Protective Relays

1.What is protective relay? Briefly discuss its function and importance.

Protective Relays: A protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiates the operation
of the circuit breaker to isolate the defective element from the rest of the system.

Function:
i.To sound an alarm or to close the trip circuit of circuit breaker.
ii.To disconnect the abnormally operating part so as to prevent the subsequent faults.
iii. To disconnect the faulty part quickly so as to improve the system stability.
iv.To realize the effect of fault by disconnecting the faulty part from the healthy part causing
least disturbance to the healthy system.

Importance:
i.Inadequate protection can lead to a major fault that could have been avoided.
ii.A damaged equipment in power system needs time for repair and replacement. By adequate
protection the damage can be eliminated or minimized.

2. Explain with neat sketch the basic principle of a protective relay.(3rd)

Operation:
When a short circuit occurs at point F on the transmission line, the current flowing
in the line increases to an enormous value. This results in a heavy current flow through the
relay coil, causing the relay to operate by closing its contacts. This in turn closes the trip circuit
of the breaker, making the circuit breaker open and isolating the faulty section from the rest of
the system. In this way, the relay ensures the safety of the circuit equipment from damage and
normal working of the healthy portion of the system.

Fig: Typical relay circuit

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3. Discuss the fundamental requirements of protective relaying. (1st)

Ans: In order that protective relay system may perform this function satisfactorily, it should
have the following qualities:
(i) Selectivity: It is the ability of the protective system to select correctly that part of the system
in trouble and disconnect the faulty part without disturbing the rest of the system.

(ii)Speed: The high speed relay system decreases the possibility of development of one type of
fault into the other more severe type.

(iii) Sensitivity: It is the ability of the relay system to operate with low value of actuating quantity.
(iv) Reliability:It is the ability of the relay system to operate under the pre-determined
conditions.
(v) Simplicity : The relaying system should be simple so that it can be easily maintained.
Reliability is closely related to simplicity.
vi) Economy: The most important factor in the choice of a particular protection scheme is the
economic aspect. As a rule, the protective gear should not cost more than 5% of total cost.

4. Describe the basic principle of an attracted armature type electromagnetic attraction relay.
Attracted armature type relay:
Fig. shows the schematic arrangement of an attracted armature
type relay. It consists of a laminated electromagnet M carrying a coil C and a pivoted laminated
armature. The armature is balanced by a counterweight. Under normal operating conditions,
the current through the relay coil C is such that counterweight holds the armature in the
position shown. However, when a short-circuit occurs, the current through the relay coil
increases sufficiently and the relay armature is attracted upwards. The contacts on the relay
armature bridge a pair of stationary contacts attached to the relay frame. This completes the
trip circuit which results in the opening of the circuit breaker and, therefore, in the
disconnection of the faulty circuit.

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5. Describe the basic principle of solenoid type electromagnetic attraction relay.
Solenoid type relay :
It consists of a solenoid and movable iron plunger arranged as shown.
Under normal operating conditions, the current through the relay coil C is such that it holds
the plunger by gravity or spring in the position shown. However, on the occurrence of a fault,
the current through the relay coil becomes more than the pickup value, causing the plunger to
be attracted to the solenoid. The upward movement of the plunger closes the trip circuit, thus
opening the circuit breaker and disconnecting the faulty circuit.

6. Describe the basic principle of balanced beam type electromagnetic attraction relay.
Balanced beam type relay:
It consists of an iron armature fastened to a balance beam. Under
normal operating conditions, the current through the relay coil is such that the beam is held in
the horizontal position by the spring.
However, when a fault occurs, the current through the relay coil becomes greater than the
pickup value and the beam is attracted to close the trip circuit. This causes the opening of the
circuit breaker to isolate the faulty circuit.

7. Derive the equation for torque developed in an induction relay.

Ans:
The two a.c. fluxes φ2 and φ1 differing in phase by an angle α induce e.m.f.s’ in the disc
and cause the circulation of eddy currents i2 and i1 respectively. These currents lag behind
their respective fluxes by 90o. Referring to Fig. 21.6 (ii) where the two a.c. fluxes and induced
currents are shown separately for clarity, let

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φ1 = φ1max sin ω t
φ2 = φ2max sin (ω t + α)
Where φ1 and φ2 are the instantaneous values of fluxes and φ2 leads φ1 by an angle α.
Assuming that the paths in which the rotor currents flow have negligible self-inductance, the
rotor currents will be in phase with their voltages.
( )

( )

Fig. 21.6 (ii) shows that the two forces are in opposition.
Net force F at the instant considered is,

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

()
where φ1 and φ2 are the r.m.s. values of the fluxes.
The following points may be noted from exp. (i) :
(a) The greater the phase angle α between the fluxes, the greater is the net force applied to the
disc. Obviously, the maximum force will be produced when the two fluxes are 90o out of
phase.

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(b) The net force is the same at every instant. This fact does not depend upon the assumptions
made in arriving at exp. (i).
(c) The direction of net force and hence the direction of motion of the disc depends upon
which flux is leading.

9.Definition:(i) Instantaneous relay (ii) Inverse-time relay (iii) Definite time lag relay
Instantaneous relay: An instantaneous relay is one in which no intentional time delay is
provided. In this case, the relay contacts are closed immediately after current in the relay coil
exceeds the minimum calibrated value.
Inverse-time relay: An inverse-time relay is one in which the operating time is approximately
inversely proportional to the magnitude of the actuating quantity. Fig. 21.11 shows the time
current characteristics of an inverse current relay.
Definite time lag relay: In this type of relay, there is a definite time elapse between the
instant of pickup and the closing of relay contacts.

9. Definition :(i) Pick-up current (ii) Current setting (iii) Plug-setting multiplier(P.S.M) (iv)
Time-setting multiplier
(i) Pick-up current: It is the minimum current in the relay coil at which the relay starts to
operate.
Pick-up current = Rated secondary current of C.T. × Current setting
(ii) Current setting: It is often desirable to adjust the pick-up current to any required value.
This is known as current setting.

(iii) Plug-setting multiplier (P.S.M.): It is the ratio of fault current in relay coil to the pick-up
current i.e.
P.S.M. =Fault current in relay coil / Pick - up current
=Fault current in relay coil / Rated secondary current of CT *Current setting
(iv) Time-setting multiplier: A relay is generally provided with control to adjust the time of
operation. This adjustment is known as time-setting multiplier.

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10. Sketch a typical Time/P.S.M curve.
Time/P.S.M. Curve:
Above fig shows the curve between time of operation and plug setting
multiplier of a typical relay. The horizontal scale is marked in terms of plug-setting multiplier.
The vertical scale is marked in terms of the time required for relay operation.

11.Mention the types of functional relay.

Types of functional relay :
(i) Induction type overcurrent relays
(ii) Induction type reverse power relays
(iii) Distance relays
(iv) Differential relays
(v) Translay scheme

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12. What is overcurrent relay? Briefly describe the construction and operation of induction
type overcurrent relay.
Overcurrent relay: A relay which recognizes overcurrent in a circuit and initiates corrective
measures is known as overcurrent relay.

Constructional details:
It consists of a metallic (aluminium) disc which is free to rotate inbetween
the poles of two electromagnets. The upper electromagnet has a primary and a secondary
winding. The primary is connected to the secondary of a C.T. in the line to be protected and is
tapped at intervals.

Operation:
The driving torque on the aluminium disc is set up due to the induction principle.
This torque is opposed by the restraining torque provided by the spring. Under normal
operating conditions, restraining torque is greater than the driving torque produced by
the relay coil current. Therefore, the aluminium disc remains stationary. However, if the
current in the protected circuit exceeds the pre-set value, the driving torque becomes greater
than the restraining torque. Consequently, the disc rotates and the moving contact bridges the
fixed contacts when the disc has rotated through a pre-set angle. The trip circuit operates the
circuit breaker which isolates the faulty section.

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13. Briefly describe the construction and operation of induction type reverse/directional power
relay.
Constructional details:
It consists of an aluminum disc which is free to rotate inbetween the poles
of two electromagnets. The upper electromagnet carries a winding (called potential coil) on the
central limb which is connected through a potential transformer (P.T.) to the circuit voltage
source. The lower electromagnet has a separate winding (called current coil) connected to the
secondary of C.T. in the line to be protected.

Operation :
The flux φ1 due to current in the potential coil will be nearly 90º lagging behind the
applied voltage V. The flux φ2 due to current coil will be nearly in phase with the operating
current I. [See vector diagram in Fig. 21.18 (ii)]. The interaction of fluxes φ1 and φ2 with the
eddy currents induced in the disc produces a driving torque given by :

( )

When the power in the circuit flows in the normal direction, the driving torque and the
restraining torque (due to spring) help each other to turn away the moving contact from the
fixed contacts. Consequently, the relay remains inoperative. However, the reversal of current in
the circuit reverses the direction of driving torque on the disc. When the reversed driving
torque is large enough, the disc rotates in the reverse direction and the moving contact closes
the trip circuit. This causes the operation of the circuit breaker which disconnects the faulty
section.

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14. Briefly describe the construction and operation of induction type directional overcurrent
relay.
Constructional details:
It consists of two relay elements mounted on a common case viz. (i)
directional element and (ii) non-directional element.
(i) Directional element: It is essentially a directional power relay which operates when power
flows in a specific direction.
(ii) Non-directional element: It is an overcurrent element similar in all respects to a non-
directional overcurrent relay.

Operation:
Under normal operating conditions, power flows in the normal direction in the
circuit protected by the relay. Therefore, directional power relay (upper element) does not
operate, thereby keeping the overcurrent element (lower element) unenergised. However,
when a short-circuit occurs, there is a tendency for the current or power to flow in the reverse
direction. Should this happen, the disc of the *upper element rotates to bridge the fixed
contacts 1 and 2. This completes the circuit for overcurrent element. The disc of this element
rotates and the moving contact attached to it closes the trip circuit. This operates the circuit breaker
which isolates the faulty section.

15. What is distance or impedance relay? Classify it and discuss its operating principle.

Distance or impedance relay:

The relay in which the operation is governed by the ratio of
applied voltage to current in the protected circuit is called distance or impedance relay .
Operation:
Under normal operating conditions, the impedance of the protected zone is ZL. The
relay is so designed that it closes its contacts whenever impedance of the protected section falls

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below the pre-determined value i.e. ZL in this case. Now suppose a fault occurs at point F1 in
the protected zone. The impedance Z (= *V/I) between the point where the relay is installed
and the point of fault will be less than ZL and hence the relay operates. Should the fault occur
beyond the protected zone (say point F2), the impedance Z will be greater than ZL and the
relay does not operate.

Types:
(i) Definite-distance relay which operates instantaneously for fault upto a pre-determined
distance from the relay.
(ii) Time-distance relay in which the time of operation is proportional to the distance of fault
from the relay point.

16. What is differential relay? Classify it. Also mention application of differential protection.
Differential relay:
A differential relay is one that operates when the phasor difference of two or
more similar electrical quantities exceeds a pre-determined value.
There are two fundamental systems of differential or balanced protection viz.
(i) Current balance protection (ii) Voltage balance protection

Application of differential protection :

i.protection of generator.
ii. protection of generator,x-former unit.
iii. protection of x-former.
iv.protection of feeder by pilot wire differential protection.
v.protection of x-mission line.
vi.protection of large motor.
vii.Bus zone Protection.

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17. Briefly discuss current differential relay and also mention its disadvantages.

Ans: Fig. shows an arrangement of an overcurrent relay connected to operate as a differential

relay.

Under normal operating conditions, suppose the alternator winding carries a normal current of
1000 A. Then the currents in the two secondaries of CT’s are equal [See Fig. 21.23]. These
currents will merely circulate between the two CT’s and no current will flow through the
differential relay. Therefore, the relay remains inoperative. If a ground fault occurs on the
alternator winding as shown in Fig. 21.24 (i), the two secondary currents will not be equal and
the current flows through the operating coil of the relay, causing the relay to operate. The
amount of current flow through the relay will depend upon the way the fault is being fed.
(i) If some current (500 A in this case) flows out of one side while a larger current (2000 A)
enters the other side as shown in Fig. 21.24 (i), then the difference of the CT secondary
currents i.e. 10 -2·5 = 7·5 A will flow through the relay.

(ii) If current flows to the fault from both sides as shown in Fig. 21.24 (ii), then sum of CT
secondary currents i.e. 10 + 5 = 15 A will flow through the relay.

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Disadvantages:
(i) Pilot cable capacitance causes incorrect operation of the relay when a large through-current
flows.
(ii) Accurate matching of current transformers cannot be achieved due to pilot circuit
impedance.

18. Briefly discuss current differential relay and also mention its disadvantages.
Biased Beam Relay:
The biased beam relay also called percentage differential relay. Under
normal and through load conditions, the bias force due to restraining coil is greater than the
operating force. Therefore, the relay remains inoperative. When an internal fault occurs, the
operating force exceeds the bias force. Consequently, the trip contacts are closed to open the
circuit breaker. The bias force can be adjusted by varying the number of turns on the
restraining coil. This relay is called percentage relay because the operating current requried to
trip can be expressed as a percentage of load current.

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19. Briefly explain types of protection. Or, What do you understand by primary protection and
back up protection?(3rd )
Ans: It is a usual practice to divide the protection scheme into two classes viz. primary protection
and back-up protection.
Primary Protection: It is the protection scheme which is designed to protect the component
parts of the power system. If a fault occurs on any line, it will be cleared by its relay and
circuit breaker. This forms the primary or main protection and serves as the first line of
defence.

Back-up protection:
It is the second line of defence in case of failure of the primary
protection. It is designed to operate with sufficient time delay so that primary relaying will be
given enough time to function if it is able to.

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