Adsorption

Key Words and Concepts

Adsorption – The adhesion of organic contaminants to an adsorbent such as activated carbon.

Breakthrough – The point where activated carbon is exhausted and organic contaminants begin to pass
through. El punto donde el carbón activado se agota y los contaminantes orgánicos comienzan a pasar.

Core Sample – A cylindrical section of a filter bed media that allows for cross-sectional examination of
the media.

Disinfection By-products (DBPs) – Chemical compounds that are formed when the disinfectant (typically
chlorine) reacts with natural organic matter in the water.

Empty Bed Contact Time (EBCT) – The volume of a tank containing activated carbon divided by the flow
rate of water through the tank.

Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) – Granular form of activated carbon used in filter beds to remove
organic contaminants from water.

Natural Organic Material (NOM) – Humic substances made up of humic and fulvic acids that come from
decayed vegetation. Also called Natural Organic Matter.

Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC) – Activated carbon in a fine powder form that is added to water in a
slurry. Primarily used to removed taste and odor causing organic compounds.

Reactivation (Regeneration) – The process of removing the adsorbed organic compounds from spent
(exhausted) activated carbon and restoring the carbon’s porous structure.

Synthetic Organic Chemicals (SOCs) – A manufactured chemical containing carbon.

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Process Description
Organics in Groundwater
Deep wells generally have low levels of organics in them. Shallow wells that are under the influence of
surface conditions may have high levels of organic humic substances in them. This organic material may
contribute to THM formation when combined with chlorine used for disinfection.
Synthetic Organics
Synthetic organic chemicals (SOCs) are appearing more and more in wells around the country. These
chemicals are used as pesticides and industrial solvents which if not properly handled or disposed of can
enter the water supply. Many of these SOCs have been identified as carcinogenic or toxic.
Natural Organics
All surface water contains some level of natural organic material (NOM). This NOM can contribute to
poor taste and odor in the water supply. This material will also form THMs and other DBPs when it
reacts with chlorine and are also known as DBP precursors.

Organic Chemical Removal

At the Source
In surface water systems, this may mean relocating the intake to a location with better water quality. It
may also include an algae control program to reduce excessive algae growth. Controlling or limiting
human activities in the watershed is another way to control organics at the source. Systems relying on
groundwater can establish restrictions on land-use in the aquifer recharge zone or construct barriers to
prevent contaminants from flowing toward a well.
Other Processes
When source water protection measures fail to control organic contamination of the water supply, they
can often be removed by conventional or standard treatment techniques. Many of the natural organic
substances that cause taste and odor can be controlled by chlorine, permanganate, ozone or chlorine
dioxide oxidation. In addition to chemical oxidation, aeration and the conventional treatment process of
coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation and filtration are effective at organic contaminant reduction.
Adsorption
Depending on the form and concentration of the organic contaminants, the previously discussed
remedial actions may not be sufficient to reduce the organics to acceptable levels. In this case, the
process of adsorption using activated carbon may be used to remove the organic contaminants.

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Adsorption Principles
Adsorption
The principle of adhesion enables activated carbon to remove organic contaminants from water. A
combination of physical and chemical forces causes the contaminant to adhere to the surface of the
carbon media. A large surface area is required for an adsorbent to effectively remove organic
contaminants.
The porous characteristics of activated carbon gives it a very large surface area relative to its apparent
size. 1 pound of GAC has a total surface area of about 150 acres. This enables the 1 pound to trap and
hold about 0.55 pounds of carbon tetrachloride.
The pores are created during the activation process by exposing the carbon to extremely high heat in
the presence of steam. This opens up the pores or cracks within the carbon granule as well as oxidizing
all of the contaminants on the surface of the carbon, thus making the surface ready to adsorb organic
substances.
New or newly regenerated activated carbon has a maximum surface area available for adsorption. Over
time, these adsorption sites are covered and at some point the GAC granules will be considered
exhausted once there is no more surface area to facilitate adsorption. At this point, the GAC requires
either replacement or regeneration

Adsorption Material and Facilities

Activated Carbon
Activated Carbon used in water treatment can be made from several different base materials.
Typical materials include:
• Coconut shell
• Lignite coal
• Bituminous coal
The contaminant targeted for removal will determine which base material should be used. Coconut and
bituminous coal are the two most commonly used base materials by municipal water systems.
Coconut shell activated carbon has a smaller pore structure while bituminous coal can adsorb larger
molecule compounds due to its large pore structure. Bituminous Coal based activated carbon is typically
used to remove odor causing compounds and DBP precursors in the form of NOM.
Coconut shell based activated carbon is typically used to remove synthetic organic chemicals due to
their smaller molecular size. Activated carbon comes in powdered and granular forms.

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 Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC)
Dry Feeders
Plants that do not consistently and regularly feed powdered activated carbon (PAC) should use dry feed
systems. These feeders should be specifically designed to handle powdered carbon and have the ability
to feed over a wide range of feed rates. Low doses may be needed for slight taste and odor problems
while a large dose may be needed in emergency situations should the source water experience chemical
contamination.
Se dosifica arrastra suspension
The PAC is metered into an ejector that entrains the powder in carrier water and creates a slurry that is
fed directly into the untreated water. Carbon dust is very fine and makes a mess if it is not properly
handled and contained. It will drift in the air and coat horizontal surfaces with a black dust.
Alimentadores de lodo El PAC se dosifica en un eyector que arrastra el polvo en el agua portadora y crea una
Slurry Feeders suspensión que se alimenta directamente al agua sin tratar.
Plants that regularly feed PAC use slurry feed systems because of the problems created by dry feeders.
Slurry systems will usually have two large storage tanks into which the PAC is delivered. These tanks
have variable speed mixers to keep the PAC in solution as it waits to be added to the treatment plant.
The variable speed mixer runs at higher speeds during tank filling and initial mixing.
Once mixed into a slurry, the speed can be reduced to a speed that will keep the PAC in suspension. This
slurry is then pumped to a “day tank” that holds enough PAC slurry for a full shift or day of operation.
Although systems may be designed to feed a PAC slurry of 1 pound per gallon of water, most plants find
it better to operate at a mixture of 0.25 pounds per gallon to prevent PAC coming out of solution and
clogging system piping or causing other maintenance problems.
Application Point
PAC is typically added at a point prior to the coagulation and flocculation process. It must be removed
from the water once it has adsorbed the target organics, and settling in the sedimentation basin is the
optimum point. Adding it as early as possible in the process gives it the most contact time for organic
removal through adsorption.

Granular Activated Carbon (GAC)

Granular activated carbon (GAC) is used in applications requiring the continuous removal of organic
compounds.
Applications include:
• Organic removal following surface water treatment
• Organics removal from groundwater
• Special use to remove certain inorganics or radionuclides
Filter Medium
Some surface water treatment plants have used GAC to replace the anthracite coal in their gravity
filters. Other plants have used is a top layer of filter media over the existing media which may be sand or
anthracite. Treatment plant staff conduct extensive studies to determine the best course of action.
The largest factor in determining the proper use of GAC in a gravity filter is the target organic Durante
GAC eliminará los compuestos que causan el sabor y el olor durante algunos años.
compound(s) to be removed. GAC will remove taste and odor causing compounds for up to a few years
while NOM removal to reduce TOC levels for regulatory compliance can exhaust the media in a matter
of months. mientras que la eliminación de NOM para reducir los niveles de TOC para el cumplimiento
normativo puede agotar los medios en cuestión de meses.

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Final Contactor
When used to reduce DBP precursors by TOC removal, it is advisable to load the GAC into a “Final
Contactor” following conventional or membrane treatment to reduce the TOC concentration as much as
possible. The GAC will then be used to “polish” the water and further reduce the TOC concentration. In
groundwater applications, GAC contactors are used to remove SOCs that have contaminated the
aquifer. Depending on the extent of the contamination, it may be more cost effective to abandon the
well and find another water source rather than to treat the water with GAC.
Regeneration
GAC has a finite amount of surface area to facilitate adsorption. Once the surface area is covered, the
GAC is said to be “exhausted”. Most GAC can be “reactivated” or “regenerated” by placing it in a furnace
at 1,500-1,700oF with a controlled atmosphere which oxidizes the adsorbed contaminants. During the
regeneration process, about 5% of the GAC is lost and must be made up with additional GAC before
being returned to the contactor for service. Regeneration has proven to be a cost effective alternative to
disposal and replacement by some utilities using large quantities of GAC to remove organic
contaminants.

Operating Procedures
PAC Application
PAC is normally used to reduce taste and odor causing compounds from surface water. It can be used
for TOC reduction but this is not its normal use because post-filtration GAC contactors are generally
more cost effective at accomplishing TOC reduction than using PAC or GAC at the beginning of the
treatment process.
Contact Time
There is direct relationship between organic compound removal and contact time. The PAC must remain
suspended and in contact with the water being treated for about 15 minutes for maximum
effectiveness. Most plants feed PAC at the head of the plant to allow maximum contact time.
Coagulant Coating
If the particles become coated with coagulants or coagulant aids, the pores will not be available to
adsorb the organic contaminants. For this reason, the PAC should be fed at a point prior to the addition
of coagulants and coagulant aids to allow maximum contact time prior to chemical interference.
Chlorine Reaction
PAC will react with chlorine when they come into contact. The chlorine concentration will be reduced or
eliminated while the effectiveness of the PAC will be reduced when these two materials contact each
other. For this reason, the PAC should be fed prior to the addition of chlorine.

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GAC in Gravity Filters
Contact Time
When used in gravity filters, an important operational parameter is the empty bed contact time (EBCT).
This is the theoretical contact time between the water and the GAC as it passes through the filter
containing the media. It is calculated by taking the volume the media occupies and dividing it by the flow
rate.
Filters are typically designed for an EBCT of between 7.5 and 9 minutes. This of course will depend on
the flow through the filter which is typically 2 gpm/ft2.
Backwashing
GAC media is backwashed in much the same way as other gravity filter media with a few exceptions or
alterations:
• Lower flow rate to prevent media loss
• Higher rate of expansion during backwash – 50%
Carbon Loss
Excessive backwash flow rates are the main cause of GAC media loss. Carbon loss should be monitored
regularly (quarterly). It is normal to lose about 1 inch of media depth each year. If more than 2 inches
are lost in a year, adjustments should be made to the backwash sequence or the height of the wash-
water troughs.
Carbon Life
The length of time that GAC will effectively remove organic contaminants depends on the concentration
in the water being treated and the volume of flow through the media. The higher the flow rate and the
higher the contaminant concentration - the shorter the life of the GAC.
The GAC effluent concentration of the organic contaminant being removed will gradually increase as the
filter ages. It experiences a gradual increase before the contaminant is able to “break through” which
demonstrates the GAC is exhausted as to that particular contaminant.
GAC Contactors
Closed tank systems using GAC for organic removal are called contactors or adsorbers. These tanks can
be manufactured to the specific size required by the water system to operate at a certain EBCT. Most
contactor systems are designed with two tanks that operate in parallel and are alternately placed in
service to avoid simultaneous exhaustion.
Most contactor systems are designed to allow samples to be collected at different levels within the GAC.
This allows the operator to monitor the GAC and its remaining useful life. Regular samples should be
collected and analyzed to determine when the GAC has been exhausted so that regeneration or
replacement can occur before breakthrough.

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Operating Problems - PAC
The major problems associated with PAC system operation include:
• Dust
• Pass-through
• Improper coag/floc/sed ops
• Adding chlorine before PAC
• Insufficient contact time

Operating Problems - GAC

The major problems associated with GAC as a filter medium include:
• Coagulant coating of GAC
• Floc coating of GAC
• Hydraulic variations causing break-through
• Loss of media due to backwashing
• Inadequate backwashing due to reduced backwash flow rates
• Bacterial growth in/on GAC

Control Tests
PAC Dosage
The appropriate dosage of PAC for taste and odor reduction can be estimated by performing a jar test
with different doses of PAC. The water is then filtered and a threshold odor number test is performed to
determine which dose yielded a TON of 3. That dose is then selected and then plant dose adjustments
are made as necessary.

Activated Carbon Safety Precautions

There are many safety hazards associated with the storage and usage of activated carbon. Engineering
controls and solutions can reduce some of the risks involved while others require diligence on the part
of the system operators.
Operators should be aware of the following hazardous conditions present when working with PAC or
GAC:
• Activated carbon is flammable and will burn without creating a noticeable flame or smoke
• Activated carbon reacts with gasoline and mineral oils and can ignite when the oxidation
reaction causes the carbon to reach ignition temperature of 600-800oF
• Activated carbon reacts with chlorine compounds and potassium permanganate and will ignite
when mixed
• Activated carbon removes oxygen from the atmosphere when it is wetted and can cause a low
oxygen condition
• Protective dust masks should be worn when handling activated carbon to prevent lung damage
caused by the inhalation of carbon dust

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