EGE 2309 Curves

Engineering Surveying I Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology
EGE 2309 Lecturer: C.O. Gaya
CURVE RANGING
Route Surveying
The process of route surveying involves the provision of control that is necessary
for the establishment of both horizontal and vertical alignment for transportation
facilities. These include railways, roads, canals, pipelines or power transmission
lines and telecommunication lines.
The surveying data obtained can then be used in alignment, planning, design and
construction.
The necessary information could be in form of terrain data or land use which can
be used to determine detailed topography and thus be eventually used in the design
and construction layout. In order to facilitate in the planning and alignment, the
surveyor must be familiar with the following processes:
(i) The geometry of the horizontal and vertical curves and how they are used in
route alignment.
(ii) The methods of acquiring the terrain data that is used in the route design.
Curve Design
In the geometric design of motorways, railways, pipelines, etc., the design and
setting out of curves is an important aspect of the engineer’s work.
Ideally a road/ route will always comprise a series of curves connected by straight
sections whose positions are defined largely by the topography of the area. The
intersections of pairs of straights are then connected by horizontal curves
In the vertical design, intersecting gradients are connected by curves in the
vertical plane. The straight lines connecting these curves /arcs are the tangents
(are at 90° to the arcs).
Curves can be listed under three main headings, as follows:

(1) Circular curves of constant radius.
(2) Transition curves of varying radius (spirals).
(3) Vertical curves of parabolic form.
HORIZONTAL CURVES
Horizontal curves are curves considered in the horizontal plane.
The purpose of the curves is to deflect a vehicle travelling along one of the
straights safely and comfortably through the angle θ to enable it to continue its
journey along the other straight. For this reason, θ is known as the deflection angle
July 20 Page 1 of 29
(or total deflection angle). Horizontal curves allow for smooth vehicle operation at
the speeds for which the road is designed.
Types of horizontal curves: There two main types of horizontal curves are
(1) Circular curves, which are curves of constant radius.

(2) Transition curves/ spirals, which are curves of varying radius.
CIRCULAR CURVES
In route surveying the horizontal curves employed at point of change in direction

will normally be arcs of circles.
Types of Circular Curves

A simple circular curve consists of one arc of constant radius, as shown in Figure 1
above.
A compound circular curve consists of two or more circular curves of different

radii. The centers of the curves lie on the same side of the common tangent, as
shown in Figure 12.
A reverse circular curve consists of two consecutive circular curves, which may or
may not have the same radii, the centers of which lie on opposite sides of the
common tangent, as shown in Figure 13. Reverse curves are mostly used in railway
works to connect tracks.
Geometry and elements of a Circular Curve
Referring to Figure 1,
(i) A circular curve of radius R connects two straight lines, L1T1 and L2T2
(ii) The two straights when projected forward, meet at I: which is referred to as
the intersection point. The angle θ at I is called the angle of intersection or
the deflection angle
(iii) The curve starts at tangent point T1 and ends at tangent point T2.
(iv) The angle of intersection between the two tangent points is θ and is equal to
the angle T1ÔT2 subtended at the centre of the curve 0. This angle is measured.
(v) The angle γ at I is called the apex angle.
(vi) From the geometry of the figure the following arise:
 Angle BŤ1I = Angle BŤ2I = θ/2.
 Tangent length T1I = tangent length T2I = R tan θ/2.
Figure 1: Geometry of a circular curve
 Length of curve T1AT2 = R θ, where θ is expressed in radians, or

 Main chord = distance T1T2 = 2RSin θ/2
 Apex distance = IA = R (sec θ/2 − 1)
 The rise = AB = R (1 − cos θ/2)
These equations should be deduced using a curve diagram (Figure 1).
Curve Designation
Curve designation is accomplished either by their radius (R) or their degree of
curvature (D°).
The degree of curvature is defined as the angle subtended at the centre of a

circle by an arc of 100 m (Figure 2).
Figure 2: Degree of curvature

D°/100 = 360°/2πR
Thus D° = 36000°/2πR
= 18000°/πR
∴ D = 5729.578/R degrees
Degree of curvature is an important factor in the design of curves. It is selected
on the basis of the following:
(i) design speed
(ii) allowable superelevation

(iii) friction etc
After the degree of curvature has been selected, the radius of curvature is
calculated:
D =18000/πR
Thus, R =18000/πD
Through Chainage
Through chainage is the horizontal distance from the start of a scheme for route
construction.
Figure 4: Through chainage
If the distance from the start of the route (Chn 0.000 m) to the tangent point T1
is 490.311 m, then it is said that the chainage of T1 is 490.311 m.
If the curve is to be out using 10-m sub-chords, and it is desired that the chainage
at the end of the sub-chords be round figures/ then the first chord would be set
to length 9.689 m. Hence the first peg from T1 will have a chainage of 490.311 +
9.689 = 500.000 m (an integer number of 10 m intervals: for convenience and
check). Similarly, if the chord interval had been 30 m, the first sub-chord will be
(510.000 – 490.311) = 19.689 m.
Chord-Arc Approximation
Let the arc length be A and the equivalent chord length be C
A3 A5
C  A     
24 R 2 1920 R 4
A3 A5
 A  C  L   
24 R 2 1920 R 4
A3  A2 
 1  
24 R 2  80 R 2 

A  A 1  A 2 
2
 1 
   2 
24  R 
 80  R 
L 1  A   1  A 
2 2
Therefore,    1    
A 24  R   80  R  
It therefore follows that if a chord length of 1/10 R is used i.e. A/R =1/10 then the
accuracy of approximation becomes
L 1  1 
2
 1 1 
2
   1    
A 24  10   80  10  
1
 (approx)
2400
This accuracy is considered sufficient for simple curves.
For a chord length of 1/20 R the accuracy becomes 1/9,600 and for a chord of
1/30 r the accuracy becomes 1/21,600.
SETTING OUT HORIZONTAL CIRCULAR CURVES
1. Setting Out Using Theodolite and Tape

As indicated in Figure 4, the curve is established or set out by a series of chords
T1B, BC, etc.
Fixing Peg 1 at B
i) Sight I and set the theodolite to read zero (0° 00’ 00”).
ii) Turn off angle δ and measure the chord length T1B using tape along the turn
off line.
iii) Fix peg 1 at the measured position of B.
Fixing Peg 2 at C
i) Turn the theodolite to read the 2nd setting out angle. This will give the
direction T1C.
Figure 4: Rankine’s deflection/ tangential angle method,
ii) Measure the chord length BC from B so as to intersect at C with the

direction T1C.
iii) Fix peg 2 at C.
Continue the procedure from peg 2 by setting out the angles from T1I and
measuring the chords from the previous station.
Calculation of Setting Out Data

i) Assumption:
OA bisects the chord T1B at 90°(right angle)
Hence.
T1ÔA = BȎA = 90°-AŤ1O
but
AŤ1O = 90°- δ
therefore
T1ÔA = BȎA = δ
ii) Arc length T1B = 2Rδ , δ in radians

therefore
δ (in radians) = arcT1B
2R
≈ chord T1B
2R
δ (in degrees) = chordT1B x 180

2∏R
δ = 90 x chordT1B degrees
∏R
Circumstances of change;
 initial sub-chord
 standard sub-chord
 final sub-chord
Note: For adequate accuracies in simple curve setting out the sub-chord length
should be 1/10 R or smaller. This takes care of errors arising from approximation
from arc to chord.
2. Setting Out Using Two Theodolites
This method can be applied when chord taping is impossible. The curve is set out
using two theodolites at, one at T1 and the other atT2. The intersection of the lines
of sight giving the position of the curve pegs.
α = setting out angle

θ = intersection angle
Figure 5: Setting out with two theodolites
Procedure:
The method is setting out angles are set from T1I in the usual way, while
simultaneously the same angles are set out from the main chord T2T1 atT2. The
curve pegs are fixed by intersection of the corresponding angles as indicated in
Figure 5.
When T1 is not intervisible from T2, then sight I (when at T2) and turn off the
corresponding angles θ /2-α1, θ/2-α2, etc.
3. Setting out Using EDM/ Total Station

When setting out m using EDM, the total distance from T1 to the peg is set out. i.e.
the distances T1A, T1B and T1C etc.. However, the chord and sub-chord distances
are still required and are computed in the usual way, plus the setting-out angles for
those chords.
Figure 6: Setting out using EDM/ Total Station
The distances to the pegs direct from T1 are computed as follows:
T1A = 2Rsin α1
T1B = 2Rsin α2
T1C = 2Rsin α3
etc.
T1T2 = 2Rsin (θ/2)
In this way the curve is set-out by measuring the distances directly from T1 and
turning off the necessary direction.
4. Setting out Using Coordinates
The coordinates along, the centre-line of the curve are computed relative to the
existing ground control points.
1) From the design process, the coordinates of the tangent and intersection point
are obtained.
2) The chord intervals are decided in the usual way and the setting-out angles α1,
α2. . . αn, computed in the usual way.
Figure 7: Setting out using coordinates
3) From the known coordinates of T1 and I. the bearing T1I is computed.

4) Using the setting-out angles, the bearings of the rays T1A, T1B, T1C ... etc. are
obtained as in the EDM Method (i.e. T1A = 2Rsin α1, etc.)
5) Using the bearings and distances in (4) the coordinates of the curve points A, B,
C are obtained.
6) These points can now be set out from the nearest control points either by
‘polars’ or by ‘intersection’.
Setting out by polars is carried out as follows:

(i) Using the coordinates, compute the bearing and distance from, say, station Y to
T1, A and B.
(ii) Set up theodolite at Y and backsight to X; set the horizontal circle to the
known bearing YX.
(iii) Now turn the instrument until it reads the computed bearing YT1 and set out
the computed distance in that direction to fix the position of T1. Repeat the
process for A and B.
Other points around the curve are set out in the same way from appropriate
control points.
Intersection may be used, thereby precluding distance measurement, by

computing the bearings to the curve points from two control stations e.g. the
two theodolites are set up at Y and Z respectively. Instrument Y is orientated
to Z and the beating YZ set on the horizontal circle. The same is done from Z to
Y. The instruments are set to bearings YC and ZC respectively, intersecting at

peg C. The process is repeated around the curve.
The coordinates’ method eliminates the need for initial establishment of tangent
and intersection points and reduces many of the problems encountered in curve
ranging.
5. Setting Out when Intersection point is Inaccessible
Figure 8: Setting out with inaccessible intersection point
Problem:
To fix T1 and T2, and obtain the angle θ, when I is blocked (inaccessible).
Approach:
(i) Project the straights L1T1 and L2T2 forward as far as possible and establish two points
A and B.
(ii) Measure the length AB and angles BÂ L1 and L1BA.
Therefore:
angle IÂB = 180°- BÂ L1 and angle I ˆBA = 180° - L2ˆBA.
Hence the angle of intersection can be obtained as,
θ = IÂB + I ˆBA
(iii) Obtain lengths IA and IB by solving triangle AIB , theen subtract the corresponding
lengths from the computed tangent lengths (R tan θ /2), so as to obtain lengths AT1
and BT2, which are used to fix T1 and T2 respectively.
(iv) Set out the curve in the usual way.
6. Setting Out When There are Obstacles on the Curve

Problem:
From Figure 9, an obstruction on the curve prevents the measuring or chaining of
the chord from peg 3 to peg 4.
Figure 9: Setting out when there is an obstruction on the curve
Options:
a) Set out the rest of the curve from T2 to the obstruction.
b) Set out the distance T1Peg4 = 2R sin α4 (can be set out using EDM).
c) Set out using intersection from theodolites at T1 and T2.
d) Use coordinate method.
7. Setting Out When Theodolite is Moved to an Intermediate Point Along

the Curve.
Curve ranging may be continued from a point on the curve due to an obstruction on
the line of sight or difficulty in communications and visibility on long curves.
Procedure:
From Figure 10, assume that the setting-out angle to fix peg 4 is obstructed.
i) Move the theodolite to peg 3 and backsight T1 with the theodolite reading
zero (for orienting).
ii) Transit the theodolite to give the direction peg3-T.
iii) Turn off the setting out angle for peg 5 (α5) and measure the chord length
from peg 3.
Figure 10: Setting out from an intermediate point
iv) The remainder of the curve is set out in the usual way.
8. Passing a Curve Through a Given Point
Figure 11: Curve passing through a given point
Problem: To find out the radius of a curve which will pass through point P. Point P is
defined by the distance IP and angle φ.
Approach:
From right-angled triangle IT2O,
β = 90 – θ/2 -φ
Using sine formula:

IO
sin   sin  , but IO =R sec (θ/2)
PO
sin   R sec 2
 sin  
R
sin   sin   R sec 2

Now,
ξ = 180 – σ - β
And also,
sin  sin 

IP R
IP sin 
R
sin 
9. Setting Out Compound and Reverse Curves

Separate sections of compound curves and reverse curves may be separately
treated as simple curves with a common tangent t.
Figure 12: Compound curve
Compound curves:
Referring to Figure 12:
i) Obtain the total tangent lengths T1I and T2I as follows:

T1t1 = t1t = R1 tan(θ1/2)
T2t2 = t2t =R2 tan(θ2/2)
t1t2 = t1t + t2t
Then solve triangle t1It2 for the lengths t1I and t2I
whence,
T1I = T1t1 + t1I
T2I = T2t2 + t2I
and T2t2
ii) Set out the curve as follows:
1. For the first curve of radius R1, set out in the usual way to point t.
2. Move the theodolite to t and backsight T1, setting the horizontal circle
reading at 180°-θ1/2 (for orientation).
3. Turn the instrument to read zero on the line tt2 before setting out the
second curve of radius R2.
Figure 13: Reverse curve
Reverse curves:
Both arcs of the reverse curve be set out from the common point t.
TRANSITION CURVES
Definition
A transition curve is a curve of constantly changing radius. When a transition curve
is used to connect a straight line to a curve of radius R, then the starting radius of
transition is that of a straight line – which is infinity (∞), and the final radius will
be that of the curve.
Referring to figure 14, consider a vehicle travelling at speed (V) along a straight.
The forces acting on the vehicle will be its weight W, acting vertically down, and an
equal and opposite force acting vertically up through the wheels.
Figure 14: Centrifugal force
By the time the vehicle enters a curve of radius R at tangent point T1, an additional
centrifugal force (P) acts on the vehicle, as shown. As P increases, the vehicle is
forced to the outside of the curve and may skid or overturn. The resultant of the
two forces is shown as N in Figure 15. If the road is super-elevated normal to this
force, there will be no tendency for the vehicle to skid or overturn. Superelevation
(Δ), is the lateral tilting of a carriageway to counteract the tendency of vehicles
to “run off” on a curve.
Figure 15: Superelevation
The centrifugal force (P) is expressed as:

WV 2
P [1]
Rg
where g = acceleration due to gravity.
From Figure 15, it can be noted that:

WV 2
tan   [2]
Rg
Thus, super-elevation will be maximum at minimum radius R and minimum on the
straight. It therefore requires a length of spiral curve to permit the gradual
introduction of super-elevation, from zero at the start of the transition to
maximum at the end, where the radius is the minimum safe radius R.
It is recommended that super-elevation should be applied at a rate 0.5% on

highways, at 1% on all-purpose roads and at 0.2% on railways.
Principle of Transition
Transition curves have two major roles:
(1) to ensure a gradual change of direction from the straight (radius = ∞) to the
curve (radius = R).
(2) to permit the uniform application of super-elevation to counteract centrifugal
force and minimize passenger discomfort.
Since it is not possible to eliminate P, it is allowed for by permitting it to increase

uniformly along the curve. As P is inversely proportional to R (see equation [1]), an
ideal transition curve is required to have a radius that decreases uniformly with
distance along it. This in turn permits the gradual application of super-elevation.
Thus at distance l along the transition the radius is r and rl = c (constant).
l 1
 [3]
c r
In Figure 16, tt1 is an infinitely small portion of a transition δl of radius r;

therefore:
l  r
 1 [4]

l r
By substituting equation [3] in equation [4] one obtains
l 

c l
Figure 16: Transition curve
which on integration becomes:

l2
  l  (2c ) 2
1
2c
½
Let a = (2c) , then
l  a 2
1
When c = RL then a = (2RL)½ and therefore
l  (2RL ) [5]
1
2
Equations (3), (4) and (5) give the expressions from the clothoid curve (Euler
Spiral) which is the most used in road design. in some cases a cubic parabola may be
used due to the advantage of a simpler formula (y = k l2).
Transition Curve Design

The basic requirements in the design of transition curves are:
(1) The value of the minimum safe radius (R), and

(2) The length (L) of the transition curve.
Calculation of the Minimum safe Radius, R

From equation (1),
P V2
centrifugal ratio, 
W Rg
WV 2
 R [6]
Pg
where V = design speed in m/s
g = acceleration due to gravity in m/s2
R = minimum safe radius in m
The commonly used values of the centrifugal ratio (P/W) are 0.21 to 0.25 on roads
and 0.125 on railways.
When speed is expressed in km/hr, equation (6) changes to:

WV 2
R [7]
127 P
The minimum safe radius R may be set either equal to or greater than the value
obtained from the calculations to allow for greater flexibility, making it much
safer; but such that it does not considerably alter the cost of construction.
Calculation of the Length of the Curve
One approach to finding the length of the transition is to use values for ‘rate of change of
radial acceleration’ which would be unnoticeable to passengers travelling in a vehicle.
Now, Radial acceleration = V 2/R
Thus as radial acceleration is inversely proportional to R it will change at a rate

proportional to the rate of change of R.
The transition curve must therefore be long enough to ensure that the rate of change of
radius, and hence radial acceleration, is unnoticeable to passengers.
Now, the time taken to travel the length L of the transition curve = L/V
Therefore
V2 R V3
rate of change of radial acceleration = q  
LV RL
V3
Therefore L
Rq
V3
and for V in km/hr L [8]
3.6 3 Rq
where
q = rate of change of centripetal (radial) acceleration; its value
is at least 0.3 m/s3 for unrestricted design, increase up
to 0.6 m/s3 in urban areas or even higher, for sharp
curves in tight locations.
V = design speed in km/hr
The rest of the units are in metres (m)
SETTING OUT TRANSITION CURVES

Figure 17 indicates two straights projected forward to intersect at I with a
clothoid transition curve commencing from tangent point T1 and joining the circular
arc at t1. The second equal transition commences at t2 and ends at T2. Thus the
composite curve from T1 to T2 consists of a circular arc with transitions at entry
and exit.
Figure 17: Transition and circular curves
1) Fixing the tangent points T1 and T2

In order to fix T1 and T2 the tangent lengths T1I and T2I need to be obtained.
T1I = T2I = (R + S) tan θ/2 + C [9]
where
S = shift = L2/24R − L4/(3! × 7 × 8 × 23R3) + L6/(5! × 11 × 12 × 25R5)− L8/(7! ×
15 × 16 × 27R7) . . .
C = L/2 − L3/(2! × 5 × 6 × 22R2) + L5/(4! × 9 × 10 × 24R4)− L7/(6! × 13 × 14 ×
26R6) . . .
NB: The values of S and C may be abstracted from the Highway Transition
Curve Tables.
Hence, using the chainage at I and the tangent length, the points T1 and T2 may be
fixed.
2) Setting out the transitions

i) Calculate the length of transition using the formula in equation [8]
ii) Partition the transition length into appropriate arc lengths; then, the
equivalent chord lengths, C become:
A3 A5
C  A   
24 R 2 1920 R 4 [10]
where A is the arc length.
Figure 18: Setting out transitions
iii) Calculate the setting off angles as follows:

From equation [5],
l  (2RL )
1
2
l2
 
2 RL [11]
L
when l  L,  
2R
where L is the total length (= 200 m, say) and l is any distance along the
transition other than the total length L.
Also δ = Φ/3 − 8Φ3/2835 − 32Φ5/467 775 . . . [12]

= Φ/3 − N,
where N may be taken from tables and ranges in value from 0.1”
when Φ = 3°, to 34’ 41.3’” when Φ = 86°
But,
1 l12 l12
  1   where l1 = chord length ( = 30 m, say).
 L2 L2
But we know from equation [12] that

1
1 
3
Similarly,
l22
2   where l2 = 60 m, say.
L2
2
and  2  ………………, and so on.
3
iv) Referring to Figure 18, set the theodolite at T1 and oriented to I with the
horizontal circle reading zero.
v) Peg out the transition using deflection angles (δ) and in the same way as for a
simple curve.
Note that:
a) The values for l1, l2, l3 etc., are accumulative and therefore the values
obtained for δ1, δ2, etc., are the final setting-out angles which are not to be
summed as is the case with simple curves.
b) Although the chord length used is accumulative, the method of setting out is
still the same as for the simple curve.
(3) Setting-out circular arc t1t2

i) Establish the direction of the tangent t1B by setting the theodolite at t1
and backsighting to T1 with the horizontal circle reading [180°− (Φ − δ)], for
orientation purposes.
ii) Turn the instrument to read zero in order to orient it in the direction t1B i.e.
the circle reading should zero before setting-out the simple circular arc.
The angle (Φ − δ) is called the back-angle to the origin may be obtained from
Tables.
iii) The remaining setting-out data are obtained as follows:
a) As each transition absorbs an angle Φ, the angle subtending the circular arc
becomes (δ -2Φ) and consequently the length of circular arc = R (δ -2Φ)
which is then partitioned into the required chord lengths (C).
b) The deflection angles δ becomes
δ° = 180C/2∏R
iv) The angles are then set out from the tangent t1B in the usual way.
v) Then the second transition is set out
VERTICAL CURVES
Definition
Vertical curves are curves that are used to connect two straight lines (gradients)
in the vertical plane.
In vertical curves, the simple parabola is used for sag and summit (crest) curves.
Figure 19: Sag and summit curves
Gradients are represented by percentages; +ve for upgrade and –ve for downgrade.
For example, an upgrade of 1 in 50 = 2 in 100 = +2%. A downgrade of 1 in 40 = 2.5 in
100 = -2.5%.
Angle A (T2IJ) is called the grade angle and represents the change in grade
through which the vertical curve passes.
Approximations used in Vertical Curves Computation

Vertical computations can be mathematically proven provided the gradient slight.
By referring to Figure 20 below, the approximations can be listed as follows with

minimal errors.
 Distance T1D = T1BT2 = T1C T2 = T1I + I T2
 The curve is of equal length each side of I i.e. T1C =CT2 = T1I = I T2 = L/2
 The curve bisects BI at C therefore BC = CI = Y and is referred to as the

centre offset
 The distances along the curve are considered horizontal and all offsets are
considered vertical
 Offsets from each gradient are equal at equal distances each side of I
i.e. y1= GH; y2 = EF
-g1%
T1 Horizontal
D
B
Y +g2
l1 y1 C E G T2 %
y2
Y
l2
y4
L/2 I A
y5
L J
Figure 20: Vertical curve approximations
 The offsets are proportional to the square of their distances from T1

i.e. y1 = l12
Y (L/2)2
This arises from the basic formula for a parabola which is y =kl2
where y is the vertical offset from the gradient curve distance l from the start of
the curve.
 From similar triangles, if BI =2Y, then T2J = 4Y. T2J represents the vertical
divergence of the gradient.
Now, A = 4Y , therefore 4Y = AL
100 L/2 200
Design Factors in Vertical Curves

1. Rate of change of grade
2. Sight distance on summits
3. Headlight sight distance on sags
1. Rate of Change of Grade (r)

Rate of change of grade is a major consideration in railways.
Rate of change of grade of summits 3%
Rate of change of grade of sags 1.5%
The length of curve (L) required may be expressed as follows:

L = 100A
r
where A = grade angle
r = rate of change of grade
Choice of A is very critical.
2. Sight Distance on Summit Curves

This is defined as the length of road ahead that is visible to the driver. It is the
main consideration in road design. Sight distance on summit curves must be greater
than the stopping distance i.e. the minimum distance required to bring the vehicle
to rest.
The stopping distance depends on the following:

i) speed of the vehicle
ii) braking efficiency
iii) gradient
iv) coefficient of friction between the tyres and the road
v) condition of the road
vi) driver’s reaction time etc
On summits, the relation between the length of curve (L) and sight distance (S) is
may be derived as follows;
Figure 21: Calculation of curve lengths
a) Referring to figure 21, consider the case when the sight distance is less than
the length of the curve,
i.e S < L
Basic formula for a parabola: y =k l2

2
L
hence, Y  k  
2
h1  kl12
h2  kl22
h1 l2 4l 2 h2 l2 4l 2
 1 2  21  2 2  22
then, Y L 2  L and Y L 2  L
h1 L2
therefore, l12 
4Y
Since 4Y can be defined as AL/200,
200h1 L
then, l12 
A
1 1
 200h1 L  2  200 L  2
1
 l1      (h1 )
2
 A   A 
Similarly,
1
 200 L  2
1
l2    (h2 )
2
 A 
Now, S = l1 + l2
1 1
 200 L  2  200 L  2
1 1
 S   (h1 )    (h2 )
2 2
 A   A 
1
 200 L  2  2 
1 1
S   (h1 )  (h2 )  [13]

2
 A   
where h1 is the driver’s eye height above the road
h2 is the object’s height above the road
From equation [13] the length of the curve becomes:

AS 2
L 2
[14]
 2 
1 1
200(h1 )  (h2 ) 
2
 
When h1 = h2 = h equation [14] becomes:

AS 2
L [15]
800h
b) When S > L it can be shown that:

2
200  2 
1 1
L  2S  (h1 )  (h2 )  [16]

2
A  
and when h1 = h2 = h then equation [16] becomes:
800h
L  2S  [17]
A
c) When S = L, then substitution in equation [15] gives
AS 2 AL2
L 
800h 800h
800h
L 
A
and substitution in equation [17] gives
800h 800h
L  2S   2L 
A A
800h
L 
A
NB: In both cases the same value is obtained for L, hence the expressions are
correct.
3. Headlight Distance on Sags

It is the main design factor on sag curves. The headlight beam (horizontal length
(S)) is normally put at 0.6 m above the road surface with the beam tilted up at 1º
to the horizontal.
Consider the figure below with S < L.
From the formula for offsets,

BC = S²  BC = S²(T2D)
T2D L³ L²
But T2D is the vertical divergence of the gradient and is A x L,

100 2
T2
Headlight beam B
x°
h A
T1 I C D
L
Figure 22: Clearance on a vertical curve where S < L
Hence BC = S² (AL/ 200)

L²
= AS²
200L
Also BC = h + S tanx° = AS²

200L
 L = AS² (200h + 200 S tanx°)-1 [18]
Putting x° = 1° and h = 0.6 m
L = AS²
120 + 3.5 S [19]
Similarly when S < L, it as shown in Figure 23;
Figure 23: Clearance on a vertical curve where S >L
BC = A (S-L/2) = h + S tanx °
100
which implies that
L= 2S - (200h + 200 S tanx°)-
A [20]
When x° = 1° and h = 0.6 m
L = 2S – (120 + 3.5 S)
A [21]
Determination of Chainage at the Highest or Lowest Point on the Curve

Refer to the figure below. Consider the curve as a series of straight lines. At the
start of the curve at T1, the grade is -4%. The grade gradually changes throughout
the curve until at T2 it is +5%. This implies a change of grade of 9% in a distance L.
At the lowest point, the grade will be horizontal i.e. 0%, having passed through 4%
change in grade.
Therefore, by simple proportion, the chainage at the lowest point from the start of
the curve at T1 becomes:
D: 127.060
overpass
-4% 3620
D 5m +5% T1: 123.060
T1
3420
T2
C
I A =9%
D = L x 4%
9%
i.e. in general, the chainage at the highest/ lowest point of a vertical curve is
obtained from:
D = L x g1
A
With the chainage known, the offset and curve level at the point may be calculated.
Vertical Curve Radius

The vertical acceleration experienced when travelling on a vertical curve is (0.66V
2
/R) ms-2 and the maximum value should not exceed 0.46 ms-2. Therefore for any
design speed V, tables may be used to obtain the corresponding minimum radius R.
Alternatively, due to shallow gradients involved in vertical curve design, the

parabola may be approximated to a circular curve.
In a circular curve T1T2 = 2Rsin (θ/2).

As L ≈ T1T2 and θ ≈ A%.
sin (θ/2) ≈ (θ/2) ≈ A/200
Therefore, in a vertical curve L ≈ 2R (A/200)
Thus the radius of a vertical may also be obtained from the expression:
L = AR/100
Vertical Curve Computation
Approach
Refer to Figure 20.
a) Find the value of the central offset (Y).
b) Calculate offsets.
c) Calculate levels along the gradients.
d) Add/subtract (b) to/from (c) to get curve levels.

EGE 2309 Curves

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EGE 2309 Curves

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Engineering Surveying I Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture & Technology

EGE 2309 Lecturer: C.O. Gaya

Curves can be listed under three main headings, as follows:

Horizontal curves are curves considered in the horizontal plane.

(1) Circular curves, which are curves of constant radius.

In route surveying the horizontal curves employed at point of change in direction

Types of Circular Curves

A compound circular curve consists of two or more circular curves of different

Geometry and elements of a Circular Curve

 Tangent length T1I = tangent length T2I = R tan θ/2.

Figure 1: Geometry of a circular curve

 Length of curve T1AT2 = R θ, where θ is expressed in radians, or

The degree of curvature is defined as the angle subtended at the centre of a

Figure 2: Degree of curvature

(ii) allowable superelevation

Figure 4: Through chainage

This accuracy is considered sufficient for simple curves.

SETTING OUT HORIZONTAL CIRCULAR CURVES

1. Setting Out Using Theodolite and Tape

Figure 4: Rankine’s deflection/ tangential angle method,

ii) Measure the chord length BC from B so as to intersect at C with the

Calculation of Setting Out Data

ii) Arc length T1B = 2Rδ , δ in radians

δ (in degrees) = chordT1B x 180

2. Setting Out Using Two Theodolites

α = setting out angle

Figure 5: Setting out with two theodolites

3. Setting out Using EDM/ Total Station

Figure 6: Setting out using EDM/ Total Station

The distances to the pegs direct from T1 are computed as follows:

4. Setting out Using Coordinates

Figure 7: Setting out using coordinates

3) From the known coordinates of T1 and I. the bearing T1I is computed.

Setting out by polars is carried out as follows:

Intersection may be used, thereby precluding distance measurement, by

Y. The instruments are set to bearings YC and ZC respectively, intersecting at

5. Setting Out when Intersection point is Inaccessible

Figure 8: Setting out with inaccessible intersection point

6. Setting Out When There are Obstacles on the Curve

Figure 9: Setting out when there is an obstruction on the curve

7. Setting Out When Theodolite is Moved to an Intermediate Point Along

Figure 10: Setting out from an intermediate point

8. Passing a Curve Through a Given Point

Figure 11: Curve passing through a given point

Using sine formula:

sin   sin   R sec 2

9. Setting Out Compound and Reverse Curves

Figure 12: Compound curve

i) Obtain the total tangent lengths T1I and T2I as follows:

t1t2 = t1t + t2t

Figure 13: Reverse curve

Figure 14: Centrifugal force

Figure 15: Superelevation

The centrifugal force (P) is expressed as:

From Figure 15, it can be noted that:

It is recommended that super-elevation should be applied at a rate 0.5% on

Since it is not possible to eliminate P, it is allowed for by permitting it to increase

Thus at distance l along the transition the radius is r and rl = c (constant).

In Figure 16, tt1 is an infinitely small portion of a transition δl of radius r;

Figure 16: Transition curve

which on integration becomes:

When c = RL then a = (2RL)½ and therefore

Transition Curve Design