL SCIENCE
SOIL GENESIS, COMPOSITION, AND DEVELOPMENT

A. DEFINITION AND COMPOSITION OF SOIL

A.1. What is Soil?
Soil is a natural and dynamic body formed on the land surface and made up of porous mixture of
inorganic and organic materials whose composition and properties influence the growth of plants.

A.2. Importance of studying soil:

a. Important resource of the country
b. holds and purify water
c. Serves as growth medium for plants
d. It is where food, clothing, shelter, and medicines are derived

A.3. Soil Science

- deals with the study of soil as a natural resource on the surface of the earth which includes soil
formation, classification and mapping, physical, chemical, biological and fertility properties in relation to
the management for crop production.

A.4. Fields of specialization in Soil Science

A.4.a. Soil chemistry
- Interactions of solid, liquid, and gaseous phases or components of soil
A.4.b. Soil mineralogy
- Structural chemistry of the solid components of soil.
A.4.c. Soil microbiology

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 - Soil biochemical reaction carried out primarily by microorganisms.
A.4.d. Soil physics
- characteristics, processes, or reactions of a soil caused by physical forces
A.4.e. Soil fertility
- quality of a soil to provide optimum level of nutrients for plant growth
A.4.f Soil genesis
- referred to as pedology when combined with soil classification
- covers factors and processes of soil formation.
- bridges chemistry, physics, geology, biology, climatology, geography, anthropology, and
agriculture.

A.5. Approaches to the study of Soil Science:

A.5.a Edaphological approach
- Study of soil in relation to higher plants
- Soil properties vs plant growth
- Variability of soil productivity
- Methods of conserving and improving productivity
A.5.b. Pedological Approach:
- Origin and classification of soils
- soil as a natural body

A.6. Soil components

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A.6.a. Mineral matter (45 %)
- extremely variable in size (sand, silt and clay)
A.6.a.a. Sand - 0.02-2.0 mm – feel gritty when rubbed between the fingers; not sticky
A.6.a.b. Silt - 0.002-0.02 mm - feels smooth but not sticky even when wet
A.6.a.c. Clay - < 0.002 mm – adhere together to form sticky mass when wet and hard clods
when dry
A.6.b. Organic matter (5 %)
- consists of a wide range of organic (carbonaceous) substances including
a. living organisms (the living biomass,
b. carbonaceous remains of organisms which once occupied the soil
c. organic compounds produced by current and past metabolism in the soil
- over periods of time organic matter is lost from the soil as carbon dioxide produced by
microbial respiration
- repeated additions of new plant and/or animal residues are necessary to maintain soil organic
matter
A.6.c. Soil air (20-30 %)
- the amount and composition of air in a soil
- occupies those soil pore spaces not filled with water
- composition varies greatly from place to place in the soil
- generally, has higher moisture content than the atmosphere; the relative humidity of the
soil air approaches to 100% unless the soil is dry
- the content of CO2 is usually much higher and that of oxygen lower, than contents of
these gases found in the atmosphere
A.6.d. Soil water (20-30 %)
- also called soil solution because it contains hundreds of dissolved organic and inorganic
substances
- serve as constantly replenished dilute nutrient solution bringing dissolved nutrient elements to
plant roots
- act as a universal solvent, nutrient carrier, and nutrient in itself
- stabilizes soil temperature

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 Figure 1. The soil solid components.

Figure 2. The soil liquid and soil gas components.

A.7. Elemental Composition of the Earth’s Crust

- The outermost portion of the earth
- Earth’s crust: about 16 km depth
- Soil chemical composition is derived from the earth’s mantle
- Main source of the material from which inorganic soil is derived

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 Earth’s crust-composition at16 km deep.

A.8. The Essential Mineral Elements and their Available Forms

- of the elements in the biosphere and detected in plant tissue, only certain elements have been
determined to be essential
A.8.a. Essential Nutrient Criteria
a) A deficiency of an element makes it difficult or impossible for the plant to complete a
vegetative or reproductive stage of development
b) A deficiency can be prevented or corrected by supplying the element
c) An element must perform specific function in plants

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 Figure 4. Available form of essential elements

Figure 5. Available form of essential elements

B. COMPOSITION, GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT
B.I. Introduction
 Rocks and minerals weather when they disintegrate and decompose
 The decomposition products precipitate and crystallize to form new minerals which largely
constitute the clay fractions of soils
 Ionic forms of simple soluble products are absorbed by clay particles, absorbed by plants, or lost
with drainage water from the soil solum
 Soils that form in similar climates from different kinds of parent rock may differ in nutrients, in
depth, in amount of clay and in color
B.2. Mode of formation of igneous rocks
B.2.a. Intrusive rocks
- also known as plutonic rocks
- the result of crystallization from a magma that did not reach the earth’s surface
B.2.b Extrusive rocks
- also known as volcanic rocks
- includes those igneous rocks that reached the earth’s surface in a molten or partly
molten state

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 - lava flows that pour from a vent or fracture in the earth’s crust tend to cool and
crystallize rapidly resulting in finer grain size; if cooling is rapid, resulting rock may be a glass
B.3. Identification of igneous rocks:
B.3.a. Based on grain size
a. Coarse-grained (phaneritic) – results in slow cooling of magma at great depths (ex.
Granite, diorite, gabbro)
b. Fine-grained (aphanitic) - results in rapid cooling of molten materials (ex. Rhyolite,
andesite, basalt)
B.3.b Based on mineral composition
a. Silicic/felsic (acidic)- increasing silica content (≈75% SiO2) – examples: granite
and rhyolite,
b. Intermediate – ex. Diorite and andesite
c. Mafic (basic) – decreasing silica content (≈ 45% SiO2)- ex. Gabbro and basalt
B.3.c. Color of rock
a. Light - high in quartz (ex. Granite and rhyolite)
b. Medium gray/green - intermediate silica content (ex. Diorite, andesite)
c. Dark gray to black – high CaO, FeO, and MgO (ex. Gabbro and basalt)
B.4. Examples of Igneous Rocks and major mineral components
Igneous Rocks Mineral components
1. Granite quarts, K-feldspar, biotite
2. Diorite plagioclase, amphibole, qtz,
3. Rhyolite K-feldspar, quartz, biotite
4. Gabbro pyroxene, plagioclase, olivine
5. Andesite plagioclase, amphibole, qtz
6. Basalt pyroxene, plagioclase, olivine
7. Obsidian volcanic glass
8. Volcanic tuff fragmental volcanic rocks

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 Figure 6. Igneous rocks

Figure 7. Examples of igneous rocks

B.5. Examples of Sedimentary Rocks
1. Sandstone (1/16 to 2 mm)
2. Siltstone (1/256 to 1/16 mm)
3. Shale (claystone) (<1/256mm)
4. Conglomerate (>2mm)
5. Limestone (CaCO3)
6. Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
7. Chert (SiO2-quartz)

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 Figure 8. Sedimentary rocks.

Figure 9. Examples of sedimentary rocks.

B.6. Examples of metamorphic rocks
Pre-existing rock Metamorphic Rock Equivalent
1. Granite Gneiss
2. Basalt Schists
3. Sandstone Quartzite
4. Limestone Marble
5. Shale Slate

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6. Conglomerate Meta-conglomerate

Figure 10. Metamorphic rocks.

Figure 11. Examples of metamorphic rocks.

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 Figure 12. The rock cycle.
B.6. Primary vs Secondary minerals
Mineral - naturally occurring chemical element or compound formed as a product of inorganic
processes.
B.6.a. Two groups of minerals -
a. primary minerals
b. secondary minerals
B.6.a.a. Primary minerals
- formed at temperatures and/or pressure higher than that normally encountered at the earth’s
surface (one atmosphere and <100C).
e.g., quartz, feldspar, mica, amphibole, apatite, olivine
- have not been altered chemically since they formed as molten lava solidified
- components of igneous and metamorphic rocks.
B.6.a.b. Secondary minerals
- form under conditions of temperature and pressure found at the earth’s surface by the
weathering of preexisting minerals.
- crystallized products of the chemical breakdown and/or alteration of primary minerals
e.g., clay minerals, limonite, gibbsite, calcite, dolomite, gypsum, rock phosphate

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 Figure 12. Primary and Secondary Minerals
B.7. Weathering
- all physical and chemical changes produced in rocks, at or near the earth’s surface, by atmospheric
agents
- the disintegration of primary (original) minerals and the formation of some of those dissolved materials
into new secondary minerals
- only when a solid rock mass is disintegrated to unconsolidated material is a soil formed
- a mixture of dead vegetation, clay, rock fragments of sand and silt size particles produces soil.

B.7.a. Types of weathering

B.7.a.a Physical weathering- disintegration or breakdown of rocks and minerals into smaller sizes
a. Exfoliation due to temperature variation
b. Disintegration by water
c. Grinding by ice
d. abrasion by wind
e. Other processes and agents
B.7.a.b. Chemical weathering - the most active and effective weathering process
- the main processes involved is the chemical decomposition of primary minerals and
synthesis of new minerals
- chemical weathering produces clays on which vegetation can grow.
a. Hydrolysis
b. Hydration

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 c. Oxidation
d. Carbonation
e. Solution

B.7.a.b.a. Hydrolysis – Replacement of the basic ions by the hydrogen, with consequent collapse
and disintegration of the structure.
KAlSi3O8 + H+ HAlSi3O8 + K+
B.7.a.b.b. Hydration – association of water molecules or of hydroxyl groups with minerals,
often without actual decomposition or modification of the mineral itself.
CaSO4 (s) + 2H2O (g,l) CaSO4 . 2H2O
B.7.a.b.c. Oxidation – removal of one or more electrons from an ion or an atom.
4FeO(s) + O2(g) + 2H2O (l) 4FeO(OH) (s)
Ferrous ferric goethite
B.7.a.b.d. Carbonation – minerals are replaced by carbonates. Introducing carbon dioxide into
water.
CO2(g) + H2O (l) H2CO3 (aq) H+(aq) + HCO3 (aq)

B.7.a.b.e. Solution – dissolving of simple salts as carbonates and chlorides.

CaCO3 + 2H+ H2CO3 + Ca++

B.8. Factors Influencing Soil Formation

CLORPT

B.8.a Parent Material

- Geological or organic precursors to the soil
B.8.b. Relief - topography
B.8.c. Climate
- Primarily precipitation and temperature
B.8.d. Organisms
- Especially vegetation, microbes, and soil animals

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 B.8.e. Time
B.8.a. Parent material
- inorganic (rocks and minerals) and organic material where soils may originate.
Types of parent material
B.8.a.a. residual - bedrocks such as igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.
B.8.a.b. transported - loose materials like sand, silt and clay deposits where soils developed (alluvium,
colluvium, ash, glacial drift, dune).
- influence soil formation by their different rates of weathering’, the nutrients they contain for
plant use, and the particle sizes they contain
- the less developed a soil is, the greater will be the effect of the parent material on the
properties of the soil
- clay formation is favored by high percentage of decomposable dark minerals and by less quartz
- soils from weakly cemented sandstones will be sandy; soils from shales will be shallow and
fine-textured

Figure 13. Different deposits of transported parent material

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B.8.b. Topography
- refers to soil’s position in the landscape.

Figure 14. Soil topography.

(1) Summit and (2) Shoulder

- develop horizons the fastest;
(3) Backslope
- soil develop slower because:
a. rainfall will run off this slope position faster,
b. there will be more soil erosion,
c. and there will be less leaching
(4) Footslope
- soils will collect sediment from upslope that can bury the horizons and slow down
their development
B.8.c. Climate
- components that strongly influence soil development:
a. temperature - weathering of rocks and minerals and biochemical reaction increases
with increasing temperature.
- for every 10 0C rise in temperature, the rate of biological reactions more than doubles;
if warm temp and abundant water are present at the same time, the processes of weathering,
leaching and plant growth will be maximized

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 b. precipitation or rainfall - with more rainfall, greater weathering and greater leaching
therefore faster rate of soil development

B.8.d. Biota: Living organisms

- Organic matter accumulation, biochemical weathering, profile mixing, nutrient cycling, and
aggregate stability are all enhanced by the activities of organisms in the soil
- vegetative cover reduces erosion rates
Role of natural vegetation:
- the kind of vegetation that dominates the landscape also give rise to soil bodies with varying
soil characteristics (grass land vs. forest land)
- cation cycling by trees - conifer trees allow more of the base-forming cations to be lost
through leaching; more strongly acid soil developed under coniferous trees than deciduous trees

Figure 15. Difference in the soil profile under grassland versus forest vegetation.

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B.8.e. Time
- the length of time for the soil to form.
- It is approximated by the time since the site for soil development became stable (no significant
erosion and deposition).
- Age of a soil is not considered in years but how much development the soil has undergone.
- time zero- point in time at which pedologically catastrophic event is completed, initiating a new
cycle of soil development
- OM will accumulate to form a dark-colored A-horizon in a decade or two
- formation of B-horizon would likely take centuries
- accumulation of silicate clays usually become noticeable after thousands of years
- mature, highly weathered deep soils would take hundreds of thousands of years

Young soil vs mature soils - not referring to the age of soils in years but by the degree of weathering and
profile development

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 Figure 16. Time as a factor of soil formation.

B.8.e.a. Catenas
- When soils are developed on the same parent material and the soils only differ on the basis of
drainage due to variations in relief
B.8.e.b. Chronosequence
- A sequence of related soils that differ in certain properties primarily as a result of time as a
soil-forming process
B.8.e.c. Lithosequence
- A group of related soils that differ as a result of parent material
B.8.e.d. Climosequence
- A sequence of soils that differ as a result of changes in climatic regimes (temperature and
precipitation)
B.8.e.e. Biosequence
- A group of related soils that differ primarily due to variation in kinds and numbers of plants
and soil organisms

B.9. Soil Development

- There are processes involved in the formation of soils and the development of vertical variation
in soil bodies. The soil horizons are developed as a result of four basic kinds of changes in the soil
namely:
a. Transformations
b. Additions
c. Removals
d. Transfers
- These four kinds of changes include a wide range of processes and each kind of change affects
many constituents in the soil
B.9.a. Processes of Mineral Soil Horizon Formation
B.9.a.a. Additions - H2O, organic matter, air, soil particles, salt

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 B.9.a.b. Losses - H2O, organic matter, CO2, nutrients by plant removal
B.9.a.c. Transformations - Changes to soil structure, development of clay minerals, weathering
of minerals to elements, chemical Rxn
B.9.a.d. Translocations - movement from one horizon to another of O.M. clay, water, iron, &
nutrients in colloidal size, (very small particles) - clay films on peds are evidence of this translocation =
clay (film) coating.

Figure 17. Major processes in soil-profile development (after Simonson).

B.10. Soil Profile

“And the soil we pick up to feel consisting of sand, silt, clay particles and decomposed organic
matter”
Soil Profile – a vertical section of the soil from the surface through all its horizons

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 Figure 18. Development of soil profile.

Figure 19. Soil profile showing different horizons.

B.10.a. Soil Profile Symbols
O – Horizon dominated by organic matter.
Oi – slightly decomposed organic horizon (fibric)
Oe - intermediately decomposed organic horizon (Hemic)
Oa - highly decomposed organic horizon (sapric)
A - Organic-rich, mineral horizon at/or adjacent to the surface.

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 E - Mineral horizon of maximum eluviation.
B - Mineral horizon of maximum illuviation and formed beneath an O, A, or E horizon.
C - Weathered parent material.
R - Underlying consolidated bedrock.
B.10.b. Relative age of soil
Young soil: A-Bw-C and/or R
slightly to moderately weathered
Mature soil: A-Bt-C
moderately to highly weathered
Senile soil: A-Bo--C
high to extremely weathered
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