??module 4 ?

MODULE 4: REASONING AND PROBLEM SOLVING
Our target learning outcomes for this module are: a) solve problems involving patterns
and recreational puzzles using inductive and deductive reasoning; b) use different types of
reasoning to justify statements and arguments made about mathematics and mathematical
concepts; c) solve problems involving patterns and recreational problems following Polya’s
four steps; d) organize one’s methods and approaches for proving and solving problems.
Solve the VIRAL MATH PROBLEM − 6 ÷ 2(1 + 2) =

What is your answer to this problem? Why? Justify your answer.
UNIT 1: REASONING
A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning.
It is the process of forming or reaching a conclusion by examining specific examples.
Note that the conclusion that is formed by using inductive reasoning is often called a
conjecture, since it may or may not be correct.
Example 38: Inductive reasoning to predict a number. Given the sequence 1, 3, 6, 10, 15,
__. What is the next number?
Solution
The difference between the first two numbers is 2. The second and third numbers differ
by 3; the third and fourth numbers differ by 4. It appears that the difference between any
two consecutive numbers is always one greater than the preceding difference. Since 10 and
15 differ by 5, we predict that the next number in the list will be 6 greater than 15. Hence, the
next number is 21.
Example 39: Inductive reasoning to make a conjecture: Consider the following procedure:
Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8; add 6 to the product; divide the sum by 2; and,
subtract 3 from the quotient.
Solution
Using any number (an integer, i.e.) and following the outlined procedure or steps, we
conjecture that the given procedure will produce a resulting number that is four times the
original number.
Counterexamples. It is one case found for which a statement is not true. It is used to
verify if a statement is a false statement.
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Example 40: Statement: For all x, x2 > x.
Solution
Consider x = 1. For x = 1, we have 12 = 1. Since 1 is not greater than 1, a
counterexample is found. Thus, the statement “for all x, x2> x” is a false statement.
Example 41: Statement: For all x, x/x = 1.

Solution
Consider x = 0. For x = 0, 0/0 ≠ 1; 0/0 is undefined. Hence, the statement “for all x,
x/x = 1” is a false statement.
Deductive reasoning
It is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general assumptions,
procedures, or principles.
Example 42: Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a
number that is four times the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum
by 2, and subtract 3 from the quotient.
Solution
Let n represent the original number.
Multiply the number by 8: 8n
Add 6 to the product: 8n + 6
Divide the sum by 2:

Subtract 3 from the quotient: 4n + 3 – 3 = 4n
Starting with n and performing the procedure, we ended with 4n. The
procedure produces a number that is four times the original number.
Remember! Inductive: from specific to general.

Deductive: from general to specific.
B. Logic and KenKen Puzzles

Video viewing and doing problem solving:
Can you solve Einstein’s Riddle? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1rDVz_Fb6HQ
Logic puzzles
Logic puzzles can be solved by using deductive reasoning and a chart that is used to
display given information in a visual manner.
Example 43: Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian, has a different
occupation (editor, banker, chef, or dentist). From the following clues, determine the
occupation of each neighbor.
Solution
Clues:
1. Maria gets home from work after the banker and the dentist.
2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
4. The banker leaves next door to Brian.
Procedure:
1. From clue 1, Maria is not the banker nor the dentist. In the following chart, we write ×1
under the Banker and Dentist column for Maria, to indicate the possibility is eliminated
because of clue 1.
Editor Banker Chef Dentist
Sean
Maria ×1 ×1
Sarah
Brian
2. From clue 2, Sarah is not the editor. Also, Sarah is the last to get home from work and from
clue 1, the banker is not the last to get home from work. Hence, Sarah is also not the
banker. We write ×2 under the editor and banker column for Sarah.
Sean
Maria ×1 ×1
Sarah ×2 ×2
Brian
3. From clue 3, Sarah is not the dentist for she and the dentist leave for work at the same
time. We write ×3 under the Dentist column for Sarah in the following chart and we
conclude that Sarah is the Chef. Correspondingly, we get to see that since Sarah is the
Chef, we place an ×3 mark under the Chef column for Maria and conclude that she is
the Editor. Now, we also place an ×3 mark under the columns Chef and Editor for Sean
and Brian.
Sean ×3 ×3
Maria ×1 ×3 ×1
Sarah ×2 ×2 ×3
Brian ×3 ×3
4. From clue 4, Brian is not the banker. We place an ×4 mark under the Banker column for
Brian. Since there are three × ’𝑠 under the Banker column, then Sean must be the Banker.
Sean could not be the Dentist so we place an ×4 mark for Sean under the Dentist column.
Since there are three × ’𝑠 under the Dentist column, Brian must be the Dentist and we
place a check mark in that box.
Sean ×3 ×3 ×4
Maria ×1 ×3 ×1
Sarah ×2 ×2 ×3
Brian ×3 ×4 ×3
From the given clues (and using deductive reasoning), Sean is the banker, Maria is
the editor, Sarah is the Chef, and Brian is the dentist.
Kenken puzzles
Watch the video: KenKen 4x4 Introduction and Strategy@
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uYTrrsxJqb0
KenKen is an arithmetic-based logic puzzle that was invented by the Japanese

mathematics teacher Tetsuya Miyamoto in 2004. The noun "ken" has "knowledge" and
"awareness" as synonyms. Hence, KenKen translates as knowledge squared, or awareness
squared.
Rules for Solving KenKen Puzzles

1. For an n x n puzzle, fill in each square of the grid with one of the numbers 1, 2, 3, ...
,n. Thus, in a 3x3 puzzle, use the numbers 1 to 3. In a 4x4 puzzle, use the numbers 1
to 4. In a 5x5 puzzle, use the numbers 1 to 5, and so on.
2. Do not repeat a number in any row or column. Our goal is to fill in the whole grid
with numbers, making sure no number is repeated in any row or column.
3. The numbers in each heavily outlined set of squares, called cages, must combine
(in some order) to produce the target number in the top left corner of the cage
using the mathematical operation indicated.
4. Cages with just one square should be filled in with the target number. If you see a
single-cell cage with just a number and no operator, it means that the value in
that cell is the target number. Such single-cell cages work like in Sudoku puzzles.
You won’t see these in every puzzle, but when you see one, you should start there.
5. A number can be repeated within a cage as long as it is not in the same row or
column.
KenKen Puzzles Example
Figure a Figure b
First fill in single box cages, called "freebies" Write the possible numbers for each box
with the target number. considering the cage and operations.
Figure c. Eliminate numbers 2 and 1 Figure d. From Figure c it shows that the circled
that are with the same column and numbers 4 found their location.
row of the freebies 2 and 1.
Figure e. Eliminate # 4 that are with Figure f:

the same column and row of the result
in Figure d.
Figure g: Eliminate the numbers that are with
the same column and row of the result in Figure f.
The final result then will be:
C: LOGIC
When someone tells you, “I fail to see your logic,” perhaps the person you are talking
to does not understand your reasoning or sees your arguments as invalid. How exactly do
we determine whether our statements are valid or not? This is the focus of our next section.
Merriam Webster defines logic as a science that deals with the principles and criteria
of validity of inference and demonstration: the science of the formal principles of reasoning.
It allows us to analyze arguments and determine whether it is valid or invalid. Logic is used
by lawyers and judges, computer programmers and more. It is an important tool in
mathematical proofs. In this context, we will see that logic includes a language for
expressing complicated compound statements, a concise notation for writing them, and a
methodology for objectively reasoning about their validity. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-
1716), Augustus De Morgan (1806-1871) and George Boole (1815-1864) are some of the first
mathematicians to study symbolic logic as we know it today, advancing it as a
mathematical discipline instead of merely being a part of philosophy. In particular, Boole
published two works on logic, The Mathematical Analysis of Logic and An Investigation of
the Laws of Thought.
LOGIC STATEMENTS: SIMPLE AND COMPOUND
In logic, a statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both
true and false. Let us take a look at the following sentences, and identify if it is considered as
a statement:
1. Benguet is a province in the Philippines.
2. How are you?
3. 99 + 2 is a prime number.
4. 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 = 12.
5. Open the door.
6. 7055 is a large number.
7. In the year 2022, the president of the Philippines will be a woman.
8. 𝑥 > 3.
In the examples above, numbers 1, 3, 4, 7, and 8 are considered as statements, but

the others are not. Note that although we may not know if sentences 3 and 7 are true or
false, they cannot be true and false. Statements 4 and 8 are called open statements, and
their truth or falsity depends on a particular value of 𝑥. Examples 2 and 5 are not declarative
sentences, while the word “large” in example 6 is not a precise term, so we cannot
determine if indeed the sentence is true or false. The famous paradox “This is a false
statement” is not a statement (think about it!).
A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single idea, while a compound
statement conveys two or more ideas. Compound statements are formed by connecting
simple statements with words or phrases such as “and,” “or,” “if... then...” and “if and only if.”
These, together with “not,” are called logical connectives. George Boole used symbols such
as 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, and 𝑠 to represent simple statements and the symbols ∧,∨, ∼, →, and ↔ to represent
connectives. Using these, we can write any logic statement in its symbolic form. The table
below summarizes the different statements, their types, connectives, and symbolic form.
Statement Connective Symbolic Form Type of Statement
not 𝑝 not ∼𝑝 negation
𝑝 and 𝑞 and 𝑝∧𝑞 conjunction
𝑝 or 𝑞 or 𝑝∨𝑞 disjunction
If 𝑝, then 𝑞 If... then 𝑝→𝑞 conditional
𝑝 if and only if 𝑞 if and only if 𝑝↔𝑞 biconditional
Let us have some illustrations on writing statements in their symbolic form. Consider the
following simple statements and their symbols:
𝑝: Today is Friday.
𝑞: It is raining.
𝑟: I am going to a movie.
𝑠: I am not going to the basketball game.
Example 44: Here are some compound statements and their corresponding symbolic
form:
Solution
1. Today is Friday and it is raining.
SYMBOLIC FORM: 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞
2. It is not raining and I am going to a movie.
SYMBOLIC FORM: ∼ 𝑞 ∧ 𝑟
3. I am going to the basketball game or I am going to a movie.
SYMBOLIC FORM: ∼ 𝑠 ∨ 𝑟
4. If it is raining, then I am not going to the basketball game.
SYMBOLIC FORM: 𝑞 → 𝑠
Example 45: Let us also show illustrations on doing the reverse procedure, translating the
symbolic form into words. Suppose we have the following simple statements and their
symbols:
𝑝: The game will be played in Atlanta.
𝑞: The game will be shown on CBS.
𝑟: The game will not be shown on ESPN.
𝑠: The Dodgers are favored to win.
Solution
Then the following statements in the symbolic form will be translated in this manner:
1. 𝑞 ∧ 𝑝
IN WORDS: The game will be shown on CBS and will be played in Atlanta.
2. ∼ 𝑟 ∧ 𝑠
IN WORDS: The game will be shown on ESPN, and the Dodgers are favored to win.
3. 𝑠 ↔∼ 𝑝
IN WORDS: The Dodgers are favored to win if and only if the game will not be played
in Atlanta.
In compound statements containing more than two simple statements, grouping

symbols are used to indicate which simple statements are grouped together. When in
symbols, parenthesis or brackets are used. If it is given in words, a comma is used: all
statements before the comma are grouped together, and all statements after the comma
are also grouped together. The table below gives particular examples of groupings in
symbols and in words.
Symbolic Form English Sentence

𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨∼ 𝑟) 𝑝, and 𝑞 or not 𝑟
(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟 𝑝 and 𝑞, or 𝑟
(𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞) → (𝑟 ∨ 𝑠) If 𝑝 and not 𝑞, then 𝑟 or 𝑠
Example 46: Suppose we are given the following simple statements:

𝑝: You get a promotion.
𝑞: You complete the training.
𝑟: You will receive a bonus.
Then the symbolic form (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → 𝑟 in words will be “If you get a promotion and complete
the training, then you will receive a bonus.” On the other hand, the statement “If you do
not complete the training, then you will not get a promotion and you will not receive a
bonus” will be represented by ~𝑞 → (~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑟).
TRUTH VALUES AND TRUTH TABLES
The truth value of a simple statement is either true (T) or false (F). The truth value of a
compound statement depends on the truth values of its simple statements and its
connectives. A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound statement for
all possible truth values of its simple statements. We take note of the following for the
negation, conjunction, and disjunction:
1. The negation of a true statement is false, while the negation of a false statement is
true.
2. Both statements must be true for the conjunction to be true. If at least one statement
is false, then the conjunction will be false.
3. A disjunction is true if either statement is true. If both statements are false, then the
disjunction is false.
These are summarized in the following truth tables:
Truth Table for a Truth Table for a Conjunction Truth Table for a Disjunction
Negation 𝑝 𝑞 𝑝∧𝑞 𝑝 𝑞 𝑝∨𝑞
𝑝 ∼𝑝 T T T T T T
T F T F F T F T
F T F T F F T T
F F F F F F
Example 47: Let us look at some examples of determining the truth value of a compound
statement:
1. 7 ≥ 5.
This statement is a disjunction: It can be written as 7 > 5 or 7 = 5. Since the first
statement is true, it means that disjunction 7 ≥ 5 is also true.
2. 5 is a whole number, and 5 is an even number.
The first simple statement is true, and the second is false, so the conjunction is false.
3. 2 is a prime number, and 2 is an even number.
Since both simple statements are true, the conjunction is true.
4. 21 is a rational number, and 21 is a natural number.
This conjunction is also true.
5. 4 ≤ 9.
This disjunction is true.
6. −7 ≥ −3.
This disjunction is false since −7 > −3 is false, and −7 = −3 is also false.
Construction of Truth Table

For combinations of simple arbitrary statements, constructing a truth table allows us
to determine the truth value of the compound statement given any combination of the truth
values of the simple statements. Note that if a compound statement has 𝑛 simple statements,
then the truth table to be constructed will have 2𝑛 rows so that all possibilities are covered.
We will show two ways to construct the truth table.
Example 48: Let us first consider the compound statement ∼ 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞).

Procedure
There are two simple statements, 𝑝 and 𝑞, so there must be 22 = 4 rows in the truth
table. We start off with the following standard truth table form. Notice that in the column of
the simple statement 𝑞, the truth values T and F alternate, while in the column for 𝑝, there are
two rows of T is followed by two rows of F. This ensures all combinations of truth values are
enumerated.
𝑝 𝑞
T T
T F
F T
F F
In the first method of constructing truth tables, we add a column to the truth table for
each particular connective that appears in the symbolic form. In the example above, we
start with a column for ∼ 𝑝 and identify its truth value for each row. This is followed by a
column for 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞, and finally a column for ∼ 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) whose truth values are based on the
previous two columns. This last column gives the truth values of the compound statement ∼
𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞).
𝑝 𝑞 ∼𝑝 𝑝∧𝑞 ∼ 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T F T
F F T F T
① ② ③
Based on column 3, we can say that if 𝑝 is false and 𝑞 is true, then

∼ 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) will be true. Other conclusions can be made by referring to the remaining rows
of the truth table.
In the second method of constructing a truth table, instead of having a separate
column for each connective, we simply place the statement's truth value under the symbol
of the connective, as shown in the table below. Here we number the columns as we
evaluate the truth values under each connective and shade the final column to indicate
the truth values of the compound statement given. Notice that compared to the first
method, we have rearranged the columns in a truth table. In a way, this alternative
procedure results in a more compact solution, especially in compound statements that
involve many signs of grouping. Of course, you are free to use either method based on your
preference.
𝑝 𝑞 ∼ 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T T F
F F T T F
① ③ ②
Example 49: Let us consider the compound statement [𝑟 ∧ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)] ∧ (𝑟 ∨∼ 𝑞)
Procedure
This time, there will be eight rows in the standard truth table form. In the 𝑟 column, the
T and F alternate; in the 𝑞 column, T and F appear two at a time; and finally in the 𝑝 column,
four rows of T are followed by four rows of F. This ensures all combinations of truth values are
covered, and usually helps us remember how to fill up the rows! The table below gives us the
results:
𝑝 𝑞 𝑟 [𝑟 ∧ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)] ∧ (𝑟 ∨ ∼ 𝑞)
T T T T F T T T F
T T F F F T F F F
T F T F F F F T T
T F F F F F F T T
F T T T T T T T F
F T F F T T F F F
F F T T T T T T T
F F F F T T F T T
③ ① ② ⑥ ⑤ ④
When constructing truth tables, remember to arrange your simple statements

alphabetically and evaluate going out for nested signs of grouping from the inside.
Equivalent Statements
Truth tables can be used to show that compound statements are equivalent. Two
statements are said to be equivalent if they have the same truth value for all possible truth
values of their simple statements. The symbol denotes equivalent statements ≡.
Example 50: Verify that ∼ (𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞) and ∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 are equivalent statements, that is, ∼
(𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞) ≡ ∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞.
Solution
𝑝 𝑞 ∼ (𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞) ∼𝑝∧𝑞
𝑝
T T F F
T F F F
F T T T
F F F F
The example above is an application of De Morgan’s Laws for statements: For any
statements 𝑝 and 𝑞,
∼ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ≡ ∼ 𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞 and ∼ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ≡ ∼ 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞.
Another example of equivalent statements is ∼ (∼ 𝑝) ≡ 𝑝 since the negation of a
negation is the original statement. We will encounter more equivalent statements when we
discuss conditional and biconditional statements.
CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS
The conditional statement is a statement of the form “If 𝑝, then 𝑞” or in symbols, 𝑝 → 𝑞.

It shows an implication; that is, given that a situation 𝑝 will happen (antecedent of
hypothesis), then another situation 𝑞 will happen (consequent or hypothesis). Most theorems
in mathematics are in the form of a conditional. There are many other ways to express 𝑝 →
𝑞, namely:
If 𝑝, 𝑞. 𝑞 is necessary for 𝑝.
𝑝 implies 𝑞. 𝑞 is a necessary condition for 𝑝.
𝑞, if 𝑝. 𝑝 only if 𝑞.
𝑞 when 𝑝. 𝑞 whenever 𝑝.
𝑝 is sufficient for 𝑞. 𝑞 follows from 𝑝.
𝑝 is a sufficient condition for 𝑞.
A conditional statement can also be expressed in terms of negations, conjunctions

and disjunctions based on the following statements equivalent to 𝑝 → 𝑞:
𝑝 →𝑞 ≡∼𝑝∨𝑞 and 𝑝 → 𝑞 ≡ ∼ (𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞)
Using these equivalent statements, we can see that the negation of 𝑝 → 𝑞 is 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞. Note that
the negation is no longer a conditional statement! To illustrate, consider the statement “If
they pay me money, I will sign the contract.” Its negation will be, “They pay (or paid) me
money and I will not sign the contract.” Note that “but” can also be used for a conjunction,
so the negation can also be written as “They pay (or paid) me money but I will not sign the
contract” to emphasize the contrast in the two simple statements.
The conditional is false if the antecedent is true and the consequent is false.
Otherwise, the conditional is true. This is shown in the truth table for 𝑝 → 𝑞:
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝→𝑞
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
To explain this, let us consider a conditional statement that perhaps your
parents/guardians have said to you to convince you to do well in school: “If you pass this
test, then I will treat you to your favorite restaurant.” We analyze the truth value of this
conditional statement.
1. If you passed the test and you were treated to your favorite restaurant, then you can
say that your parents/guardians were truthful when they said the conditional. Thus 𝑝 →
𝑞 is true in the first row of the truth table.
2. If you passed the test and you were not treated to your favorite restaurant, then you
would say that parents/guardians were not truthful when they said the conditional.
Thus 𝑝 → 𝑞 is false in the second row of the truth table.
3. If you did not pass the test, then regardless of being treated to the restaurant or not,
you cannot say that the conditional is false. This is because it does not indicate what
might or might not happen if you did not pass the test. Thus, 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true in rows 3 and
4 of the truth table.
Construct the truth table for the following compound statements involving the
conditional for your practice: (1) [𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 → 𝑞)] → 𝑞; (2) [𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨∼ 𝑝)] → ∼ 𝑝.
If we switch and/or negate the antecedent and consequent of a conditional

statement, we can form other conditionals such as the converse, inverse, and
contrapositive. Given a conditional 𝑝 → 𝑞, we have the following:
converse: 𝑞→𝑝
inverse: ∼𝑝→∼𝑞
contrapositive: ∼𝑞 →∼𝑝
Note that the conditional statement is equivalent to its contrapositive, while the converse is
equivalent to the inverse:
𝑝 → 𝑞 ≡∼ 𝑞 → ∼ 𝑝 and 𝑞 →𝑝 ≡∼𝑝 →∼𝑞
Example 51: Let us consider the conditional statement “If I get the job, then I will rent the
apartment.” Its converse is “If I rent the apartment, then I will get the job.” The inverse will
be “If I don’t get the job, then I will not rent the apartment.” The contrapositive will be “If I
don’t rent the apartment, then I will not get the job.” In addition, the negation of the
conditional is “I get the job and I will not rent the apartment.”
Example 52: Practice on this: State the converse, inverse, contrapositive and negation of
the conditional statement “Whenever I do yoga, I feel calm.” Be careful with your choice
of antecedent and consequent! Refer to the different ways to express 𝑝 → 𝑞 previously
discussed.
BICONDITIONAL STATEMENTS
A biconditional statement is a two-way conditional statement: 𝑝 if and only if 𝑞, or in

symbols, 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞, is the conjunction of two conditional statements:
𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 ≡ (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝)
Using this equivalence, the truth table of the biconditional can be constructed, as shown
below. Here, we can see that a biconditional statement is true if its simple statements have
the same truth value.
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝↔𝑞
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
Example 53: Let us consider some biconditional statements involving the variable 𝑥 and
determine its truth value.
1. 𝑥 + 4 = 7 if and only if 𝑥 = 3.
2. 𝑥 2 = 36 if and only if 𝑥 = 6.
3. 𝑥 > 7 if and only if 𝑥 > 6.
Solution:
Recall that it is necessary to substitute a value for 𝑥 in order to know the truth value of
the open statement. In this case, a biconditional is a true statement no matter what value
of 𝑥 is substituted. A biconditional becomes false if there is at least one value of 𝑥 that makes
it false.
1. 𝑥 + 4 = 7 if and only if 𝑥 = 3.
From the first equation, we know that 𝑥 = 3. Thus to determine the truth value of the
biconditional, we need to check two possibilities: (a) 𝑥 = 3; (b) 𝑥 ≠ 3.
𝑥+4=7 𝑥=3 𝑥+4=7↔𝑥 =3

Case (a): 𝑥 = 3 T T T
Case (b): 𝑥 ≠ 3 F F T
We can see that no matter what value is substituted into 𝑥, both equations have the
same truth value. Thus, the biconditional is true.
2. 𝑥 2 = 36 if and only if 𝑥 = 6.
Here, we only need to note that if we substitute 𝑥 = −6, the first equation holds but
the second does not. Thus, the biconditional statement is false.
3. 𝑥 > 7 if and only if 𝑥 > 6.
What do you think?
TAUTOLOGIES AND SELF-CONTRADICTIONS
A tautology is a statement that is always true. A self-contradiction is a statement that

is always false.
Example 54: 𝑝 ∨ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) is a tautology and 𝑝 ∧ (∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) is a self-contradiction, as shown in

the truth table below.
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 ∨ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) 𝑝 ∧ (∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
T T T T F T T T F F F T
T F T T F F F T F F F F
F T F T T T T F F T T T
F F F T T T F F F T F F
Example 55: The open statement 𝑥 + 2 = 5 is neither a tautology nor a self-contradiction

since it is true when 𝑥 = 3 and false when 𝑥 ≠ 3.
SYMBOLIC ARGUMENTS
An argument consists of a set of statements called premises and another statement

called the conclusion. The conclusion is preceded by the word “therefore.” An argument is
valid if the conclusion is true whenever all the premises are assumed to be true. It is invalid if
it is not a valid argument. The symbolic form of an argument is written as
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒 1
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒 2
⋮
𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒
∴ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
The symbol ∴ represents the word “therefore.” An argument can also be written as a
conditional statement whose antecedent is the conjunction of all the premises and whose
consequent is the conclusion:
[𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒 1 ∧ 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒 2 ∧ … ∧ 𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒] → 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
The validity of an argument can be determined using a truth table. We proceed as
follows:
1. Write the argument in symbolic form.
2. Construct a truth table that shows the truth value of each premise and the truth value
of the conclusion for all combinations of truth values of the simple statements.
3. If the conclusion is true in every row of the truth table in which all the premises are
true, the argument is valid. If the conclusion is false in any row in which all of the
premises are true, the argument is invalid
Example 56: Let us consider the following argument: “If Aristotle was human, then Aristotle
was mortal. Aristotle was human. Therefore, Aristotle was mortal.”
Solution:
1. Symbolic Form
If we use the symbol ℎ for the statement “Aristotle was human,” and 𝑚 for “Aristotle
was mortal,” then we obtain the following:
Symbolic form: Conditional:
ℎ→𝑚 [(ℎ → 𝑚) ∧ ℎ] → 𝑚
ℎ
∴ 𝑚
2. Construct a Truth Table

First Premise Second Premise Conclusion
ℎ 𝑚 ℎ→𝑚 ℎ 𝑚
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F T
F F T F F
3. Validity of the Argument

We disregard rows 2, 3, and 4 in our analysis because the premises are not both true.
Since only the first row has both premises true, and the conclusion is also true, then the
argument is valid.
Example 57: Consider the following argument: “If it rains, then the game will not be played.
It is not raining. Therefore, the game will be played.”
Solution:
Let 𝑟 represent the statement “It rains” and 𝑔 the statement “The game will be
played.”
1. Then the symbolic form and the truth table for the argument are given by
𝑟 →∼𝑔
∼𝑟
∴ 𝑔

𝑔 𝑟 𝑟 →∼𝑔 ∼𝑟 𝑔
T T F F T
T F T T T
F T T F F
F F T T F

For this argument, we disregard rows 1 and 3 since the premises are not both true.
Looking at row 4, we see that the conclusion is false even if both premises are true. This
means that the argument is invalid.
Example 58: Suppose we are given the following argument: “If I am going to run the
marathon, then I will buy new shoes. If I buy new shoes, then I will not buy a television.
Therefore, if I buy a television, I will not run the marathon.” Let us use the following symbols:
𝑚 for “I am going to run the marathon,” 𝑠 for “I will buy new shoes,” and 𝑡 for “I will buy a
television.”
Solution:
1. The symbolic form and truth table for this argument are below:
𝑚→ 𝑠
𝑠 →∼ 𝑡
∴ 𝑡 →∼ 𝑚

𝑚 𝑠 𝑡 𝑚→ 𝑠 𝑠 →∼ 𝑡 𝑡 →∼ 𝑚
T T T T F F
T T F T T T
T F T F T F
T F F F T T
F T T T F T
F T F T T T
F F T T T T
F F F T T T
In the highlighted rows, it can be seen that the conclusion is true whenever both
premises are true. Thus, the argument is valid.
UNIT 2: PROBLEM SOLVING
Video viewing: Polya explains the problem solving technique

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h0gbw-Ur_do&t=1028s
INTRODUCTION
Every day we encounter problems. For sure, everyone has felt at least once in his or
her life how wonderful it is if we could solve a problem at hand, preferably without much
difficulty or even with some difficulties. Unfortunately, problem-solving is an art at this point,
for there are no universal approaches one can take to solving problems. Basically, one must
explore possible avenues to a solution one by one until one comes across the right path to
a solution. However, in general, as one gains experience in solving problems, one develops
one's own techniques and strategies, though they are often intangible.
In this section, we are going to learn problem-solving and get a glimpse of strategies
that are often used by experts. They are based on the work of Polya. George Polya, known
as the father of modern problem solving, did extensive studies and wrote numerous
mathematical papers and three books about problem-solving. In 1945, he published the
book “How to Solve It: a new aspect of mathematical method” which quickly became his
most prized publication. In his book, he identifies four basic steps of problem-solving and
reveals how the mathematical method of demonstrating a proof or finding an unknown can
be of help in attacking any problem that can be “reasoned” out.
Polya’s famous four-step method for problem solving
First Step: Understand the problem

Guide questions:
❏ Do you understand all the words used in stating the problem?
❏ What are you asked to find or show?
❏ Can you restate the problem in your own words?
❏ Can you think of a picture or diagram that might help you understand the
problem?
❏ Is there enough information to enable you to find a solution?
If so, then:
1. What is the unknown?
2. What is the data?
3. What is the condition?
4. Is it possible to satisfy the condition?
5. Is the condition sufficient to determine the unknown?
6. Or is it insufficient? Or redundant? Or contradictory?
7. Draw a figure. Introduce suitable notation.
8. Separate the various parts of the condition. Write them down.
Second Step: Devise a plan

Find the connection between the data and the unknown and obtain a plan of the
solution. Successful problem solvers use a variety of techniques when they attempt to solve
a problem. Polya mentioned that there are many reasonable ways to solve problems. Here
are some strategies used:
a. Working Backwards. This is the strategy that “advertises” itself by stating the end
conditions of the problem and asking to find the starting conditions.
b. Logical Reasoning. Problems involving logical reasoning often include a
substantial amount of data that, at first glance, appears overwhelming and
confusing. In this strategy you need to draw logical conclusions from such data.
c. Finding a pattern. A powerful problem-solving strategy for problems is examining
data to see if a pattern exists then use it to solve the problem. Used if a series of
numbers or events are in the problem.
d. Creating a visual representation. If the situation described in the problem is difficult
to visualize, a diagram, using simple symbols or pictures, may enable us to see the
situation more easily.
e. Solve a similar but simpler problem. This is used when it is not possible to gather,
explore, understand, relate, conjecture and to analyze data, in a meaningful way.
In this case, it would be better to formulate an equivalent problem but simpler
form.
f. Organizing Data. This is used if a problem presents an excessive amount of data.
A table or a list are used to organize the data in a problem.
g. Considering Extreme Cases. In this strategy, the existence of extreme positions is
often the key to understanding existence results. By considering extremes, we may
be changing variables in the problem, but only those that do not affect the actual
problem situation.
h. Adopt a Different Point of View. A problem can be solved in a more efficient and
interesting manner if we approach it from a different point of view. That is, instead
of considering the problem in the most direct and obvious manner, a different
approach may yield the answer quickly and more efficiently.
i. Accounting all possibilities.Used to solve problems that indicate different
possibilities. Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities
j. Write an Equation. One of the first steps in working with problems is to translate the
problem into symbolic terms where all key concepts are identified and defined to
come up with an equation. This is effectively applicable for algebraic problems.
k. Intelligent Guessing and Testing. This strategy is used when no other strategy is
immediately obvious. Here we make a guess (and it must be an intelligent guess,
not just an uninformed stab at the problem) and then proceeds to test that guess
within the conditions of the problem. We repeat the process until we succeed.
The skill of choosing an appropriate strategy is best learned by solving many
problems.
Third Step: Carry out the plan
In this step we solve the problem applying the plan we devised. All we need in this
step is care and patience, given that we have the necessary skills. If it continues not to work,
discard it and use another plan.
Fourth Step: Look back
This step is the time to reflect and look back at what we have done, what worked,
and what didn’t. Can you use the result, or the method, for some other problem?
Example 59: In a room with 10 people, everyone shakes hands with everybody else exactly
once. How many handshakes are there?
Solution:
Step 1: Understanding the Problem:

Unknown: number of handshakes in a room
Given: 10 people shakes hands with everybody exactly once
Step 2: Devise a plan:
❏ Visual representation
❏ Accounting for all possibilities
❏ Looking for a pattern
❏ Organizing data
Step 3: Carry out the plan:
a. Visual Representation (Draw a Diagram)
Let us use our visual representation strategy, by drawing a diagram. The 10
points (no 3 of each are collinear) represent the 10 people. Begin with the person
represented by point A.
We join A to each of the other 9 points, indicating the first 9 handshakes

that take place.
Now, from B there are 8 additional handshakes (because since A has
already shaken hands with B). Similarly, from C there will be 7 lines drawn to the
other, from D there will be 6 additional lines or handshakes, and so on. When we
reach point I, there is only one remaining handshake to be made, namely, I with
J, since I has already shaken hands with A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H. Thus, the sum of the
handshakes equals 9 + 8 + 7 + 6 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 45. In general, this is same as
using the formula for sum of the first n natural numbers, where 𝑛 > 2. (Notice that
the final drawing will be a decagon with all of its diagonals drawn.)
b. Accounting all possibilities

Consider the grid shown below, which indicates persons A, B, C, . . . , H, I, J,
shaking hands with one another. The diagonal with 𝑥’𝑠 indicates that people
cannot shake hands with themselves.
The remaining cells indicate doubly with all other handshakes (i.e., A
shakes hands with B and B shakes hands with A). thus we take the total number
of cells (102 ) minus those on diagonal (10) and divide the result by 2. In this
100−10
case, we have = 45.
2
𝑛2 −𝑛
In a general case for the 𝑛 × 𝑛 grid, the number would be , which
2
𝑛(𝑛−1)
is equivalent to the formula .
2
c. Adopting a different point of view
Let’s now examine the problem by adopting a different point of view.

Consider the room with 10 people, each of whom will shake 9 other people’s
hands. This seems to indicate that there are 10 × 9 or 90 handshakes, but we must
divide by 2 to eliminate the duplication.
d. Finding for a Pattern

Let’s try to solve the problem by looking for a pattern. The table shown
below lists the number of handshakes occurring in a room as the number of people
increases.
Number of people in Number of handshakes Total number of total

room for additional person handshakes in room
1 0 0
2 1 1
3 2 3
4 3 6
5 4 10
6 5 15
7 6 21
8 7 28
9 8 36
10 9 45
The third column, the total number of handshakes, gives a sequence of

numbers known as the triangular numbers, whose successive differences increase
by one each time. It is, therefore, possible to continue the table until we reach the
corresponding sum for the ten people. Alternatively, we note that the pattern at
each entry is half the product of the number of people and the number of
handshakes for additional people.
e. Organizing Data
We can approach a problem by careful use of an organizing data strategy.
The chart below shows each of the people in the room and the number of people
they have to shake with each time, given that they already shaken the hands of
their predecessors and don’t shake their own hands. If there are 10 people in the
room one will shake hands with the other 9 people, making 9 handshakes; and if
there are 9 people in the room one will shake hands with the other 8 people,
making 8 handshakes and so on, until we reach person number 2, who only has
one person’s hand to shake, and person number 1 has no other hands to shake.
Again, the sum is 45.
Organizing data
No. of people 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
No. of handshakes 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Step 4. Look Back: After reviewing, we can say:

There are 45 handshakes in the room with 10 people.
Example 60: Evelyn, Harley, and Al play a certain game. The player who loses each round
must give each of the other players as much money as the player has that time. In round
1, Evelyn loses and gives Henry and Al as much money as they have. In Round 2, Henry
loses, and gives Evelyn and Al as much money they each then have. Al loses in round 3
and gives Evelyn and Henry as much money as they each have. They decided to quit at
this point and discover that they each have ₱24. How much money did each start with?
Solution:
Step 1: Understand the problem

Unknown: Amount of money Evelyn, Henry, and Al each had before they started to
play.
Given: Each has 24 pesos at the end of the game. The player who loses each round
must give each of the other players as much money as the player has at that time
Step 2: Devise a plan

Consider this question from the problem “How much money did they start with?” This
is a sign the problem is best solved by working backwards.
Step 3. Carry out a plan

We apply working backwards.
Evelyn Henry Al
End of round 3 24 24 24
End of round 2
End of round 1
Start
Since Al lost at the end of round 3 and the player who loses each round must
give each of the other players as much money as the player has that time. This means
that Al gave half of Evelyn’s money and half of Henry’s money. Evelyn’s money at the
end of round 2 was 12 and so with Henry.
Evelyn Henry Al
End of round 2 24 − 12 = 12 24 − 12 = 12 24 + 12 + 12 = 48
End of round 1
Start
In round 2, Henry lost, he gave half of Evelyn’s money and half of Al’s money.
Evelyn’s money at the end of round 1 was 6 and Al’s money at the end of Round 1
was 24.
Evelyn Henry Al
End of round 2 24 − 12 = 12 24 − 12 = 12 24 + 12 + 12 = 48
End of round 1 12 − 6 = 6 12 + 6 + 24 = 42 48 − 24 = 24
Start 6 + 21 + 12 = 39 42 − 21 = 21 24 − 12 = 12
In round 1, Evelyn lost, she gave half of Henry’s money and half of Al’s money.
Henry’s money at the start was 21 and Al’s money at the start was 12.
Step 4. Look Back:

At the end of round 1 Evelyn lost so she gave Henry ₱21 and gave Al ₱12 leaving her
₱6.
Evelyn Henry Al
Start 39 21 12
End of round 1 39 − 21 − 12 = 6 21 + 21 = 42 12 + 12 = 24
End of round 2
End of round 3
At the end of round 2 Henry lost so he gave Evelyn ₱6 and gave Al ₱24 leaving him
₱12.
Evelyn Henry Al
Start 39 21 12
End of round 1 39 − 21 − 12 = 6 21 + 21 = 42 12 + 12 = 24
End of round 2 6 + 6 = 12 42 − 6 − 24 = 12 24 + 24 = 48
End of round 3
At the end of round 3 Al lost so he gave Evelyn ₱12 and gave Al ₱12 leaving him ₱24.
Evelyn Henry Al
Start 39 21 12
End of round 1 39 − 21 − 12 = 6 21 + 21 = 42 12 + 12 = 24
End of round 2 6 + 6 = 12 42 − 6 − 24 = 12 24 + 24 = 48
End of round 3 12 + 12 = 24 12 + 12 = 24 48 − 12 − 12 = 24
At the end of round 3 it shows that they ₱24 each.
This proves our answer that Evelyn began with ₱39, Henry began with ₱21 and Al
began with ₱12.
Learning Reinforcement 4
Directions: Write your solutions and answers on a clean sheet of

paper, or you may print this page and answer there. Submit the
image of your HANDWRITTEN SOLUTIONS as a single pdf file in the
submission bin for this activity in the Classroom. You may use
image scanning apps on your phone (CamScanner or Tap
Scanner) to save several images into one pdf file, or place your
images in a document and save them as a pdf file.
1. Four friends (including Adam) were at the company

picnic. Each friend had a different drink (one was juice), with a different mix added
(one had vanilla). From the clues provided can you figure out which friend had which
drink and what was added to his/her drink?
CLUES
• Wilma did not drink water mixed with her lemon.
• Only the men drank soda or water.
• Mary was not the one who had water & lime.
• David did not mix his drink with lime.
• The woman who had strawberry did not have tea.
2.
3. Let 𝑝 and 𝑞 be the statements
𝑝: I bought a lottery ticket this week.
𝑞: I won the jackpot on Friday.
Express each of these statements as a sentence:
a.) 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞
b.) ∼ 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
4. Let 𝑝, 𝑞, and 𝑟 be the statements
𝑝: Grizzly bears have been seen in the area.
𝑞: Hiking is safe on the trail.
𝑟: Berries are ripe along the trail.
Write the following statements in symbolic form.
a.) If berries are ripe along the trail, then hiking is safe if and only if grizzly bears have
not been seen in the area.
b.) Grizzly bears have not been seen in the area and hiking on the trail is safe, but
berries are ripe along the trail.
c.) Hiking is not safe on the trail whenever grizzly bears have been seen in the area
and berries are ripe along the trail.
5. Determine whether these biconditionals are true or false.
a.) 1 + 1 = 3 if and only if monkeys can fly.
b.) 0 > 1 if and only if 2 > 1.
6. Write each of the propositions in the form “𝑝 if and only if 𝑞”:
a.) For you to get a passing mark in this course, it is necessary and sufficient that you
learn how to solve mathematics problems.
b.) If you read the newspaper every day, you will be informed, and conversely.
7. Write the proposition “I come to class whenever there is going to be a quiz” in the
form “if p then q” then state its converse, contrapositive, and inverse.
a. Conditional “if p then q”
b. Converse:
c. Contrapositive:
d. Inverse:
8. Let 𝑝, 𝑞, and 𝑟 be true, false and false, respectively. Determine the truth value of the
following?
a.) (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧∼ 𝑟
b.) 𝑞 ↔ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑟)
9. Determine the validity of an argument: A polygon is regular or a polygon has a side
which is longer than another side of the polygon. If a polygon is regular then all the
sides of the polygon are congruent. If a polygon has one side which is longer than
another side of the polygon, then an interior angle of the polygon has measure
greater than one of the interior angles of the polygon. Therefore, either the polygon
have congruent sides or an interior angle of the polygon has a measure greater than
one of the interior angles of the polygon.
10. Solve the following problems following Polya’s Four Step Method and employing the
different strategies discussed. Write the problem and present the solution neatly
and organized.
5
a. Frosia delivers prescriptions for the local pharmacy. On Tuesday, she delivered of
9
3
the prescriptions already in the delivery van and then 4
of the remaining
2
prescriptions. After picking up 10 more prescriptions at the store, she delivered of
3
those she had with her. She then picked up an additional 12 prescriptions and
7
delivered 8 of those she had in the van. Finally, she up 3 more and then delivered
the remaining 5 prescriptions. How many prescriptions did she deliver?
b. Joyce invited 17 friends to a dinner party at her house last Friday evening. She
gave each guest a card with a number from 2 through 18, reserving number 1 for
herself. When she had everyone paired off at the dinner table, she noticed that
the sum of each couple’s numbers was perfect square. What number did Joyce’s
partner have?

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MODULE 4: REASONING AND PROBLEM SOLVING

Solve the VIRAL MATH PROBLEM − 6 ÷ 2(1 + 2) =

A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Example 41: Statement: For all x, x/x = 1.

Divide the sum by 2:

Remember! Inductive: from specific to general.

B. Logic and KenKen Puzzles

KenKen is an arithmetic-based logic puzzle that was invented by the Japanese

Rules for Solving KenKen Puzzles

Figure e. Eliminate # 4 that are with Figure f:

The final result then will be:

LOGIC STATEMENTS: SIMPLE AND COMPOUND

In the examples above, numbers 1, 3, 4, 7, and 8 are considered as statements, but

In compound statements containing more than two simple statements, grouping

Symbolic Form English Sentence

Example 46: Suppose we are given the following simple statements:

TRUTH VALUES AND TRUTH TABLES

Construction of Truth Table

Example 48: Let us first consider the compound statement ∼ 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞).

Based on column 3, we can say that if 𝑝 is false and 𝑞 is true, then

When constructing truth tables, remember to arrange your simple statements

The conditional statement is a statement of the form “If 𝑝, then 𝑞” or in symbols, 𝑝 → 𝑞.

A conditional statement can also be expressed in terms of negations, conjunctions

If we switch and/or negate the antecedent and consequent of a conditional

𝑝 → 𝑞 ≡∼ 𝑞 → ∼ 𝑝 and 𝑞 →𝑝 ≡∼𝑝 →∼𝑞

A biconditional statement is a two-way conditional statement: 𝑝 if and only if 𝑞, or in

𝑥+4=7 𝑥=3 𝑥+4=7↔𝑥 =3

TAUTOLOGIES AND SELF-CONTRADICTIONS

A tautology is a statement that is always true. A self-contradiction is a statement that

Example 54: 𝑝 ∨ (∼ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) is a tautology and 𝑝 ∧ (∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) is a self-contradiction, as shown in

Example 55: The open statement 𝑥 + 2 = 5 is neither a tautology nor a self-contradiction

An argument consists of a set of statements called premises and another statement

[𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒 1 ∧ 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒 2 ∧ … ∧ 𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑒] → 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

2. Construct a Truth Table

3. Validity of the Argument

First Premise Second Premise Conclusion

3. Validity of the Argument

First Premise Second Premise Conclusion

3. Validity of the Argument

UNIT 2: PROBLEM SOLVING

Video viewing: Polya explains the problem solving technique

First Step: Understand the problem

Second Step: Devise a plan

Fourth Step: Look back

Step 1: Understanding the Problem:

We join A to each of the other 9 points, indicating the first 9 handshakes

b. Accounting all possibilities

Let’s now examine the problem by adopting a different point of view.

d. Finding for a Pattern

Number of people in Number of handshakes Total number of total

The third column, the total number of handshakes, gives a sequence of

Step 4. Look Back: After reviewing, we can say:

Step 1: Understand the problem

Step 2: Devise a plan

Step 3. Carry out a plan

Step 4. Look Back:

Directions: Write your solutions and answers on a clean sheet of

1. Four friends (including Adam) were at the company

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