CHAPTER 1

1.1. BASIC CONCEPT

Statistics is a branch of mathematics that deals with gathering, organizing, analyzing, interpreting, and
presenting of numerical data. Statistics is the same Latin word datum (data – plural form) which means a
fact or information

Types of Statistics

1. Descriptive Statistics used to gathered data on a group to describe or reach conclusion about that
same group.

2. Inferential Statistics (Inductive statistics) gathers data from a sample and uses the statistics
generated to reach conclusions about the population form which the sample was taken. The data
gathered are used to conclude something about a larger group.

Major Characteristics of Objects

1. Constant – it is a characteristic of objects, people or events that does not vary.

2. Variable – it is a characteristic of objects, people or events that can take of different values.

Types of Variables

1. Qualitative variable refers to the differences in quality, character or kind but not in amount.
2. Quantitative variable refers to the numerical nature and can be ordered or ranked.

Classification of Variables

Experimental Classification

1. Independent Variables (explanatory variable) are controlled by the researcher, and expected to
have an effect on the behavior of the subjects. It is the predictor.

2. Dependent Variables (outcome variable) are some measure of the behavior of subjects and
expected to be influenced by the independent variable. It is being predicted.

Mathematical Classification

1. Continuous Variable is a variable which can assume any of infinite number of values, and can be
associated with points on a continuous line interval.
Example: height, weight, volume

2. Discrete Variable is a variable which consist of either a finite number of values or countable
number of values
Example: gender, courses

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Scales or Levels of Measurement of Data

1. Nominal – this data use numbers for the purpose of identifying name or membership in a group or
category.

2. Ordinal – indicate ranking, ordering, and inequalities in the arrangement of data.

3. Interval – used to classify order and differentiate between classes or categories in terms of degrees
of differences, there is an equal unit of measurement separating each score, specifically equal
intervals but with no zero in the description of measurement.

4. Ratio – are similar to interval data but has an absolute zero (complete absence of the attitude being
measured) and multiples are meaningful.
Ratio is the highest level of measurement; many other types of data encountered in business
environments involve ration measurements such as distance, money and time.

Data Measurement System

Data Set

Qualitative Data Types Quantitative

Level of
Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio
Measurements

Mathematical Discrete or Continuous

Classification

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 CHAPTER 1

Name: ______________________________ Score: ___________________

Course/Yr./Section: ___________________ Date: ____________________

Exercise 1.1

In each of the following statements, tell whether descriptive or inferential statistics have been used.

____________________________1. Financial analysts say that mortgage may soon hit bottom.

____________________________2. Monthly average expenditure of PRMSU employee is

P20,000,000.

____________________________3. Enrolment record of all schools in Zambales.

____________________________4. A campaign manager analyses the effect of TV ads on the

promotion of a senatorial candidate.

____________________________5. The political views of the youth in the rural areas with respect to
inflation rate in the Philippines.

____________________________6. Birth rate in the Philippines

____________________________7. The Philippine Regulations Commission ranks the result of the

Licensure Examination for Teachers professional examination in
2022

____________________________8. The effects of influenza virus to the death rate worldwide

____________________________9. A researcher tested the difference on the customers buying

preference in different brands of perfume.

____________________________10. Educational attainment and the performance level of call center

agents in a certain company.

____________________________11. The average price of mangoes in Zambales

____________________________12. Monthly average income of Certified Public Accountant.

____________________________13. Mean grade of Education students in Assessment in Learning 1

____________________________14. The forecast of PAG – ASA in the number of typhoons

____________________________15. The Philippine Heart Association states that drinking

decaffeinated coffee can raise cholesterol levels by 7%

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 CHAPTER 1

Name: ______________________________ Score: ___________________

Course/Yr./Section: ___________________ Date: ____________________

Exercise 1.2

I. Give the data types, level of measurement and mathematical classification of the following:
Level of Mathematical
Data Data Types
Measurement Classification
Ex. Weight Quantitative Ratio Continuous
1. First 10 students rank in a
class
2. Political party affiliation
3. Amount of time a personal
computer is used per week
4. License plate numbers
5. Cell phone numbers
6. Level of customer
satisfaction
7. Percentage of passers in
CPA board examination
8. Actual temperature in oF
9. Brand of cell phone
10. Number of pizzas sold
each day
11. Intelligence Quotient
Level
12. Coded response (agree,
disagree)
13. Square root of 9
14. Nationality of certain
individuals
15. Civil status
16. GSIS / SSS numbers
17. Courses offered in a
University
18. Enrolment record of all
colleges and universities
in the Philippines
19. Box of milk which weighs
1 kg.
20. Monthly average income
of an employee

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 CHAPTER 1

1.2 DATA COLLECTION AND DATA PRESENTATION

Data are needed whenever we undertake studies or researches. They are used to undertake particular
problems or to provide a basis which certain decisions are generated.

Types of Data

1. Primary data are information collected by the researcher himself; these are first – hand or original
sources. This includes the case of a researcher who wants to undertake statistical analysis involving
information that has not yet been collected. They can be collected through the following methods
of data collection.

Five Methods of Data Collection

a. by direct observation or measurement;

b. by interview using sets of questions called questionnaires or rating guides in collecting
objective and measurable data;
c. by mail or recording or of reporting forms via ordinary and special mails, courier services,
e-mail, and fax to reach out distant data providers;
d. by experimentation to find out cause and effect of a certain phenomenon; and
e. by registration such as registry of births, deaths, marriages. The latter is government certain
laws.

2. Secondary data are information already collected by someone else. In this case the researcher has
little or no control over the design or method of data collection, which may turn out to be
unsatisfactory since it may be inappropriate.

Population and Sample

In order to save time and money, statisticians may study only a part of the population called a sample
which is a subgroup of the population. Samples are taken from the population so as to represent the
population characteristics or traits. Population refers to the sets of people, objects, materials, events, or
things in any form. Sometimes populations can be very large. The numerical index describing a
characteristics of a population are called parameters, while those of the samples are called estimates or
statistic.

Reasons for drawing a sample

 A sample is less time consuming than a census

 A sample is less costly to administer than a census
 A sample is less burden and more practical to administer than a census of the targeted population

Sampling Error
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 CHAPTER 1

Sampling error is the difference between the population parameter and the sample statistic used to estimate
the parameter. Sampling error is mere chance in the sampling process.

Causes of Sampling Error

 Due to the luck of the draw in selecting the sample elements, it is possible to unknowingly choose
a typical elements that misrepresent the population
 Sampling bias occurs when there is some tendency or intension in the sampling process to select
certain sample elements over others.

Sampling Techniques

A. Random Sampling (Probability Sampling) is a process whose members had an equal chance of
being selected from the population.

a. Simple Random Sampling is a procedure of selecting sample size (n) in the population (N)
via random numbers or through lottery.

b. Systematic Sampling is a procedure of selecting a kth element in the population until the
desired number of subjects or respondents is attained.

c. Stratified Sampling is a procedure of subdividing the population into subgroups or strata

and drawing members at random from each subgroup or stratum

d. Cluster Sampling is a procedure of selecting clusters from a population which is very large
or widely spread out wide geographical area.

B. Non – Random Sampling

a. Convenience Sampling is a procedure of selecting a group of individuals who

(conveniently) are available for study.

b. Purposive Sampling is a procedure of selecting based from judgement to select a sample

which the researcher believed, based on prior information, will provide the data they need.

c. Quota Sampling is applied when an investigator survey collects information from the
assigned number or quota of individuals from one several sample units fulfilling prescribed
criteria or belonging to one stratum

d. Snowball Sampling is a procedure is a technique in which one or more member of a

population are located and used to lead the researchers to other members of the population.

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 CHAPTER 1

DATA PRESENTATION

The mere gathering of the information or data is not a small task; a greater task is to take the data
comprehensible and meaningful. The data gathered are summarized and presented in different forms,
namely;

1. Textual form presents the data collected in narrative and paragraph forms

2. Tabular form presents the data collected in table which are orderly arranged in rows and columns
for an easier and more comprehensive comparison of figures.

3. Graphical form presents the collected data in visual or pictorial form to get a clear view of data
(e.g. histogram, bar graph, line graph, pie graph, pictograph etc.)

1.3. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION AND GRAPHS

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

Frequency Distribution is the organization of data in tabular form, using equally exclusive classes
showing the number of observations in each. It is also an arrangement of the values that one or more
variables take in a sample. Each entry in the table contains the frequency or count of the occurrences of
values within a particular group or interval, and in this way, the table summarizes the distribution of values
in the sample.

Steps for data sets that contain a large number of observations

1. Find the range, using the formula

R = Highest Score – Lowest Score

2. Compute the number of intervals, n by using the formula

n = 1 + 3.3 log N

3. Compute the class size, with the formula

i=R
n

4. Make a table with separate columns for the interval numbers, the tallied results, and the frequency
of results in each interval. Label these columns Class, Tally and Frequency.
5. Read the list of data from left to right and place a tally mark in the appropriate row.
6. Add up the number of tally marks in each row and record them in the final column entitled
Frequency.
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 CHAPTER 1

Example 1. Construct a frequency distribution of the grades in Statistics of 50 students.

86 83 87 80 84 84 87 84 87 87
87 87 86 83 86 89 83 85 84 86
88 86 88 87 90 85 88 88 90 91
87 75 89 88 90 86 89 85 88 86
90 88 86 86 89 82 88 95 88 85

Steps:

1. Range = Highest Score – Lowest Score

= 95 – 75
Range = 20

2. n = 1 + 3.3 log N
= 1 + 3.3 log 50
= 1 + 3.3 (1.6990)
= 1 + 5.6067
n = 6.6067

3. i = R ÷ n
= 20 ÷ 6.6067
i = 3.07 or 3

Grades
Tally Frequency
(Class Intervals)
93 - 95 I 1
90 - 92 IIII 5
87 - 89 IIII IIII IIII IIII I 21
84 - 86 IIII IIII IIII II 17
81 - 83 IIII 4
78 - 80 I 1
75 - 77 I 1
N= 50

 By looking at this frequency distribution table quickly, we can see that out of 50 students, 21 got
a grades between 87 – 89, 17 have grades between 84 – 86, etc ……

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 CHAPTER 1

Constructing a cumulative frequency distribution table

A cumulative frequency distribution table is a more detailed table. It looks almost the same as a frequency
distribution table but it has added columns that give the cumulative frequency and the cumulative
percentage of the results, as well.

Steps in constructing a cumulative frequency distribution table.

Create a table similar to the frequency distribution table but with three extra columns.

a. In the first column list the class limits

b. The next column is the Frequency column. Record the number of times a result appears
between the lower and upper values.
c. The third column is the Cumulative frequency column. Here we add the cumulative
frequency of the previous row to the frequency of the current row. Since this is the first
row, the cumulative frequency is the same as the frequency. However, in the second row,
the frequency is added to the frequency of the second row, etc.
d. The next column is the Percentage column. In this column, list the percentage of the
frequency. To do this, divide the frequency by the total number of results and multiply by
100.
e. The final column is Cumulative percentage. In this column, divide the cumulative
frequency by the total number of results and then to make a percentage, multiply by 100.
Note that the last number in this column should always equal 100.0.

The cumulative frequency distribution table should look like this:

Using example 1, the cumulative frequency shown below.

Grades Cumulative Cumulative

Frequency Percentage
(Class Intervals) Frequency Percentage
93 - 95 1 50 2.00 100.00
90 - 92 5 49 10.00 98.00
87 - 89 21 44 42.00 88.00
84 - 86 17 23 34.00 46.00
81 - 83 4 6 8.00 12.00
78 - 80 1 2 2.00 4.00
75 - 77 1 1 2.00 2.00
N= 50 100.00

 By looking at this cumulative frequency table the percentage is shown wherein grades between 87
– 89 have a 42.00% and 34.00% between 4 – 86, etc……

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 CHAPTER 1

Class Interval, Class Mark and Class Boundaries

 Class interval is the difference between the lower endpoint of an interval and the lower endpoint
of the next interval.
 Class Mark is the midpoint of a class interval. To obtain the class mark or midpoint, add the lower
limit and the upper limit, then divide the sum by two.
 Class Boundaries or the exact limit can be obtained by subtracting the lower limit by 0.5 of an
interval and add 0.5 to the upper limit of the interval

Class Mark
Class Intervals Class Boundaries
(Midpoint)
Lower Upper
93 - 95 94 92.5 95.5
90 - 92 91 89.5 92.5
87 - 89 88 86.5 89.5
84 - 86 85 83.5 86.5
81 - 83 82 80.5 83.5
78 - 80 79 77.5 80.5
75 - 77 76 74.5 77.5

GRAPHS

It is a representation of a set of objects where some pairs of the objects are connected by links. The
interconnected objects are represented by mathematical abstractions called vertices, and the links that
connect some pairs of vertices are called edges

Common Graphs in Statistics

Different situations call for different types of graphs, and it helps to have a good knowledge of what graphs
are available. Many times the type of data determines what graph is appropriate to use.
Qualitative, quantitative data and data each use different types of graphs.

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 CHAPTER 1

Some of the common graphs in statistics are listed below:

1. Pareto Diagram or Bar Graph - A bar graph contains a bar for each category of a set of qualitative
data. The bars are arranged in order of frequency, so that more important categories are emphasized.

Example: Academic Grades of 5 BSBA students

Students
Subject
A B C D E
Accounting 1 90 92 88 90 93
Law 1 92 96 95 91 93
Theory 1 93 92 91 93 96
Management 1 89 90 88 93 94
Marketing 1 89 91 87 90 93

98
96
94
92 Accounting
Grades

1
90 Law 1
88
Theory 1
86
84
82
A B C D E
Students

2. Pie Chart or Circle Graph - A pie chart displays qualitative data in the form of a pie. Each slice of
pie represents a different category.

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 CHAPTER 1

Example: Top Six Senators (Partial Electoral Returns Processed as of May 17, 2013, 06:57PM
http://halalan2013.abs-cbnnews.com )

No. of Votes Percentage

ANGARA 12,849,346 15.00
BINAY 13,306,454 15.53
CAYETANO 14,125,633 16.49
ESCUDERO 14,132,720 16.49
LEGARDA 14,938,316 17.43
POE 16,335,170 19.06
Total 85,687,639 100.00

POE, ANGARA,
16,335,170, 12,849,346,
19% 15%

BINAY,
LEGARDA, 13,306,454,
14,938,316, 16%
17%
CAYETANO,
ESCUDERO, 14,125,633,
14,132,720, 16%
17%

3. Histogram - A histogram in another kind of graph that uses bars in its display. This type of graph is
used with quantitative data. Ranges of values, called classes, are listed at the bottom, and the classes
with greater frequencies have taller bars.

Class Intervals Frequency

40 - 49 3
30 - 39 4
20 - 29 2
10 - 19 2

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 CHAPTER 1

4. Stem and Left Plot - A stem and left plot breaks each value of a quantitative data set into two pieces,
a stem, typically for the highest place value, and a leaf for the other place values. It provides a way
to list all data values in a compact form.

Example: Complete a stem-and-leaf plot for the following grades on a recent test:

73, 72, 77, 78, 95, 84, 91, 82, 86, 94

 Arrange the given data from lowest to highest

72, 73, 77, 78, 82, 84, 86, 91, 94, 95

Grades
Stem Leaf
7 2 3 7
8 2 4 6
9 1 4 5

5. Scatterplots - A scatterplot displays data that is paired by using a horizontal axis (the x axis), and a
vertical axis (the y axis). The statistical tools of correlation and regression are then used to show
trends on the scatterplot.

6. Line Graph - A line graph plots continuous data as points and then joins them with a line. Multiple
data sets can be graphed together, but a key must be used.

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 CHAPTER 1

Example: Create a Line Graph on a 5 Days Weather Forecast of PAG-ASA

Date Temperature
May 19 33 0C
May 20 32 0C
May 21 31 0C
May 22 32 0C
May 23 30 0C

PAG - ASA Weather Forecast

33.5
33
32.5
32
Temperature

31.5
31
30.5
30
29.5
29
28.5
May 19 May 20 May 21 May 22 May 23

7. Frequency Polygon can be made from a line graph by shading in the area beneath the graph. It can
be made from a histogram by joining midpoints of each column.it looks like a usual line graph except
for the labels in the horizontal axis which are class intervals.

Class Intervals Frequency

40 - 49 3
30 - 39 4
20 - 29 2
10 - 19 2

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 CHAPTER 1

Frequency
100,000,000
80,000,000
60,000,000
40,000,000
20,000,000
0
1990 1995 2000 2007

8. Pictograph uses an icon to represent a quantity of data values in order to decrease the size of the
graph. A key must be used to explain the icon.

Example: Apples Sold at a fruit shop in 4 months

9. Time-Series Graphs - A time-series graph displays data at different points in time, so it is another
kind of graph to be used for certain kinds of paired data. The horizontal axis shows the time and the
vertical axis is for the data values. These kinds of graphs can be used to show trends as time
progresses.

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 CHAPTER 1

Example: Population of Filipino from Population Census of the Philippine

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Census_in_the_Philippines)

Year Population
1903 7,635,426
1918 10,314,310
1939 16,000,303
1948 19,234,182
1960 27,087,685
1970 36,684,486
1975 42,070,660
1980 48,098,460
1990 60,703,206
1995 68,616,536
2000 76,498,735
2007 88,574,614
2010 92,337,852

Philppines' Population (1903 - 2010)

100000000
90000000
80000000
70000000
Population

60000000
50000000
40000000
30000000
20000000
10000000
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

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 CHAPTER 1

Name: ______________________________ Score: ___________________

Course/Yr./Section: ___________________ Date: ____________________

Exercise

The following data are scores of BSE I A student in their midterm examination

a. Construct a frequency distribution and complete the table below

b. Construct line graph, bar graph, pie graph and picto – graph

80 84 75 94 83 89 78 73 93 83
80 88 83 92 78 91 83 92 95 87
80 83 87 77 72 92 83 75 92 92
87 86 83 93 78 89 83 70 92 83
80 89 83 95 83 86 87 92 80 92

Range = ________________________ n = _______________ i = ___________________

Cumulative Class Boundaries

Class Tally f x fx
Frequency Lower Upper

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 CHAPTER 1

Name: ______________________________ Score: ___________________

Course/Yr./Section: ___________________ Date: ____________________

Exercise

LINE GRAPH BAR GRAPH

PIE GRAPH PICTO GRAPH

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 CHAPTER 1

1.4. MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Measures of Central Tendency

A measure of central tendency is a measure that tells us where the middle of a bunch of data lies. The
three most common measures of central tendency are the mean, the median, and the mode.

Mean is also known as average, also the most common measure of central tendency.

 To find the mean simply add all the items or data divided by the number of numbers in a set of
data.

Median is the midpoint of an array of numbers arranged in ascending or descending order. If the
number of numbers in a data set is even, then the median is the mean of the two middle numbers.

Mode is the observation that occurs most frequently in a set of data.

Mean, Median and Mode for Ungrouped Data

Mean

Example: Find the mean, median and mode of BSBA students in a Management Examination.

30, 48, 48, 32, 30, 50, 40, 43, 40, 34, 32, 32, 32, 36, 30

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 CHAPTER 1

Solution:

Mean = 30 + 30 + 30 + 32 + 32 + 32 + 32 + 34 + 36 + 40 + 40 + 43 + 48 + 48 + 50
15

= 557
15

Mean = 37. 13

Median

Arrange the data from lowest to highest

30, 30, 30, 32, 32, 32, 32, 34, 36, 40, 40, 43, 48, 48, 50

The eight data value, 34, is the middle value in this arrangement.

Median = 34

Mode

30, 30, 30, 32, 32, 32, 32, 34, 36, 40, 40, 43, 48, 48, 50

The mode is 32 since it occurs most often.

Mode = 32

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 CHAPTER 1

Mean, Median and Mode for Grouped Data

Mean

For grouped data the formula for finding the mean:

X = ∑fx
N

where: f - frequency
x - class mark/midpoint
fx - product of frequency and class mark
N - total number of observations

Median

Formula for Median Grouped Data

Md = LMd + N/2 – cfb i

fm

where: LMd - lower boundary of the median class

cfb - cumulative frequency below the median class
fm - frequency of the median class
N - total number of observations
i - class size

Mode

Formula for Mode Grouped Data

Mode = LMo + ∆1 i
∆1 + ∆2

where: LMo - lower boundary of the modal class

∆1 - difference between the frequency of the modal class and the
frequency above the frequency of the modal class
∆2 - difference between the frequency of the modal class and the
frequency below the frequency of the modal class
i - class size

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 CHAPTER 1

Name: ______________________________ Score: ___________________

Course/Yr./Section: ___________________ Date: ____________________

Exercise

1. Find the mean monthly salary for a company to its employees a shown in the following frequency
distribution

No. of
9 7 8 6 3 2 5 7 4
Employees
Salary
11000 12500 13200 18500 21200 24600 26300 17200 19940
(in peso)

2. If Monette invests ₱120, 000 at 7 % ; ₱130, 000 at 105 and ₱140, 000 at 8%, what is the average
return on these investment?

3. A manufacturer recorded the sale f his company during a 15 – dday period. Calculate the median
sale.

36000 24000 27000 16000 13000

20000 31000 36000 19940 20140
28840 28833 30200 21600 25000

4. Consider the sample 87, 84, 86, 85, 75, 77, 78, 90, 77, 85, 85 find the mode

Data array : ___________________________________________________________________

5. Find the mean , median and mode of he given sample below

31 34 34 42 34 29 31 37 38 27 35 33 38 33 30 34 35 30 33 37

Data array : ___________________________________________________________________

Mean = ________________

Median = ________________

Mode = ________________

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 CHAPTER 1

Name: ______________________________ Score: ___________________

Course/Yr./Section: ___________________ Date: ____________________

Exercise

Complete the table below and compute for the mean, median and mode.

Cumulative Class Boundaries Relative

Class f x fx
Frequency Lower Upper Frequency

40 – 44 20

35 – 39 24

30 – 34 27

25 – 29 16

20 – 24 13

15 – 19 20
∑fx=
N=

N = _____________ ∑fx = _____________ i = _____________

Mean = ___________ Median = ___________ Mode = ___________

‘’’

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 CHAPTER 1

1.5. MESURES OF VARIATION

Measure of Variation

It is a measure that describes how spread out or scattered a set of data. It is also known as measures of
dispersion or measures of spread.

Three measures of variation

 The range,
 the variance, and
 the standard deviation.

Range

The range is the simplest measure of variation to find. It is simply the highest value minus the lowest
value.

RANGE = highest score – lowest score

Since the range only uses the largest and smallest values, it is greatly affected by extreme values, that is -
it is not resistant to change.

Variance

Mean Absolute Deviation

The range only involves the smallest and largest numbers, and it would be desirable to have a statistic
which involved all of the data values.

The first attempt one might make at this is something they might call the average deviation from the mean
and define it as:

MAD = ∑ x–x
, for ungrouped data
N

MAD = ∑f x–x
, for grouped data
N

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 CHAPTER 1

The formulas of standard deviation and variance for ungrouped data are as follows:

a. σ2 = ∑(x–x)2
, for population variance
N

b. σ = ∑(x–x)2
, for population standard deviation
N

c. s2 = ∑(x–x)2
, for sample variance
n-1

d. s = ∑(x–x)2
, for sample standard deviation
n-1

Formulas for grouped data of variance and standard deviation;

a. σ2 = ∑f (x–x)2
, for population variance
N

b. σ = ∑f (x–x)2
, for population standard deviation
N

c. s2 = N∑fx–(∑fx)2
, for sample variance
N(N–1)

d. s2 = N∑fx–(∑fx)2
, for sample standard deviation
N(N–1)

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 CHAPTER 1

Name: ______________________________ Score: ___________________

Course/Yr./Section: ___________________ Date: ____________________

Exercise

1. The following data are prices of 8 randomly selected accounting books from a bookstore. Complete
the table and compute for the mean absolute deviation.

x x – x̄ / x – x̄ /
453
382
348
495
493
575
388
555

N = _____________ ∑x = _____________ ∑ x – x̄= _____________

∑/x – x̄/ = _____________ x = _____________ MAD = _____________

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 CHAPTER 1

2. Complete the frequency distribution table below and compute the mean absolute deviation.

Class f x fx / x – x̄ / f/ x – x̄ /
58 - 61 24
52 – 57 27
48 – 51 13
42 – 47 16
38 – 41 38
32 – 37 31
28 – 31 19
22 – 27 18

N = _____________ ∑fx = _____________ ∑ /x – x̄/ = _____________

∑f/x – x̄/ = _____________ MAD = _____________

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 CHAPTER 1

Name: ______________________________ Score: ___________________

Course/Yr./Section: ___________________ Date: ____________________

Exercise

Find Q2, Q3, D2, D4, P10, P70 for the following Entrance Exam Results of the 40 freshmen students.

92 86 76 92 82 83 84 88
79 86 79 90 88 84 88 88
85 86 82 92 83 86 87 87
88 92 92 87 89 92 88 88
88 86 92 86 90 89 86 90

Q2 = ________________ Q3 = ________________

D2 = ________________ D4= ________________

P10 = ________________ P70 = ________________

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 CHAPTER 1

Name: ______________________________ Score: ___________________

Course/Yr./Section: ___________________ Date: ____________________

Exercise

Find the quartile deviation and percentile range of the given frequency below:

Cumulative Class boundaries

Class f
Frequency Lower Upper
54 – 58 11
49 - 53 14
44 – 48 12
39 – 43 13
34 – 38 10
29 – 33 12
24 – 28 11
19 – 23 9
14 – 18 15

N = ________________ i = ________________

Q1 = ________________ Q3= ________________

P10 = ________________ P90 = ________________

QD = ________________ PR = ________________

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 CHAPTER 1

Name: ______________________________ Score: ___________________

Course/Yr./Section: ___________________ Date: ____________________

Exercise

Compute for the population and sample variances of the following data:

x x–x / x – x̄ / / x – x̄ /2
54
38
34
43
49
57
38
55

∑x = _____________ ∑ x – x̄ = _____________

∑/x – x̄/ = _____________ ∑/x – x̄/2 = _____________

s2 = _____________ s = _____________

σ2 = _____________ σ = _____________

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 CHAPTER 1

Name: ______________________________ Score: ___________________

Course/Yr./Section: ___________________ Date: ____________________

Exercise

The table below is the frequency distribution of numbers of orders received each day during the past 30
days off a university canteen. Complete the table and solve the variance and standard deviation.

Class f x fx / x – x̄ / / x – x̄ / 2 f / x – x̄ / 2

35 – 37 24
32 – 34 27
29 – 31 13
26 – 28 16
23 – 25 35
20 – 22 31
17 – 19 19
14 – 16 18

N = _____________ ∑ fx = _____________

∑/x – x̄/ = _____________ ∑/x – x̄/2 = _____________

∑f/x – x̄/2 = _____________ s2 = _____________

s = _____________ σ2 = _____________

σ = _____________

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 CHAPTER 1

Name: ______________________________ Score: ___________________

Course/Yr./Section: ___________________ Date: ____________________

Exercise

1. Calculate the percentile coefficient of kurtosis for the data below

Cumulative Class boundaries

Class f
Frequency Lower Upper
54 – 58 11

N = _____________ i = _______________ Q1 = ________________

Q3= _____________ P10 = _______________ P90 = _______________

QD = ____________ PR = ________________ Ku = ________________

2. Calculate the degree of skewness of a distribution if the mean is 54, the median is 50

Sk = ________________

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 CHAPTER 1

1.6. NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

Standard Normal Distribution

A normal distribution with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1 is called a standard normal
distribution.

Areas of the normal distribution are often represented by tables of the standard normal distribution. (see
Appendix A)

Objectives

1. State the mean and standard deviation of the standard normal distribution
2. Use a Z table
3. Use the normal calculator
4. Transform raw data to Z scores

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 CHAPTER 1

Exercise

Find the area under the standard normal distribution curve.

1. Between z = 1.24 & z = 0.27 2. Between z = 0 and z = - 1.18

3. above z = - 1.83 4. Below a = 2. 40

6. Between z = 0.36 & z = 2.88 6. To the right of z = 0.92

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 CHAPTER 1

Name: ______________________________ Score: ___________________

Course/Yr./Section: ___________________ Date: ____________________

Exercise

Survey found that the average beach resort rate in Luzon is ₱ 3,000 and the average rate in Mindanao is ₱
2,320. Assume that the rate were obtained from two samples of the 70 beach resorts in Luzon and 60
beach resort in Mindanao and the standard deviations were ₱ 240 and ₱ 250 respectively. At 0.05 level of
significance can be concluded that there is a significant difference in the rates?

Step 1: state the hypotheses

HO:___________________________________________________________________

H1:____________________________________________________________________\\

Step 2: Level of Significance α = ______________ t critical = _______________

Step 3: Computation:

z computed=: __________________ p - value = __________________

Step 4: Decision Rule : ____________________________________________________

Step 5: Conclusion:

_________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

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 CHAPTER 1

Name: ______________________________ Score: ___________________

Course/Yr./Section: ___________________ Date: ____________________

Exercise

The professor Statistics wants to determine if there is a significant differences between the academic
performance of BSE and BEEd second year students using 1% level of significance. A sample of 15
students is selected. Their semestral grade for the subjects are:

BSE BEEd D D2
83 85
81 88
90 93
81 83
93 90
82 89
82 90
80 90
81 91
82 91
81 89
85 89
87 88
85 90
88 83

Step 1: state the hypotheses

HO:____________________________________________________________________
H1: ____________________________________________________________________
Step 2: Level of Significance α = ______________ f critical = _______________
Step 3: Computation:
sd = __________________ t computed = __________________
Step 4: Decision Rule : ___________________________________________________
Step 5: Conclusion:

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

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 CHAPTER 1

Name: ______________________________ Score: ___________________

Course/Yr./Section: ___________________ Date: ____________________

Exercise

An entrepreneur wanted to know if there is a significant difference on the daily sales in a week of his three
shampoo products with different brand name using ANOVA at 0.05 level of significance. Data below
represent monthly sales in each branch.

A B C
24 28 24
25 23 30
26 25 29
30 26 21
22 27 26
32 27 22
26 28 21

Step 1: state the hypotheses

HO : _____________________________________________________________

H1: _____________________________________________________________

Step 2: Level of Significance α = ______________ z critical = _______________

Step 3: Computation: TSS = _____________ SSB = ___________

SSW= __________________
dfT = _____________ dfB = ____________ dfW= __________________

MSB = _____________ MSW=____________f computed= __________________

Step 4: Decision Rule : ___________________________________________________

Step 5: Conclusion:
__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

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 CHAPTER 1

Source of Sum of
Degrees of Freedom Mean Squares f
Variation Squares
Between
Groups
Within
Groups
Total

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 CHAPTER 1

Name: ______________________________ Score: ___________________

Course/Yr./Section: ___________________ Date: ____________________

Exercise

Complete the table below and find out the significant relationship of age and IQ score of eight students
using Pearson’s r (correlation coefficient)

Age IQ Score xy x2 y2
12 97
11 110
9 100
8 145
7 90
7 115
6 105
13 100
∑x= ∑y= ∑xy= ∑x2= ∑y2=

Step 1: state the hypotheses

HO : _____________________________________________________________
H1: _____________________________________________________________

Step 2: Computation: r = __________________

Step 3: Decision Rule : ___________________________________________________

Step 5: Conclusion:

__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

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 CHAPTER 1

Name: ______________________________ Score: ___________________

Course/Yr./Section: ___________________ Date: ____________________

Exercise

Rank the performance of the following students in their Science and Mathematics classes. Then use
Spearman rho coefficient to test the difference between their ranks. Use 5% level of significance.

Math Science Rx Ry D D2
81 82
84 87
86 81
90 90
88 84
86 84
80 83
87 84
87 85
83 81
81 85
83 87
83 87
85 80
78 81

Step 1: state the hypotheses

HO : _____________________________________________________________

H1: _____________________________________________________________

Step 2: Level of Significance α = ______________

tabular value= ________

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 CHAPTER 1

Step 3: Computation: df = _____________ p=____________

Step 4: Decision Rule : ___________________________________________________

Step 5: Conclusion:
__________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________

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 CHAPTER 1

Name: ________________ Course/Yr./Section: ________________

Exercise
A food chain company surveys its customers regarding food preferences. A random sample of 500
frequent customers of the foo chain was selected on their food preferences and job classification. From
the following data below, use chi- square at 5% level of significance I there is a significant difference on
the customer’s food preference.

Food preferences
Job Total
French
classification Burger Spaghetti Chicken Palabok
fries
Worker 12 13 15 17 16

Clerical 30 25 33 40 38

Managerial 23 26 20 13 28

Teachers 35 36 32 30 18

Total

Step 1: state the hypotheses

HO : ____________________________
________________________________
________________________________

H1 : ____________________________
________________________________
________________________________

Step 2: Level of Significance

α = ______________
tabular value= _______________

Step 3: Computation:
df = _____________ x2=____________

Step 4:
Decision Rule : _________________________________

Step 5: Conclusion:
__________________________________________________________________

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 CHAPTER 1

Food preferences
Job Total
French
classification Burger Spaghetti Chicken Palabok
fries
Worker
Clerical
Managerial
Executive

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 CHAPTER 1

Glossary

Class Boundaries or the exact limit can be obtained by subtracting the lower limit by 0.5 of an interval
and add 0.5 to the upper limit of the interval

Class interval is the difference between the lower endpoint of an interval and the lower endpoint of the
next interval.

Class Mark is the midpoint of a class interval. To obtain the class mark or midpoint, add the lower limit
and the upper limit, then divide the sum by two.

Cluster Sampling is a procedure of selecting clusters from a population which is very large or widely
spread out wide geographical area.

Constant – it is a characteristic of objects, people or events that does not vary.

Continuous Variable is a variable which can assume any of infinite number of values, and can be
associated with points on a continuous line interval.

Convenience Sampling is a procedure of selecting a group of individuals who (conveniently) are available
for study.

Dependent Variables (outcome variable) are some measure of the behaviour of subjects and expected to
be influenced by the independent variable.

Descriptive Statistics used to gathered data on a group to describe or reach conclusion about that same
group.

Discrete Variable is a variable which consist of either a finite number of values or countable number of
values

Dot plot - A dot plot is a hybrid between a histogram and a stem and leaf plot. Each quantitative data value
becomes a dot or point that is placed above the appropriate class values.

Frequency Distribution is the organization of data in tabular form, using equally exclusive classes
showing the number of observations in each.

Histogram - A histogram in another kind of graph that uses bars in its display. This type of graph is used
with quantitative data. Ranges of values, called classes, are listed at the bottom, and the classes with
greater frequencies have taller bars.
Independent Variables (explanatory variable) are controlled by the researcher, and expected to have an
effect on the behaviour of the subjects.

Inferential Statistics (Inductive statistics) gathers data from a sample and uses the statistics generated to
reach conclusions about the population form which the sample was taken.

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 CHAPTER 1

Interval – used to classify order and differentiate between classes or categories in terms of degrees of
differences, there is an equal unit of measurement separating each score, specifically equal intervals but
with no zero in the description of measurement.

Mean is also known as average, also the most common measure of central tendency.

Median is the midpoint of an array of numbers arranged in ascending or descending order

Mode is the observation that occurs most frequently in a set of data.

Nominal – this data use numbers for the purpose of identifying name or membership in a group or
category.

Ordinal – indicate ranking, ordering, and inequalities in the arrangement of data.

Parameter is a descriptive measure of the population

Pareto Diagram or Bar Graph - A bar graph contains a bar for each category of a set of qualitative data.
The bars are arranged in order of frequency, so that more important categories are emphasized.

Pie Chart or Circle Graph - A pie chart displays qualitative data in the form of a pie. Each slice of pie
represents a different category.

Purposive Sampling is a procedure of selecting based from judgement to select a sample which the
researcher believed, based on prior information, will provide the data they need.

Qualitative variable refers to the differences in quality, character or kind but not in amount.

Quantitative variable refers to the numerical nature and can be ordered or ranked.

Quota Sampling is applied when an investigator survey collects information from the assigned number
or quota of individuals from one several sample units fulfilling prescribed criteria or belonging to one
stratum
Random Sampling (Probability Sampling) is a process whose members had an equal chance of being
selected from the population.

Ratio – are similar to interval data but has an absolute zero (complete absence of the attitude being
measured) and multiples are meaningful.

Sampling error is the difference between the population parameter and the sample statistic used to
estimate the parameter.

Scatterplots - A scatterplot displays data that is paired by using a horizontal axis (the xaxis), and a vertical
axis (the y axis). The statistical tools of correlation and regression are then used to show trends on the
scatterplot.

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 CHAPTER 1

Simple Random Sampling is a procedure of selecting sample size (n) in the population (N) via random
numbers or through lottery.

Snowball Sampling is a procedure is a technique in which one or more member of a population are located
and used to lead the researchers to other members of the population.

Statistic is a descriptive measure of a sample

Statistics is a branch of mathematics that deals with gathering, organizing, analysing, interpreting, and
presenting of numerical data.

Stem and Left Plot - A stem and left plot breaks each value of a quantitative data set into two pieces, a
stem, typically for the highest place value, and a leaf for the other place values. It provides a way to list
all data values in a compact form.

Stratified Sampling is a procedure of subdividing the population into subgroups or strata and drawing
members at random from each subgroup or stratum
Systematic Sampling is a procedure of selecting a kth element in the population until the desired number
of subjects or respondents is attained.

Time-Series Graphs - A time-series graph displays data at different points in time, so it is another kind of
graph to be used for certain kinds of paired data. The horizontal axis shows the time and the vertical axis
is for the data values. These kinds of graphs can be used to show trends as time progresses.

Variable – it is a characteristic of objects, people or events that can take of different values.

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 CHAPTER 1

References

Black, Ken. (2006), Business Statistics for Contemporary Decision Making, Phillippine Graphic Arts, Inc.
for Millennium Books, Inc.

Concepion, Benjamin P. Jr, et.al, (2012) Business Statistics with Computer Applications. Edition, Manila
Philippines 2012. Ymas Publishing House

Parreno, Elizabeth ,et.al., (2006) Basic Statistics A Worktext. Quezon City , C & E Publishing, Inc.

Sirug, Winston S., Ph.D.,(2011)Introduction to Business Statistics A Comprehensive Approach., Manila

Philippines, Minshapers Co., Inc

www.terry.uga.edu/~pholmes/.../Classnotes2.pdf

www.sjsu.edu/faculty/gerstman/.../t-table.pdf

stat.psu.edu/~mga/401/tables/Chi-square-table.pdf

home.comcast.nethttp://www.statsoft.com/textbook/distribution-tables/
/~sharov/.../tables/chisq.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_distribution

http://www.statcan.gc.ca/edu/power-pouvoir/ch8/5214814-eng.htm#a1

http://math.youngzones.org/stat_graph.html
http://www.icoachmath.com/math_dictionary/Measures_of_Central_Tendency.html

http://statistics.about.com/od/HelpandTutorials/a/7-Common-Graphs-In-Statistics.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_(mathematics)

http://www.purplemath.com/modules/stemleaf.htm

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