CRT LEARNING MODULE

COURSE CODE: EDUC01

COURSE TITLE: The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
UNITS: 3
MODULE TITLE: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

College for Research & Technology of Cabanatuan

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HOW TO USE THIS DIGITIZED LEARNING MODULE
Welcome to the module in Human Development. This module contains
training materials and activities for you to complete this module.
The Unit of Competency “The Child and Adolescent Learners and
Learning” covers the knowledge, skills and attitudes. You are required to go
through a series of learning activities in order to complete each learning
outcome of the module. Each of the learning outcomes is provided with
Modules.
Follow these activities on your own and answer the self-check at the end
of each learning outcome. This will be the source of Information for you to
acquire knowledge and skill in this particular trade independently and at your
own pace, with minimum supervision of help from your instructor.

MODULE CONTENT
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MODULE TITLE: Human Development

MODULE DESCRIPTOR:
This course focuses on child and adolescent development with emphasis
on current research and theory on biological, linguistic, cognitive, social and
emotional dimensions of development. Further, this includes factors that affect
the progress of development and shall include appropriate pedagogical
principles applicable for each developmental level.
Number of Hours:
3 hours
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of the course, the students should be able to:
Knowledge
 Demonstrate understanding of the theories and principles of human
growth, development and learning
 Explain the nature of the learners and discuss means to effectively
deal with them.
Values

 Foster the value of a healthy lifestyle toward the holistic

development the child and adolescent.

Skills
 Apply knowledge in human growth, development and learning to the
teaching-learning process

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Conditions
The students/trainees must be provided with the following:
1. Computer
2. Pen
3. Notebook
Assessment Method:
1. Online Demonstration
2. Online Assessment
3. Observation

Chapter 1: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Meaning, Concepts and Approaches

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 Human Development

 the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the life span
 includes growth and decline
 can be positive or negative

Major Principles of Human Development:

1. Development is relatively orderly

a.) Proximodistal Pattern

Development proceeds from the center of the body outward.

b.) Cephalocaudal Pattern

Development proceeds from the head downward.

2. While the pattern of development is likely to be similar, the outcomes of developmental processes and
rate of development are likely to vary among individuals.

3. Development takes place gradually.

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4. Development as a process is complex because it is the product of biological, cognitive and socio-
emotional processes.

Approaches to Human Development

1.) Traditional Perspective

• Believes that individuals will show extensive change from birth to adolescence, little or no change in
adulthood and decline in late old age

2.) Life-span Approach

• Believes that even in adulthood, developmental change takes place as it does during childhood.

Characteristics of a Life- Span Perspective

a.) Development is LIFELONG- It does not end in adulthood. No developmental stage dominates
development.
b.) Development is MULTIDIMENSIONAL- Development consists of biological, cognitive and socio-
emotional dimensions.
c.) Development is PLASTIC- Development is possible throughout the lifespan.
d.) Development is CONTEXTUAL- Individuals are changing beings in a changing world.
e.) Development involves GROWTH, MAINTENANCE and REGULATION- Growth, maintenance and
regulation are 3 goals of human development. The goals of individuals vary among developmental
stages.

Principles of Child Development and Learning that Inform Practice

 All areas of development and learning are important.

 Learning and development follow sequences.

 Development and learning proceed at varying rates
 Development and learning result from an interaction of maturation and experience.
 Early experiences have profound effects on development and learning.
 Development proceeds toward greater complexity, self- regulation, and symbolic or
representational capacities.
 Children develop best when they have secure relationships.
 Development and learning occur in and are influenced by multiple social and cultural contexts.
 Children learn in a variety of ways.
 Play is an important vehicle for developing self-regulation and promoting language, cognition, and
social competence.
 Development and learning advance when children are challenged.  Children ‘s experiences shape
their motivation and approaches to learning.

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 The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks

Prenatal Development

Conception occurs and development begins. All of the major structures of the body are forming and the
health of the mother is of primary concern. Understanding nutrition, teratogens (or environmental factors
that can lead to birth defects), and labor and delivery are
primary concerns.

Three Phases:

1.) Germinal Stage= first 2 weeks, conception,

implantation, and formation of placenta
2.) Embryonic Stage= 2 weeks-2 months,
formation of vital organs and systems

3.) Fetal Stage= 2 months –birth, bodily growth continues, movement capability begins, brain cells
multiply age of viability.

Infancy and Toddlerhood

The first year and a half to two years of life are ones of dramatic growth and change. A newborn, with a
keen sense of hearing but very poor vision is transformed into a walking, talking toddler within a relatively
short period of time. Caregivers are also transformed from someone who manages feeding and sleep
schedules to a constantly moving guide and safety inspector for a mobile, energetic child.

• Extreme dependents on adult

• Beginning psychological activities
• Language of newborn is cry
• Usually eats every two to three hours
• Uncoordinated movements
• Toothless
• Poor vision
• Usually doubles weight by 9 months
• Responds to human voice and touches

1 year old
• Change from plump baby to a learner
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 • Begins to walk and talk
• Ability for passive language
• Tentative sense of independence
• Determined explorer
2 years old
• Begins to communicate verbally
• Can usually speak in 3 to 4-word sentences
• Famous for negative behavior ―NO to everything!
• Will play side by side other children, but does not actively play with them
• Great imitators

Early Childhood

Early childhood is also referred to as the preschool years consisting

of the years which follow toddlerhood and precede formal schooling.
As a three to five-year-old, the child is busy learning language, is
gaining a sense of self and greater independence, and is beginning
to learn the workings of the physical world. This knowledge does not
come quickly, however, and preschoolers may have initially had
interesting conceptions of size, time, space and distance such as
fearing that they may go down the drain if they sit at the front of the
bathtub or by demonstrating how long something will take by
holding

out their two index fingers several inches apart. A toddler ‘s fierce determination to do something may give
way to a four-year-old ‘s sense of guilt for doing something that brings the disapproval of others.

3 years old

• Wants to be just like parents

• Vocabulary and pronunciation continue to expand
• Climbs stairs with alternating feet
• Can briefly stand on one foot 4 years old
• Sentences are more complex; speaks well enough for strangers to understand
• Imagination is vivid; line between what is real and imaginary is often indistinct
• Develops fears (common fears: fear of dark, fear of animals, and fear of death)
Years old

• Can hop on one foot and skip

• Can accurately copy figures
• May begin to read
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 • Socialize with other children their age

Middle Childhood and Late Childhood

The ages of six through twelve comprise middle childhood and much of what children experience at this
age is connected to their involvement in the early grades of school. Now
the world becomes one of learning and testing new academic skills and by
assessing one ‘s abilities and accomplishments by making comparisons
between self and others. Schools compare students and make these
comparisons public through team sports, test scores, and other forms of
recognition. Growth rates slow down and children are able to refine their
motor skills at this point in life. And children begin to learn about social
relationships beyond the family through interaction with friends and fellow
students.

• Both large and small muscles well-developed.

• Developed complex motor skills
• From independent activities to same sex group activities
• Acceptance by peers very important
• Parental approval still important

Adolescence (13 to 18 years old)

Adolescence is a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall physical growth spurt and
sexual maturation, known as puberty. It is also a time of cognitive change as the adolescent begins to think
of new possibilities and to consider abstract concepts such as love, fear, and freedom. Ironically,
adolescents have a sense of invincibility that puts them at greater risk of dying from accidents or
contracting sexually transmitted infections that can have lifelong consequences.

• Traumatic life stage for child and parent

• Puberty occurs
• Extremely concerned with appearance
• Trying to establish self- identity
• Confrontation with authority

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Early Adulthood (19 to 29 years old)

The twenties and thirties are often thought of as early adulthood. (Students who are in their mid-30s tend to
love to hear that they are a young adult!). It is a time when we are at our physiological peak but are most at
risk for involvement in violent crimes and substance abuse. It is a time of focusing on the future and putting
a lot of energy into making choices that will help one earn the status of a full adult in the eyes of others.
Love and work are primary concerns at this stage of life.

• Physical development complete

• Emotional maturation continues to develop
• Usually learned to accept responsibity for for actions and accept responsibility for actions and
accept criticism
• Usually knows how to profit from errors
• Socially progree from age- trelated peer groups to people with similar interests.

Middle Adulthood (30 to 60 years old)

The late thirties through the mid-sixties is referred to as middle adulthood. This is a period in which aging,
that began earlier, becomes more noticeable and a period at which many people are at their peak of
productivity in love and work. It may be a period of gaining expertise in certain fields and being able to
understand problems and find solutions with greater efficiency than before. It can also be a time of
becoming more realistic about possibilities in life previously considered; of recognizing the difference
between what is possible and what is likely. This is also the age group hardest hit by the AIDS epidemic in
Africa resulting in a substantial decrease in the number of workers in those economies (Weitz, 2007).

• Physical changes begin to occur:

 Hair begins to begin to thin and gray
 Wrinkles appear
 Hearing and vision decrease
 Muscles lose tone
• Main concerns: children, health, job security, aging, parents and fear of aging
• Love and acceptance still take a major role

Late Adulthood (61 years and above)

This period of the life span has increased in the last 100 years, particularly in industrialized countries. Late
adulthood is sometimes subdivided into two or three categories such as the ―young old‖ and ―old old‖ or
the ―young old‖, ―old old‖, and ―oldest old‖. We will follow the former categorization and make the
distinction between the ―young old‖ who are people between 65 and 79 and the ―old old‖ or those who
are 80 and older. One of the primary differences between these groups is that the young old are very
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similar to midlife adults; still working, still relatively healthy, and still interested in being productive and
active. The ―old old‖ remain productive and active and the majority continues to live independently, but
risks of the diseases of old age such as arteriosclerosis, cancer, and cerebral vascular disease increases
substantially for this age group. Issues of housing, healthcare, and extending active life expectancy are
only a few of the topics of concern for this age group. A better way to appreciate the diversity of people in
late adulthood is to go beyond chronological age and examine whether a person is experiencing optimal
aging (like the gentleman pictured above who is in very good health for his age and continues to have an
active, stimulating life), normal aging (in which the changes are similar to most of those of the same age),
or impaired aging (referring to someone who has more physical challenge and disease than others of the
same age).

• Fastest growing age bracket of society

• Physical deterioration (brittle bones, poor coordination
• Some memory problems
• Coping with retirement and forms of entertainment
• Very concerned with health and finances
• Significant number become depressed; suicide rate is high

Issues on Human Development

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There are a number of important issues that have been debated throughout the history of developmental
psychology. The major questions include the following:

• Is development due more to genetics or environment?

• Does development occur slowly and smoothly, or do changes happen in stages?
• Do early childhood experiences have the greatest impact on development or are later events
equally important?

Developmental Psychology Issues and Debates

 Here are some of the basic questions within the realm of developmental psychology and what many
psychologists today believe about these issues.

Nature vs. Nurture

• The debate over the relative contributions of inheritance and the environment usually referred to as
the nature versus nurture debate is one of the oldest issues in both philosophy and psychology.
• Philosophers such as Plato and Descartes supported the idea that some ideas are inborn. On the
other hand, thinkers such as John Locke argued for the concept of tabula rasa—a belief that the
mind is a blank slate at birth, with experience determining our knowledge.
• Some aspects of development are distinctly biological, such as puberty. However, the onset of
puberty can be affected by environmental factors such as diet and nutrition.

Early Experience vs. Later Experience

• A second important consideration in developmental psychology involves the relative importance of

early experiences versus those that occur later in life. Are we more affected by events that occur in
early childhood, or do later events play an equally important role?
• Psychoanalytic theorists tend to focus on events that occur in early childhood. According to Freud,
much of a child's personality is completely established by the age of five. If this is indeed the case,
those who have experienced deprived or abusive childhoods might never adjust or develop
normally.
• In contrast to this view, researchers have found that the influence of childhood events does not
necessarily have a dominating effect over behavior throughout life. Many people with less-than-
perfect childhoods go on to develop normally into well-adjusted adults.

Continuity vs. Discontinuity

• A third major issue in developmental psychology is that of continuity. Does change occur smoothly
over time, or through a series of predetermined steps?
Most theories of development fall under three broad areas:

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1. Psychoanalytic theories are those influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud, who believed in the
importance of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences. Freud's contribution to
developmental theory was his proposal that development occurs through a series of psychosexual
stages.
1. Theorist Erik Erikson expanded upon Freud's ideas by proposing a stage theory of
psychosocial development. Erikson's theory focused on conflicts that arise at different
stages of development and, unlike Freud's theory, Erikson described development
throughout the lifespan.

2. Learning theories focus on how the environment impacts behavior. Important learning processes
include classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning. In each case, behavior is
shaped by the interaction between the individual and the environment.
3. Cognitive theories focus on the development of mental processes, skills, and abilities. Examples of
cognitive theories include Piaget's theory of cognitive development.
4. Abnormal Behavior vs. Individual Differences- One of the biggest concerns of many parents is
whether or not their child is developing normally. Developmental milestones offer guidelines for the
ages at which certain skills and abilities typically emerge, but can create concern when a child falls
slightly behind the norm. While developmental theories have historically focused upon deficits in
behavior, focus on individual differences in development is becoming more common.
5. Psychoanalytic theories are traditionally focused upon abnormal behavior, so developmental
theories in this area tend to describe deficits in behavior. Learning theories rely more on the
environment's unique impact on an individual, so individual differences are an important
component of these theories. Today, psychologists look at both norms and individual differences
when describing child development.

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 Developmental Theories and Other Relevant Theories

FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

SIGMUND FREUD
• Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was a Viennese doctor who came to
believe that the way parents dealt with children's basic sexual and
aggressive desires would determine how their personalities developed
and whether or not they would end up well-adjusted as adults.
• Freud described children as going through multiple stages of sexual
development, which he labeled Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and Genital.

STAGES OF SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

The Role of Conflict

Each of the psychosexual stages is associated with a particular conflict that must be resolved
before the individual can successfully advance to the next stage.

The resolution of each of these conflicts requires the expenditure of sexual energy and the more energy
that is expended at a particular stage, the more the important characteristics of that stage remain with the
individual as he/she matures psychologically.

To explain this Freud suggested the analogy of military troops on the march. As the troops
advance, they are met by opposition or conflict. If they are highly successful in winning the battle
(resolving the conflict), then most of the troops (libido) will be able to move on to the next battle (stage).

But the greater the difficulty encountered at any particular point, the greater the need for troops to
remain behind to fight and thus the fewer that will be able to go on to the next confrontation.

Frustration, Overindulgence, and Fixation

Some people do not seem to be able to leave one stage and proceed on to the next. One reason
for this may be that the needs of the developing individual at any particular stage may not have been
adequately met in which case there is frustration. Or possibly the person's needs may have been so well
satisfied that he/she is reluctant to leave the psychological benefits of a particular stage in which there is
overindulgence.

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 Both frustration and overindulgence (or any combination of the two) may lead to what
psychoanalysts call fixation at a particular psychosexual stage.

Fixation refers to the theoretical notion that a portion of the individual's libido has been permanently
'invested' in a particular stage of his development.

Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year)

In the first stage of personality development, the libido is centered in a baby's mouth. It gets much
satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the libido, and thus its id demands.
Which at this stage in life are oral, or mouth orientated, such as sucking, biting, and breastfeeding.
Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later life. We see oral personalities all around
us such as smokers, nail-biters, finger-chewers, and thumb suckers. Oral personalities engage in such
oral behaviours, particularly when under stress.

Anal Stage (1 to 3 years)

The libido now becomes focused on the anus, and the child derives great pleasure from defecating. The
child is now fully aware that they are a person in their own right and that their wishes can bring them into
conflict with the demands of the outside world (i.e., their ego has developed).
Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in which adults impose
restrictions on when and where the child can defecate. The nature of this first conflict with authority can
determine the child's future relationship with all forms of authority.

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Early or harsh potty training can lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive personality who hates mess,
is obsessively tidy, punctual and respectful of authority. They can be stubborn and tight-fisted with their
cash and possessions.
This is all related to pleasure got from holding on to their faeces when toddlers, and their mum's then
insisting that they get rid of it by placing them on the potty until they perform!

Not as daft as it sounds. The anal expulsive, on the other hand, underwent a liberal toilet-training regime
during the anal stage.
In adulthood, the anal expulsive is the person who wants to share things with you. They like giving things
away. In essence, they are 'sharing their s**t'!' An anal-expulsive personality is also messy, disorganized
and rebellious.

Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)

Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in the genitals and masturbation (in both sexes) becomes a new
source of pleasure.
The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the conflict between erotic
attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud called the Oedipus complex (in boys) and
the Electra complex (in girls).
This is resolved through the process of identification, which involves the child adopting the characteristics
of the same sex parent.
Oedipus Complex
The most important aspect of the phallic stage is the Oedipus complex. This is one of Freud's most
controversial ideas and one that many people reject outright.
The name of the Oedipus complex derives from the Greek myth where Oedipus, a young man, kills his
father and marries his mother. Upon discovering this, he pokes his eyes out and becomes blind. This
Oedipal is the generic (i.e., general) term for both Oedipus and Electra complexes.
In the young boy, the Oedipus complex or more correctly, conflict, arises because the boy develops
sexual (pleasurable) desires for his mother. He wants to possess his mother exclusively and get rid of his
father to enable him to do so.
Irrationally, the boy thinks that if his father were to find out about all this, his father would take away what
he loves the most. During the phallic stage what the boy loves most is his penis. Hence the boy
develops castration anxiety.

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The little boy then sets out to resolve this problem by imitating, copying and joining in masculine dad-type
behaviours. This is called identification and is how the three-to five-year-old boy resolves his Oedipus
complex.
Identification means internally adopting the values, attitudes, and behaviours of another person. The
consequence of this is that the boy takes on the male gender role and adopts an ego ideal and values
that become the superego.
Electra Complex
For girls, the Oedipus or Electra complex is less than satisfactory. Briefly, the girl desires the father, but
realizes that she does not have a penis. This leads to the development of penis envy and the wish to be
a boy.

The girl resolves this by repressing her desire for her father and substituting the wish for a penis with the
wish for a baby. The girl blames her mother for her 'castrated state,' and this creates great tension.
The girl then represses her feelings (to remove the tension) and identifies with the mother to take on the
female gender role.

Latency Stage (6 years to puberty)

No further psychosexual development takes place during this stage (latent means hidden). The libido is
dormant.
Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and sexual energy can be
sublimated (re: defense mechanisms) towards school work, hobbies, and friendships.
Much of the child's energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new knowledge, and
play becomes largely confined to other children of the same gender.

Genital Stage (puberty to adult)

This is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development and begins in puberty. It
is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling down in a
loving one-to-one relationship with another person in our 20's.
Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during the phallic stage.
For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual intercourse.
Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions may develop.

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For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure primarily from
kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse.

PSYCHOANALYSIS

Overview of Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis emphasizes unconscious

, motivation- main cause of behavior lies buried in the unconscious

mind. It is both an approach to therapy and a theory of personality.

Three Structures of Personality

1.) ID
2.) Ego
3.) Superego

Tripartite Theory of Personality

Freud (1923) saw the personality structured into three parts (i.e., tripartite), the id, ego, and superego
(also known as the psyche), all developing at different stages in our lives. These are systems, not parts of
the brain, or in any way physical.
The id is the primitive and instinctive component of personality. It consists of all the inherited (i.e.,
biological) components of personality, including the sex (life) instinct – Eros (which contains the libido),
and aggressive (death) instinct - Thanatos.
It operates on the pleasure principle (Freud, 1920) which is the idea that every wishful impulse should be
satisfied immediately, regardless of the consequences.

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The ego develops in order to mediate between the unrealistic id and the external real world (like a
referee). It is the decision-making component of personality
The ego operates according to the reality principle, working our realistic ways of satisfying the id‘s
demands, often compromising or postponing satisfaction to avoid negative consequences of society. The
ego considers social realities and norms, etiquette and rules in deciding how to behave.

The superego incorporates the values and morals of society which are learned from one's parents and
others. It is similar to a conscience, which can punish the ego through causing feelings of guilt.

Trait Approach to Personality

This approach assumes behavior is determined by relatively stable traits which are the fundamental units
of one ‘s personality.
Traits predispose one to act in a certain way, regardless of the situation. This means that traits should
remain consistent across situations and over time but may vary between individuals. It is presumed that
individuals differ in their traits due to genetic differences. These theories are sometimes referred to
psychometric theories, because of their emphasis on measuring personality by using psychometric tests.
Trait scores are continuous (quantitative) variables. A person is given numeric score to indicate how
much of a trait they possess.

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