Electronics 11 01605 v2

electronics
Article
Energy Efficiency Maximization for Hybrid-Powered 5G
Networks with Energy Cooperation
Yang Cao 1 , Ye Zhong 2, * , Xiaofeng Peng 2 and Song Pan 2
1 Periodical Agency of Chongqing University of Technology, Chongqing 400054, China; caoyang@cqut.edu.cn

2 School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Chongqing University of Technology,
Chongqing 400054, China; pxf@cqut.edu.cn (X.P.); pansong@2020.cqut.edu.cn (S.P.)
* Correspondence: zhongye@stu.cqut.edu.cn
Abstract: The extensive deployment of 5G cellular networks causes increased energy consumption
and interference in systems, and to address this problem, this paper investigates the optimization
problem of joint energy harvesting and energy cooperation to maximize energy efficiency (EE). First,
considering user equipment (UE) quality of service (QoS) constraints, cellular base station power
constraints, and renewable energy harvesting constraints, we construct a mixed-integer nonlinear
programming problem for joint resource allocation. This problem is difficult to solve directly, thus
we combine the fixed-variable method to solve the complex original problem in three less difficult
subproblems of user association, power allocation, and energy cooperation by solving them separately
using Lagrangian method, improved particle swarm optimization algorithm, and matching theory,
respectively. Finally, the final solution to the original problem is obtained by combining the above
three algorithms through convergent iterative algorithms. The simulation results show that the joint
algorithm proposed in this paper has a better performance in throughput and energy efficiency
compared with the comparison algorithms.
Citation: Cao, Y.; Zhong, Y.; Peng, X.;

Keywords: 5G; energy efficiency; user association; power allocation; energy cooperation
Pan, S. Energy Efficiency
Maximization for Hybrid-Powered
5G Networks with Energy
Cooperation. Electronics 2022, 11,
1605. https://doi.org/10.3390/
1. Introduction
electronics11101605 The proliferation of network devices and the increasing demand for network services
are leading to a dramatic increase in network data traffic. The mobile communication tech-
Academic Editors: Teng Zhou and
nology of 5th Generation (5G) is a promising technology with high-speed, low-latency and
Liang Yan
large-connectivity features to effectively meet the demand of network capacity growth [1–3].
Received: 20 April 2022 Among the technologies to achieve a high capacity, millimeter-wave communication and
Accepted: 16 May 2022 densified BSs deployment are two important technologies. Millimeter-wave technology can
Published: 18 May 2022 significantly increase the available bandwidth from 30 GHz to 300 GHz [4], and 5G systems
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
can provide higher communication rates. However, the transmission range of millimeter-
with regard to jurisdictional claims in wave signals is much shorter compared to conventional wireless technologies. Therefore,
published maps and institutional affil- the density of small base stations (BSs) must be increased to ensure communication quality.
iations. However, the dense deployment of BSs leads to a great increase in energy consumption
and serious channel interference problems for communication networks. In fact, the energy
consumption of the BSs forms the main energy consumption part of the traditional wire-
less network system, accounting for 60–80% of the total energy consumption [5], and the
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. problem of high carbon emissions is becoming increasing prominent. Therefore, improving
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. energy efficiency (EE) has become a key technical indicator that must be considered when
This article is an open access article developing green communication systems [6].
distributed under the terms and To achieve a green mobile communication, in addition to EE and resource optimiza-
conditions of the Creative Commons
tion in a system with algorithms, renewable energy (RE) sources (e.g., solar, wind, etc.),
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
which power BSs, can be used in 5G networks by introducing energy harvesting techniques
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
to further reduce the carbon emissions. As an ecologically and economically friendly
4.0/).
Electronics 2022, 11, 1605. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11101605 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

Electronics 2022, 11, 1605 2 of 21
technology, energy harvesting can recover cheap and clean RE from the surrounding envi-
ronment and has attracted extensive attention and intensive research from both academia
and the industry [7]. In cellular networks with energy harvesting, the issue of resource
allocation has been extensively studied to maximize the system EE, while saving energy
consumption at the BSs. In [8,9], resource allocation problems with energy harvesting
networks are optimized considering the heterogeneity of traffic and the volatility of col-
lected energy. The authors of [10] studied the problem of maximizing EE in dense networks
with two layers and proposed a Dinkelbach-based Lagrangian decoupling algorithm to
improve the throughput and system efficiency of radio frequency (RF) terminals. In [11],
in a dense BSs network scenario with energy harvesting, a joint optimal power allocation
and energy management method was proposed on the basis of the Lyapunov framework,
which improves overall system throughput and optimizes the EE on satisfying the energy
management equilibrium.
Energy harvesting devices were applied in the field of communication. For example,
about 2/3 of the BSs deployed by China Mobile in Tibet are powered by RE sources [12].
Huawei has designed solar cellular base stations around the world with a total output of
20 million KW·h [13]. However, in practice, it is difficult to obtain accurate information
about the time-varying energy harvesting process. Unlike conventional power generation,
RE generated in nature is highly variable in time and space depending on different factors,
such as climate and geological location, leading to its intermittency and randomness.
Energy harvesting technologies are difficult to apply to a single powered energy source
for cellular networks. Therefore, how to deal with the time-varying behavior of the energy
harvesting process is a key issue.
To overcome the stochastic and intermittent nature of RE sources, energy cooperation
is considered a promising solution to increase the usage of RE sources [14]. The converter
is used to integrate distributed renewable energy into the aggregator of the smart grid.
Energy cooperation between any two BSs can be achieved through the smart grid infras-
tructure by one BS injecting additional RE into the aggregator, while the other BS draws
power from the aggregator. The energy management framework, as one of the important
components within the smart grid, serves to achieve green energy redistribution. The
energy management framework of BSs enables energy transfer, and thus overall energy
saving [15]. Therefore, the optimization of energy management is crucial at the BS, i.e.,
how much energy is shared between the BS and the energy obtained from the grid and
storage systems.
Recently, the potential of energy cooperation in RE cellular networks has been explored,
and various energy cooperation optimization problems have been studied. Considering
real-time electricity price and pollution issues, these papers consider the demand-side
management of loads and optimization of energy management to reduce grid energy
consumption [16]. In [17], the adaptive power management of wireless BSs is studied in the
stochastic nature of energy harvesting, where each BSs acts as a consumer. The variability
of RE generation, grid cost, and power consumption of wireless BSs due to different traffic
loads are considered to reduce the energy cost. The authors of [18] propose an offline
algorithm that considers RE dynamics, inter-cell interference, and time-varying fading
channels to enhance the EE of the network through efficient resource allocation and energy
sharing among cells by the smart grid. It also adjusts the electrical load according to the
smart grid request. This scenario is studied by a Markov model with model parameters
based on real data of smart grid demand and traffic, and real energy simulations generated
by solar panels [19].
Resource allocation schemes in wireless communication, such as power allocation, sub-
channel allocation, and bandwidth allocation, can effectively suppress channel interference
to improve the communication rate of UEs and are important elements of communication
research. Studies were conducted to introduce energy cooperation to improve the EE of
communication systems. The authors of [20] considered a two-layer heterogeneous network
model with on-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) technology and energy cooperation to
Electronics 2022, 11, 1605 3 of 21
maximize the EE of the entire system by optimizing user association and power control.
They also proposed a stepwise optimization algorithm to jointly optimize transmit power
and user association to improve the EE, but the algorithm did not consider the allocation
of RE among BSs. In [21], the authors proposed an optimal power allocation and energy
management system to optimize the energy consumption of hybrid-powered heterogeneous
networks, and they proposed a meta-heuristic optimization algorithm to reduce the average
power consumption of BSs. The authors of [22] investigated the energy consumption
minimization problem of heterogeneous networks with caching and proposed a low-
complexity hierarchical solution algorithm to effectively reduce system power consumption
by optimizing the UE bandwidth and energy cooperation mechanisms. In [23], the multi-
objective optimization problem of energy cost and the energy consumption was studied in
a two-tier heterogeneous network with energy cooperation, which was converted into two
single-objective problems by convex optimization theory. A distributed algorithm with
variable substitution was also proposed, and this method effectively reduced the energy
consumption and energy cost of the system.
Although many studies were devoted to the optimization of resource allocation and
energy cooperation, these aspects were usually studied separately and rarely considered
jointly for optimization. Recognizing the great potential of RE and the challenges of
resource allocation, this paper addresses the problem of joint optimization of resource
allocation and energy cooperation in 5G dense cellular networks. The main contributions
of this work can be summarized as follows:
• We consider the downlink transmission model in millimeter-wave BSs, each powered
by RE sources and smart grids, and maximize the system EE as the optimization
metric and measuring system performance in bits/s. Considering the BSs transmit
power constraints, UE quality of service constraints, and collection energy constraints,
a resource optimization problem—maximizing the total system EE as the optimiza-
tion objective and jointly optimizing user association, power allocation, and energy
cooperation—is studied.
• Considering that this optimization problem is a mixed-integer nonlinear program-
ming problem, which is not easy to solve directly, combined with the fixed variable
method, we use the decomposition method to decompose the original problem into
three lower-level problems, i.e., user association, power allocation and energy cooper-
ation. For these three subproblems, we combine the fixed variable method with the
Lagrangian method to solve the user association problem and propose an improved
particle swarm method to solve the power allocation problem. Then, a bilateral stable
matching algorithm is proposed to obtain the solution of energy cooperation. Finally,
a convergent iterative algorithm is proposed to combine the above three algorithms to
jointly solve the original optimization problem to further improve the system EE.
• The simulation results confirm that the proposed algorithm can achieve more EE
than the comparison scheme. Additionally, the simulation results also verify the
effectiveness and convergence of our proposed algorithm, and our algorithm has
a better channel interference suppression effect compared with the existing power
allocation algorithm and has a higher performance in terms of throughput and EE
than the comparison algorithm.
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2 presents the system
model and the formulated problem. Section 3 proposes a solution algorithm. The simulation
results and conclusions are given in Sections 4 and 5, respectively.
2. System Model
2.1. Transmission Model
As shown in Figure 1, we consider a dense network of multiple millimeter-wave-based
base stations coexisting in downlink transmission scenarios. In such a network, all BSs are
powered by conventional grid and RE sources, and energy can be shared among the BSs
through a smart grid. It is assumed that the BS can serve multiple user equipment (UE) at
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 23

As shown in Figure 1, we consider a dense network of multiple millimeter‐wave‐
Electronics 2022, 11, 1605 based base stations coexisting in downlink transmission scenarios. In such a network, all 4 of 21
BSs are powered by conventional grid and RE sources, and energy can be shared among
the BSs through a smart grid. It is assumed that the BS can serve multiple user equipment
(UE) at the same time, and all BSs are assumed to share the same frequency band and to
the same time, and all BSs are assumed to share the same frequency band and to have perfect
have perfect channel state information (CSI) in a low mobility environment. Let
channel state information (CSI) in a low mobility environment. Let m ∈ {1, 2, 3, · · ·, M} be
m  {1, 2,3, ,M } be the m‐th BS.
the m-th BS.
Aggregator
Smart grid
communication link
Interference link
renewable energy
grid energy
solar energy
wind energy

Figure 1. System model.
Figure 1. System model.
Let Let j ∈j {{1,

1, 2, 3,
2,3, · ·,N
·,}N }index the j‐th (UE)
index the j-th (UE)(M( M  N<) . Assuming that each UE can adap‐
N ). Assuming that each UE can
adaptively select the associated BS,
tively select the associated BS, x jmxjm1 =when the j‐th UE is associated with the m‐th BS;
1 when the j-th UE is associated with the m-th
h i
2
otherwise, it is zero.SmS  2
 
p
m =Pjm sP E | |
 m  1 . Pjm is the cor‐
| s |
BS;otherwise, it is zero. m
jm s is the j-th
is the j‐th UE‐stream with
m UE-stream with E s m = 1. Pjm is the
corresponding allocated transmit power. When
responding allocated transmit power. When the j‐th UE is associated with the m‐th BS, its the j-th UE is associated with the m-th BS,
itsreceived signal can be expressed as:
received signal can be expressed as:
M M N N
 
q
  ∑
q
ym = h jm ym Pjmhsjmm +Pjm sm ∑ hmm
0
hmm ' PPjj0mm' 0ssjjm0 m' 0++0 v0 (1)
(1)
m0 =1,mm0 6= mmj 0 =
 1, m 1j  1

v0is0 is the additive white Gaussian noise,
p
where
where the additive white Gaussian noise, h jmh jm Pjm Pjmsm sm is useful signals received, and
is useful signals received, and
M q
 
0
M
∑ h mhm 2

2
m0=1,m  06=m jm
m ' 1, m '  m
jmS SmP
m'
0 Psj0 m0 s m
j m  m '
0 is interference signal.
is interference signal. h jm h is the channel coefficient from the as‐
jm is the channel coefficient from
2
the associated BS m, where h2 jm = d− β g, d− β is the large-scale fading, with d and β being
the distance between onehBS
sociated BS m, where = d one
jm and d is the large‐scale fading, with
g , served UEs and the path loss exponent, and  be‐
d respectively.
g ing the distance between one BS and one served UEs and the path loss exponent, respec‐
is small-scale fading, which follows a Rayleigh distribution with a mean value of zero
0
g is small‐scale fading, which follows a Rayleigh distribution with a mean value
of one; hm 0
and a variance
tively. jm is the interfering channel coefficient from the BS m .
Co-channel interference exists
of zero and a variance of one; hmjm' due to the presence of multiple spectra sharing UEs
is the interfering channel coefficient from the BS m  .
within the network. The signal to interference plus noise ratio (SINR) of UEs during the
Co‐channel interference exists due to the presence of multiple spectra sharing UEs
downlink transmission is expressed as:
within the network. The signal to interference plus noise ratio (SINR) of UEs during the 2
downlink transmission is expressed as: x jm Pjm h jm
γ jm = (2)
M N 2
m0 x 0 02P 0 0 + σ2
∑ ∑ h x jmjmPjm hj jmm j m
0 jm
m =1,m 0 6=mM j0 =1 N
(2)
where σ2 is the noise power, x jm Pjm h jm    2
2
denotes h mjm
thexuseful   2 strength received by UE j
j m Pj m  signal
m 1, m  m j  1
M N 2
m20 x 0 0 P 0 0 indicates co-frequency interference
associated with
2 BS,
where  is the noise power, and m, ∑ ∑ h jm j m j m
x m Pj0jm=1h jm denotes the useful signal strength received by
m0 =1,m0 6=jm
from other BSs m0 . M N
UE j associated with BS, and m,   h mjm x j m Pj m indicates co‐frequency interfer‐
2
According to the Shannon formula [9], the

m  1, m   m j  1
data rate of the UE j associated with the BS
mence from other BSs
is expressed as: m  .
τij = W log2 (1 + γ jm ) (3)
where W is the system bandwidth. Table 1 lists the symbols used in this paper and
their description.
Electronics 2022, 11, 1605 5 of 21
Table 1. List of symbols list with description.
Symbol Description
m BS index
j User index
Pjm Transmission power from m to j
h jm Channel gain between m and j
hm 0 Interfering channel coefficient from m0
jm
ym Received signal
γ jm Signal to interference plus noise ratio
τij Data rate of j associated with m
xij User association indicator
W System bandwidth
σ2 Noise power
v0 Additive white Gaussian noise
total
Pm Energy consumed
Em Renewable energy sources from m
Eloss Lost energy
α Energy transfer efficiency factor
0
Tmm0 Energy received by BS m from other BS m
0
Tm0m Energy received by BS m from other BS m
ζ Power amplifier efficiency
Pm c Circuit power consumption of each BS
xid Position of particle i in d-dimensional space.
vid Velocity of particle i in d-dimensional space.
w Inertia weight
Z+ Set of BSs that have excess energy
Z− Set of BSs that do not collect enough energy
2.2. Energy Model

Each BS is capable of harvesting RE from the environment through solar panels or
wind turbines. Due to the volatility and unreliability of the energy harvesting process,
conventional grid energy should also be provided as a supplement to ensure reliable trans-
mission, assuming that each BS is powered by the smart grid and RE sources and that
energy cooperation between BSs can be achieved using the smart grid. In other words, BSs
can transfer energy to each other via the smart grid. The energy cooperation between BSs is
implemented in the framework of the smart grid. In a smart grid, an aggregator is a virtual
entity that allows BSs to draw or inject energy into it under different demand/supply
conditions. Moreover, the whole process of energy harvesting, consumption and extrac-
tion/injection at each BS can be coordinated by the order of smart meters [16]. Considering
practical factors, such as the limited capacity and high cost of existing batteries, we make
the same assumption as in [22], that the harvested energy cannot be stored for dynamic
energy management. If not utilized in a timely manner, the harvested energy will be wasted,
and the excess collected energy will be passed directly into the aggregator. The energy
drawn by the m-th BS from the conventional grid is denoted as Pmtotal . The energy harvested
by the m-th BS from renewable energy sources is denoted by Em . Renewable energy is lost
in the process of transmission. This paper only considers that the transmission efficiency
is mainly affected by the resistance of the power line [23]. The greater the resistance, the
greater the energy loss; its lost energy can be expressed as:
Eloss = I 2 R(l ) (4)
where I is current in a power line, R(l ) is total resistance of power line, R(l ) = ρl, ρ is
resistance coefficient, l is power line length. It is known that the lost energy is positively
related to the length of the power line.The energy transfer efficiency factor between two
BSs is denoted as α, which can be expressed as:
Electronics 2022, 11, 1605 6 of 21
Tm0m Tmm0 − Eloss

α= = , α ∈ [0, 1] (5)
Tmm0 Tmm0
where the energy transferred from BS m to BS m0 is denoted as T mm0 , and the energy
received by BS m0 from other BS m is denoted as T m0m for differences in αmm0 between BSs
due to different power line lengths.
The energy consumed by the system is expressed as:
M M M M
∑ Pmtotal = ∑ Pmc + ζ ∑ Pm − ∑ Em (6)
m =1 m =1 m =1 m =1
N
where ∑ x jm Pjm = Pm , ζ is the power amplifier efficiency, Pmc is the circuit power consump-
j =1
M
tion of each BS (signal processing module, power supply, refrigeration, etc.), and ∑ Pmtotal
m =1
is the power grid energy consumption consumed by the whole system.
2.3. Problem Formulation

We consider the UE quality of service (QoS) constraints, the maximum transmit
power constraint for small-cell BSs, and the energy harvesting constraint. Our aim is to
maximize the EE of system. The EE (bits/joule) is defined as the ratio of the total network
transmission rate to the total grid energy consumption, i.e., the EE optimization problem
can be formulated as:
N M M
P1 : maxη (X, P, T) = ∑ ∑ x jm τjm / ∑ Pmtotal
n =1 m =1 m =1
s.t. C1 : x jm ∈ {0, 1}
M
C2 : ∑ x jm = 1
m =1
M
C3 : ∑ x jm τjm ≥ τmin (7)
m =1
N
C4 : ∑ x jm Pjm = Pm
j =1
C5 : Pmtotal m ≥ 0, Tmm0 ≥ 0, Tm0m ≥ 0

C6 : 0 ≤ Pm ≤ Pmax
C7 : Tm0m ∩ Tmm0 = ∅

where X = x jm , P = Pjm , and T = [ Tmm0 ]. C1 indicates the user association (UA)
coefficient, expressed in binary numbers.C2 ensures that each UE cannot be associated
with multiple BSs, only one BS can be associated. Constraint C3 guarantees the QoS; C4
represents the power allocation (PA) to other UEs under a BS. C6 is the transmit power
constraint, C5 indicates that the grid energy consumption and transferred energy are non-
negative values, and C7 indicates that the energy transfer and reception of the BS cannot be
simultaneously performed in energy cooperation (EC). To visually express their functions,
each constraint is expressed as C1(UA), C2(UA constraint), C3(QoS), C4(PA), C5(constraint),
C6(PA constraint), and C7(EC).
3. Joint Optimization of User Association, Power Allocation and Energy Cooperation

Since the original problem has multiple continuous and discrete variables, the original
problem is a mixed-integer nonlinear fractional programming problem. The problem con-
tains the solution variables, user association X, transmit power P and energy cooperation
T, which are coupled with each other and difficult to solve directly. To deal with the opti-
mization problem, the original problem is broken down into three lower-level problems:
user association, transmit power, and energy cooperation. For the first user association
subproblem, given two sets of variables, transmit power P and energy cooperation T, the
Electronics 2022, 11, 1605 7 of 21
user association subproblem is solved, while the QoS constraint is satisfied. For the second
power allocation subproblem, given the energy cooperation variables T, and based on
the solution of user association, the transmit power subproblem is solved. The energy
cooperation subproblem is solved based on the X and P. Finally, the solution of problem
P1 is jointly solved for the three subproblems.
3.1. User Association Problem

P1 is a mixed-integer non-linear programming (MINLP) problem. In this section, we
assume that the transmit power and energy cooperation is fixed, and the original problem
is converted into a subproblem of solving user associations, requiring only a set of variables
X to be solved. Considering that the traditional distance-based greedy algorithm, although
simple and easy to implement, can cause serious interference to the remote UEs, resulting
in the degradation of the communication quality of the remote UEs. This section uses the
Lagrangian method to solve for the optimal BS selection by UEs under the consideration of
co-channel interference to ensure that UEs achieve better QoS.
Given the two sets of variables for the transmit power and energy cooperation, the
constraints on the two sets of variables—C5, C6, and C7—associated with P and T are no
longer considered. The optimization problem is reduced to solving only the set of variables
X. Therefore, the original optimization problem, P1, can be rewritten as:
P2 : maxη (X)
(8)
s.t. C1, C2, C3, C4
Since the user association indicator X jm is a binary variable, the problem P2 is a non-
convex mixed-integer programming problem. To solve this problem, we can let X jm be
continuous. Let 0 ≤ X jm ≤ 1; then, the problem is converted to solve a continuous convex
optimization problem. The transformed solution problem and the constraints are convex
functions, then the problem can be considered as a convex optimization problem, and for
continuous convex optimization problems, there exists a local maximum of function, which
is the global optimal solution. According to the Lagrangian property [24,25], we use the
Lagrangian method to solve the problem. First, we introduce the Lagrangian multipliers λ j
and θm , and construct the Lagrangian function of P2 according to the two constraints. The
Lagrangian function can be written as:
N M M N M M N
L( x, λ, θ ) = ∑ ∑ x jm τjm / ∑ Pmtotal − ∑ λ j (τmin − ∑ x jm τjm ) − ∑ θm ( ∑ x jm Pjm − Pm ) (9)
n =1 m =1 m =1 j =1 m =1 m =1 j =1
where, λ j and θm are non-negative Lagrange multipliers.

Then, the dual function is given by:

maxL( x, λ, θ )
g(λ, θ ) = (10)
s.t.C1, C2,
Additionally, the dual problem of P2 is expressed as:
ming(λ, θ ) (11)
Furthermore, according to the Lagrangian dual method property [25], the derivative
of the Lagrangian is derived, and the result is expressed as:
M
∂L( x, λ, θ )
M
= τjm / ∑ Pmtotal + λ j τjm − θm Pjm (12)
∂ ∑ x jm m =1
m =1
The optimal user association function η jm is constructed based on the results of Equa-
tion (9). Each user association function is calculated η jm separately. The optimal user
association function is expressed as:
M
∂L( x, λ, θ )
M
= τjm / ∑ Pmtotal + λ j τjm − θm Pjm (13)
∂ ∑ x jm m =1
m =1
Electronics 2022, 11, 1605 8 of 21
The UE selects the BS with the largest value of the association function η jm . According
to the user association function, the discriminant formula for the UE to select the optimal
BS is:
1, if m = m∗

x ∗jm = (14)
0, otherwise
where m∗ = argmax η jm

When updating the λ j and θm Lagrangian multipliers, we also updated the two Lagrangian
multipliers using subgradient iterations [26], which are given by:
" ! +
M
λ j (t + 1) = λ j (t) − δ1 (t) ∑ x jm τjm − τmin ] (15)
m =1
" !#+
N
θ j (t + 1) = θ j (t) − δ2 (t) Pm − ∑ x jm Pjm (16)
j =1
where Equations (12) and (13) need to satisfy [ a]+ = max( a, 0), i.e., the result of the iteration
needs to be compared with 0. When the iteration value is greater than 0, the value is taken
as a positive iteration value; when the iteration value is negative, the result is taken as 0.
δ(t) is the update step of the Lagrange multiplier and t is the number of iterations; we use
the nonsummable diminishing step length. The update step must satisfy:
∞
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW ∑ δi (t) = ∞, lim δi (t) = 0, ∀i = {1, 2}
t→∞
9 of(17)
24
t =1
We use a Lagrangian-based algorithm to obtain the solution to the user association by
iteration, as summarized in Algorithm 1.
Algorithm11Lagrangian-Based
Algorithm Lagrangian-BasedUser Association
User Algorithm
Association Algorithm
1: Input: Transmit power Pm , Lagrange multiplier λ j and θ m , Maximum number
of iterations Tout , Update step δ (t ) , QoS threshold τ min , number of iterations t = 1
2: Output: UE selection of base stations x *jm
3: for 1 < t < Tout
4: for j = 1:1: N
5: Calculated η jm according to the formula, UEs choose the largest η jm , and the
User association parameters are x jm (t )
6: update λ j and θ m according to (15) and (16)
7: if x jm (t ) = x jm (t + 1) , obtain the optimal associated base station x *jm , exit loop;

8: break
9: end if
10: end for
11: end for
3.2.
3.2.Power
PowerAllocation
AllocationProblem
Problem
InInthis
this section, thepower
section, the powerallocation
allocation subproblem
subproblem is solved after fixing
fixing two
twosets
setsof
ofvar-
vari-
ables for user association and BSs’ energy cooperation.
iables for user association and BSs’ energy cooperation. Power allocation is an important
allocation is an important
research
researchtopic
topicofofcommunication
communicationsystems
systems as it will directly
directly affect
affect the
thequality
qualityofofservice
serviceofof
UEs
UEsand andsystem
systemenergy
energy consumption. Thetraditional
consumption. The traditionalequal
equalpower
power allocation
allocation method
method is ais
a wasteful
wastefulmethodmethodofofpower
powerconsumption.
consumption. Additionally,
Additionally, thethe fractional
fractional transmit
transmit power
power al-
allocation (FTPA) scheme,
location (FTPA) scheme, in
in which
which UEs
UEsare
aregraded
gradedaccording
accordingto tothe
theinter-cell
inter-cellinterference
interference
to noise ratio, has the disadvantage of remote UEs suffering from severe inter-cell inter-
ference [20]. Power allocation is a nonlinear problem, and the particle swarm optimization
(PSO) algorithm, as a bionic intelligent algorithm, is widely used in nonlinear planning
problems due to its fast convergence and efficient global search capability [27].
After fixing the two sets of variables for the user association X and energy cooper-
Electronics 2022, 11, 1605 9 of 21
to noise ratio, has the disadvantage of remote UEs suffering from severe inter-cell interfer-
ence [20]. Power allocation is a nonlinear problem, and the particle swarm optimization
(PSO) algorithm, as a bionic intelligent algorithm, is widely used in nonlinear planning
problems due to its fast convergence and efficient global search capability [27].
After fixing the two sets of variables for the user association X and energy cooperation
T, a set of variables P for transmit power must be solved. The original optimization
problem P1 is downscaled to solve the one-dimensional power allocation problem P3, and
the problem is reformulated as:
P3 : maxη (P)
(18)
s.t. C3, C4, C6
Problem P3 is a nonlinear fractional optimization problem, which is difficult to solve
directly. Additionally, the difficulty of its solution increases with the increase in the number
of UEs. Therefore, we consider the PSO algorithm to solve the power allocation subproblem.
In the following, the solution analysis of the standard PSO algorithm and the improved
PSO algorithm are given, respectively.
3.2.1. Standard PSO Algorithm

In the standard PSO algorithm, the positions of the particles are iteratively updated
along the direction of the best position. Each particle is evaluated by the fitness function
to determine the optimization performance. To achieve the best global position, the best
individual and global positions are tracked in each iteration to calculate the updated
particles. Each particle can be considered as a feasible solution, and each particle computes
the fitness function to obtain the global optimal position gBest of the population particles,
and the local optimal position pBest. xid (t + 1) is the position of the t + 1 iteration of
the particle i in d-dimensional space, and vid (t + 1) is the velocity of the iteration of the
particle in d-dimensional space. The velocity and position of the individual particle are
continuously and iteratively updated based on the global optimal solution and the local
optimal solution [28], the vid (t + 1) and xid (t + 1) are updated as:
vid (t + 1) = wvid (t) + c1 rand( pBestid (t) − xid (t))

(19)
+c2 rand( gBestid (t) − xid (t))
xid (t + 1) = vid (t + 1) + xid (t) (20)
where i = 1, 2, · · · Q, d = 1, 2, · · · D, c1 is the individual learning factor, and c2 is the group
learning factor. w is inertia weight standard PSO, which generally sets the weight of the
larger PSOs to aid the algorithm’s global search. rand is the random parameters within
(0,1). We abstract the particle positions xid as a set of feasible solutions to the variables P in
the power allocation optimization problem, expressed as a vector Θ = ( P11 , P12 , · · · , PN M ),
and the d-dimensional space represents the number of UEs, i.e., d = N.
According to the system objective function maxη (P), PSO under the constraint of the
fitness function can be expressed as:
N M M
f ( P) = maxη (P) = ∑ ∑ x jm τjm / ∑ Pmtotal (21)
n =1 m =1 m =1
Since the standard PSO has defects, this paper proposes an improved PSO to solve
these defects:
3.2.2. Improved PSO Algorithm

The standard PSO algorithm is prone to fall into local optimal solutions and has the
defects of a poor search accuracy and slow convergence of its algorithm when solving
in higher dimensions and nonlinear functions [28]. In response to the above-mentioned
defects of the standard PSO algorithm, many studies have proposed improvement schemes
for it. The authors of [29–31] and others have improved update parameters, which include
dynamic trajectory, weight and learning factors in order to improve the convergence
performance and search accuracy of the algorithm. Inspired by the above-mentioned
Electronics 2022, 11, 1605 10 of 21
literature, three improvements are made in this section, which constitute the improved
PSO algorithm.
(1) A two-stage dynamic trajectory scheme: The particle velocity vid directly affects the
dynamic position of the particles xid , and choosing a reasonable velocity vid helps
to speed up the particle swarm search and reduce the number of iterations of the
algorithm [29]. We suggest that in the early stage of particle search, the particle
velocity should be kept at a large value, which helps to improve the global search
ability of the particles, prevent the particles from falling into the local optimal solution,
and effectively reduce the number of iterations of the later search. In the late stage of
the particle search, the particle velocity should be kept smaller to make the particle
have a better local search ability. Below are the following equations:
if t < J : " #
wvid (t) + c1 rand( pBestid (t) − xid (t))
vid (t + 1) = (χmax ) ×
(22)
else : " #
wvid (t) + c1 rand( pBestid (t) − xid (t))
vid (t + 1) = (χmax − rand)) ×
where χmax > 1, t is the number of iterations, and J is the set interval of the number of
iterations of the two stages. Our proposed motion trajectory update scheme ensures
a faster global search capability for the particle swarm in the early iterations of the
search, in the later iterations, the particle swarm slows down, which helps the local
search capability of the swarm and improves search accuracy, so its convergence
speed is accelerated.
(2) A two-stage dynamic inertia weighting scheme: Particle movement is very sensitive
to inertia weights, and the inertia weights need to be reasonably controlled to balance
the local and global search ability of the algorithm. In the standard PSO, the inertia
weights are fixed values, and its local search ability is poor. The linear decreasing
weight strategy improves local searchability, but the global search ability is poor.
Therefore, we consider a two-stage dynamic inertia weighting strategy. In the early
iteration, the control is in a larger interval to gives its particle swarm a better global
search ability; in the late iteration, the non-linear decreasing strategy is used to
improve its local search ability:
(
ωmax t<J
ω ( t + 1) =
t
dnl (23)
ωmax − (ωmax − ωmin ) × Tout t>J
where ωmax = 0.8, ωmin = 0.3, dnl = 0.4 is the nonlinear coefficient [31]; Tout is the
maximum number of iterations. The improved strategy has a stronger global search
capability in the early stage and stronger local search capability in the later stage, so
the algorithm is in an efficient search state and its solution has better accuracy.
(3) Nonlinear asynchronous acceleration coefficients: The acceleration coefficients c1 and
c2 of the particle swarm is mainly reflected as the learning ability of the individual
particles and the group particles, reflecting the quantitative relationship between the
individual particles, the whole particles and the optimal position of the previous stage.
Their role is reflected in controlling the continuous approximation of the optimal
position of the individual particles to the global optimal position [29]. On the one
hand, in the standard PSO, the acceleration coefficients, c1 and c2 , are synchronized
fixed values that cannot guarantee the efficient searchability of the particle swarm. To
increase the search capability of the particles, an asynchronous acceleration coefficients
strategy is used. In the pre-particle swarm search process, we want the individual
particles to traverse the whole problem space to enhance the global search capability
and the local search capability in the later stage. To this end, we introduce a nonlinear
Electronics 2022, 11, 1605 11 of 21
dynamic acceleration factor update mechanism [30] that can effectively balance the
ability of particles in a global search and local search. The acceleration coefficients
update formula is as follows:
t
c1 = − c1 f − c1i × + c1 f (24)
Tout
t 2 t
c2 = c1i × (1 − ) + c1 f × (25)
Tout Tout
where c1 f = 2.5, c1i = 0.5, t is the number of iterations, and Tout is the maximum
number of iterations.
In this section, the improved PSO algorithm is used to iteratively obtain the solution
of power allocation, as summarized in Algorithm 2.
Algorithm 2 Improved PSO-Based Power Allocation Algorithm
1: Input: initialize particle swarm size Q, Maximum number of iterations Tout , weighting w,
acceleration coefficients c1 and c2 , initial particle position and velocity xid and vid
2: Output: global optimal allocation of power and energy efficiency P and max η(P)
3: for t = 1: 1: Tout
4: Calculate the pBest of each particle, obtain the current maximum fitness function max η(P),
treat the result as a global optimal solution gBest
5: Update W, c1 and c2 according to (24) and (25)
6: Update vid (t + 1) and xid (t + 1) according to (22) and (20)
7: Number of iterations t = t + 1
8: end for
3.3. Energy Cooperation Problem

In this section, we solve the energy cooperation problem. Given the user association X
and power allocation P, the original problem is downscaled to solve the less difficult energy
cooperation subproblem. Energy cooperation is an important technique to effectively solve
the uneven distribution of renewable energy, and the energy sharing among BS can be
centrally coordinated through the aggregator of the smart grid. In this way, excess energy
is shared to other BSs through the smart grid to improve the utilization of renewable
energy [15].
Given two sets of variables for User association and transmit power, only one set of
variables for energy cooperation needs to be solved. The original optimization problem P1
can be degraded to the optimization problem P4:
P4 : maxη (T)
(26)
s.t. C5, C7
The energy cooperation subproblem is a combinatorial optimization problem. Consid-
ering that the problem involves the optimization of integer combinations with continuous
constraints, matching theory was used in existing studies to solve the matching optimiza-
tion problem for wireless networks, and it was demonstrated that matching theory was
characteristic of a fast convergence and stable configuration results [22,32]. Inspired by
these works, we used matching theory to solve the energy cooperation problem for smart
grid architectures. Firstly, two groups of categories of base stations need to be defined.
In this paper, energy cooperation can be classified into two categories of BSs with excess
energy and insufficient energy. Let Z+ = {m+ ∈ M | Em − Pm − Pmc i0} denotes the set of
BSs that have excess energy, while satisfying their own power consumption, i.e., energy
output side, and Z− = {m− ∈ M| Em − Pm − Pmc < 0} denotes the set of BSs that do not
collect enough energy to sustain their own power consumption, i.e., the energy receivers.
Each Z+ can share energy with one or more Z− , and Z− can receive renewable energy from
one or more of the Z+ . Mathematically, many-to-many matching is defined as follows:
Electronics 2022, 11, 1605 12 of 21
Definition 1. A matching µ is denoted as mapping from the BSs with excess RE (i.e., Z+ ) to the
BSs with lack of RE (i.e., Z− ), m+ ∈ Z+ and m− ∈ Z− satisfy the following properties [22,33]:
µ(m+ ) ⊆ Z− and −
µ(m− ) ⊆−Z ;
+
− +
|µ(m )| ≤ Z , ∀m ∈ Z ;

(27)
|µ(m+ )| ≤ Z− , ∀m+ ∈ Z+ ;
m − ∈ µ ( m + ) i f f m + ∈ µ ( m − );
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 23
µ(m+ ) denoted as the partners set (i.e., SBSs m+ ) of BS m− ; likewise, µ(m− ) denoted as the
where,
partners set for SBSs m+ under the matching state µ. |Z| is the cardinality of the set Z.
2. Each BS m−
Definition 2. Each BS
Definition m ∈ZZ−, , has a transferable, strict, and complete preference relation over
has a transferable, strict, and complete preference relation over

the members in Z+Z, and
the members in , and vice versa [22].
vice versa [22].
According to the matching theory, the BS needs to set the utility function, i.e., the
According to the matching theory, the BS needs to set the utility function, i.e., the pref-
preference
erence degree,
degree, corresponding
corresponding to eachto other
each with
other with base
other other base stations.
stations. Since
Since there there is
is energy
energy loss in the process of energy transmission, the different settings of the preference
loss in the process of energy transmission, the different settings of the preference function
function will affect the convergence and complexity of the algorithm, as well as the utili‐
will affect the convergence and complexity of the algorithm, as well as the utilization rate of
zation rate of the collected energy. Therefore, setting a suitable preference function can
the collected energy. Therefore, setting a suitable preference function can effectively reduce
the loss of collected energy and improve the energy utilization of the system.
effectively reduce the loss of collected energy and improve the energy utilization of the
Based on the principle of matching bilateral benefits [22], the utility functions (prefer-
system.
ence degrees) corresponding to each other between the two types of BSs are established,
Based on the principle of matching bilateral benefits [22], the utility functions (pref‐
and the matching of their two sets is shown in Figure 2. Each BS in set Z+ corresponds to
erence degrees) corresponding to each other between the two types of BSs are established,
all BSs in set Z− , respectively, with a list of preferences corresponding to it. Similarly,
and the matching of their two sets is shown in Figure 2. Each BS in set Z  corresponds
the BS
set Z− have their
into all BSs in set own preferences with those in set Z+ . The premise of matching is first
Z , respectively, with a list of preferences corresponding to it. Similarly,
tothe BS in set
match the corresponding BS to complete the energy cooperation
Z  have their own preferences with those in set Z  based on its preference
. The premise of match‐
size. The preference is established based on the transmit power Pm and the collected energy
ing is first to match the corresponding BS to complete the energy cooperation based on its
+ −
m . The preference of the BS in set Z to the BS in set Z is expressed as:
Epreference size. The preference is established based on the transmit power Pm and the
T − E  
collected energy Em . The preference of the BS in set
mm0 loss Z− to the BS in set Z is expressed
P Z+ , Z− = , m ∈ Z−

(28)
as: Tmm0
... ...

Figure 2. Many‐to‐many matching of base stations.
Figure 2. Many-to-many matching of base stations.
When the BS m− sends an energy 

request
  Ethe
Tmm ' to base
stations

in the set Z+ , the base
+  ( Z , Z )  loss
, m  Z
stations in the set Z will select the BS with the Thighest ranking according to the preference (28)
mm '
ranking in Equation (27) and receive its request to pass the energy to the BS m .  −

The preference m
When the BS BS in the set Z− for the BS in the set Z+ is expressedZas:, the base
sends an energy request to the base stations in the set
of the

stations in the set Z will select the BS with the highest ranking according to the prefer‐
P Z− , Z+ = Em − Pm , m+ ∈ Z+

ence ranking in Equation (27) and receive its request to pass the energy to the BS m  . (29)
 
The preference of the BS in the set
The Z for the BS in the set
BSm− is ranked according to the preference Z is expressed as:
degree of Equation (28), and the BSm−
(Z  , Z  )  E
selects the BSm+ with the highestpreference 
set Z+ .
m  Pm , m  Z
degree in the (29)
We propose a bilateral matching algorithm to solve the energy cooperation problem.
First, The BS
we knowm  the
is ranked according to the preference degree of Equation (28), and the BS
important parameters of each BS, such as the extra or deficit energy,

m selects the BS m  with the highest preference degree in the set Z .

We propose a bilateral matching algorithm to solve the energy cooperation problem.
First, we know the important parameters of each BS, such as the extra or deficit energy,
and energy transfer efficiency factors. Then, we divide the BS into two sets, and each BS
Electronics 2022, 11, 1605 13 of 21
and energy transfer efficiency factors. Then, we divide the BS into two sets, and each BS
calculates its own preference, according to the preference degree, the BS lacking energy
sends a request to the base station with excess energy, the surplus energy is shared by the
BS to the BS with the largest preference according to the preference, until all BS requests are
met or the excess energy is used up. The scheme based on matching theory is summarized
as Algorithm 3.
Algorithm 3 Energy Cooperation Algorithm Based on Matching Theory
1: Input: Classify the base station as set Z+ and Z− , classify the base station as Pm , Collected
energy Em , maximum number of iterations Tout
2: Output: Consumption of grid energy Pm total
3: for t = 1 : 1 : Tout
4: Calculate the preference of all the base stations in set Z+ over those in set Z− , respectively,
and rank them
5: Calculate the preference of all the base stations in set Z− over those in set Z+ , respectively,
and rank them
6: BSm+ selects the BS with the largest preference in set Z− to complete the energy
cooperation.
7: if BSm− request is satisfied or the BSm+ has no redundant RE
8: BSm will be removed from the set
9: end if
10: update set Z− and Z+
11: Until the set Z− or Z+ is the empty set Exit loop
12: end for
3.4. Joint User Association, Power Allocation and Energy Cooperation Scheme
As described above, the optimization problem P1 is broken down into three lower
complexity subproblems of user association, power allocation and energy cooperation by
the fixed variable method. Since each subproblem is given a fixed variable, the obtained
analysis is not the global optimal analysis. In order to further improve the system energy
efficiency, the final solution of system energy efficiency is obtained by combining the
above three algorithms through the convergent iterative algorithm. Algorithm 4 can
be used to solve the problems of joint user association, power allocation and energy
cooperation optimization.
Algorithm 4 Joint User Association, Power Allocation and Energy Cooperation Algorithm
1: Input: given transmit power Pm and collected energy Em , convergence threshold ε,

Maximum number of iterations Iout
2: Output: energy efficiency η (X, P, T)
3: while 1 < t < Iout
4: Given transmit power Pm and collected energy Em , Solve user association according to
Algorithm 1
5: Update the power allocation according to Algorithm 2
6: if η (t + 1) − η (t)|≤ ε
7: When the global optimal User association, transmission power solution and energy
cooperation solution are obtained, exit the cycle
8: end if
9: end while
10: After obtaining the X and P, the energy cooperation problem is solved according to
Algorithm 3, obtain grid energy consumption Pm total
3.5. Complexity and Convergence Analysis

The complexity of the energy efficiency optimization algorithm proposed in this
paper is mainly composed of three parts: user association, power allocation, and energy
Electronics 2022, 11, 1605 14 of 21
cooperation. The specific complexity analysis is as follows. The problem of user association
is solved by using the Lagrange dual method. The complexity of the algorithm is mainly
composed of UEs, the number of base stations, and update parameters. number of UEs
is N, the number of base stations is M, Lagrange multiplier is K, Umax is the number of
outermost iterations. The maximum complexity of Algorithm 1 is O(Umax ( N MK )).
Based on the improved PSO algorithm, its complexity is mainly related to the particle
swarm size Q, particle swarm dimension N and the number of outer iterations Tout , the
maximum complexity of Algorithm 2 is ( Tout QN ).
In the energy cooperation algorithm based on matching theory, the complexity of the
algorithm will increase with the increase in the number of base stations. The solving process
of matching algorithm is a linear operation, and its complexity is positively correlated with
the number in sets Z+ and Z− . Z1 is the number of sets Z+ , Z2 is the number of sets Z− .
The maximum complexity of Algorithm 3 is O( Z1 Z2 ).
Finally, the iterative convergence algorithm is used to maximize the system energy
efficiency of the P1 problem. The maximum number of convergence iterations of the outer
layer of the algorithm is Iout , and the inner layer is used to solve the user association and
power allocation problems in turn. Therefore, the maximum complexity of the algorithm is
O( Iout ((Umax ( N MK )) + ( Tout QN )) + ( Z1 Z2 )).
4. Performance Analysis
In this section, we evaluate the performance of the proposed algorithm. Considering
the characteristics of millimeter-wave signal coverage and large bandwidth, we consider
that BSs and UEs are evenly distributed in a square area of 100 × 100 m2 , and the bandwidth
is set as W = 1GHz. There are five base stations and thirty UEs in the system. Both large-
scale fading and small-scale fading are taken into account in the simulations; the path loss
exponent is β = 2 [34], and g is small-scale fading, which follow Rayleigh distributions with
mean values of zero and a variance of one. We set the minimum QoS as τmin = 10Mbit/s.
Furthermore, the power amplifier and the static circuit power consumption of each BS
are set to ζ = 2.6 and Pmc = 10W [35], and their energy harvesting rates Em are randomly
generated in an interval (30–40) dBm, energy transfer efficiency factor α are randomly taken
values in [0.7,0.9] [36]. The simulation parameters are detailed in Table 2.
Table 2. System parameters.
Parameter Value
System bandwidth 1 GHz
Noise power density −174 dBm/Hz
Max transmit power of BS 30 dBm
Particle swarm size 80
Maximum number of iterations 70
In the comparison scheme, Algorithm 4 is compared with other algorithms and each
part utilizes a different algorithm, composing different joint resource allocation schemes.
In the user association section, Algorithm 1 is compared with the greedy algorithm (min-
distance). In the power allocation section, Algorithm 2 is compared with the standard
particle swarm optimization (SPSO) algorithm [29], the nonlinear weight particle swarm
optimization (NLPSO) algorithm [29], equal power (EP) allocation algorithm and FTPA [20]
were compared. In the energy cooperation section, Algorithm 3 is compared with the
energy consumption-based DES algorithm [22]. The joint resource allocation algorithms
are shown in Table 3.
Parameter Value
System bandwidth 1 GHz
Noise power density −174 dBm/Hz
Max transmit power of BS 30 dBm
Particle swarm size 80
Electronics 2022, 11, 1605 15 of 21
Maximum number of iterations 70
Table 3. Joint resource allocation scheme.
Table 3. Joint resource allocation scheme.
Scheme User Association Power Allocation Energy Cooperation
Scheme
Algorithm 4 User Association
Algorithm 1 Power Allocation
Algorithm 2 Energy Cooperation
Algorithm 3
Algorithm 4
UPE‐SPSO‐DES Algorithm 1
Min‐Distance Algorithm 2
SPSP Algorithm 3
DES
UPE-SPSO-DES Min-Distance SPSP
UPE‐NLPSO‐DES Algorithm 1 NLPSO DES DES
UPE-NLPSO-DES Algorithm 1 NLPSO DES
UPE‐FTPA‐DES
UPE-FTPA-DES Min‐Distance
Min-Distance FTPA FTPA DES DES
UPE‐EQ‐DES
UPE-EQ-DES Min‐Distance
Min-Distance EQ EQ DES DES
4.1. User association under Fixed Transmit Power and Energy Cooperation
4.1. User association under Fixed Transmit Power and Energy Cooperation
Figure 3 shows the relationship curve between the number of UEs and EE. When the
Figure 3 shows the relationship curve between the number of UEs and EE. When
transmit power is fixed, the EE decreases with the increase in the number of UEs, which
the transmit power is fixed, the EE decreases with the increase in the number of UEs,
is because, at a fixed same transmit power, the energy consumption of transmit power
which is because, at a fixed same transmit power, the energy consumption of transmit
increases with the with
power increases increase in the number
the increase of UEs; oftherefore,
in the number the energy
UEs; therefore, efficiency
the energy de‐
efficiency
creases. From the figure, it can be seen that the Lagrangian algorithm proposed in this
decreases. From the figure, it can be seen that the Lagrangian algorithm proposed in this
paper
paperoutperforms
outperformsthe
the minimum distance algorithm
minimum distance algorithm andand the
the random
random association
association algo‐
algorithm.
rithm. The greedy algorithm selects the base station only from the distance factor when
The greedy algorithm selects the base station only from the distance factor when associating
associating and ignores the interference caused to other UEs, while the Lagrangian algo‐
and ignores the interference caused to other UEs, while the Lagrangian algorithm proposed
rithm proposed in this paper, considering the EE of the UEs globally, can effectively re‐
in this paper, considering the EE of the UEs globally, can effectively reduce the interference
duce the interference to other UEs when associating UEs and improve the system through‐
to other UEs when associating UEs and improve the system throughput, thus improving
put, thus improving the system EE.
the system EE.
Energy Efficiency(bits/Joule)

Figure 3. Energy efficiency versus the number of UEs for different algorithms.
Figure 3. Energy efficiency versus the number of UEs for different algorithms.
4.2. Energy Cooperation under Fixed Transmit Power and User Association
4.2. Energy Cooperation under Fixed Transmit Power and User Association
The curve of the effect of the number of BSs on the system energy consumption is
The curve of the effect of the number of BSs on the system energy consumption is
given. From Figure 4, it is observed that the system EE decreases as the number of BSs
given. From Figure 4, it is observed that the system EE decreases as the number of BSs
increases, because the circuit power consumption of the BSs increases accordingly. The
increases, because the circuit power consumption of the BSs increases accordingly. The
algorithm proposed in this paper is significantly better than the DES algorithm and the case
without energy cooperation. The DES algorithm mainly allocates RE from two aspects: the
energy consumption of the BS and RE, while the impedance consumption is the main factor
of energy loss in energy cooperation. For this reason, the algorithm in this paper considers
that the energy is mainly affected by the line resistance value in the transmission process.
The proposed preference matching scheme can effectively improve the energy utilization,
and therefore outperforms the DES algorithm in terms of energy consumption. Meanwhile,
the scheme without energy cooperation causes high energy consumption values of the
system because the excess RE is not fully utilized.
main factor of energy loss in energy cooperation. For this reason, the algorithm in this
paper considers that the energy is mainly affected by the line resistance value in the trans‐
mission process. The proposed preference matching scheme can effectively improve the
energy utilization, and therefore outperforms the DES algorithm in terms of energy con‐
Electronics 2022, 11, 1605 sumption. Meanwhile, the scheme without energy cooperation causes high energy con‐ 16 of 21
sumption values of the system because the excess RE is not fully utilized.

Figure 4. Power consumption versus the number of BSs for different scheme.
Figure 4. Power consumption versus the number of BSs for different scheme.
4.3. Joint User Association, Transmit Power and Energy Cooperation
4.3. Joint User Association, Transmit Power and Energy Cooperation
Figure 5 shows the relationship curve between the number of UEs and EE. At the rate
Figure 5 shows the relationship curve between the number of UEs and EE. At the rate
threshold, it can be seen from the figure that the system EE increases with the increase in
threshold, it can be seen from the figure that the system EE increases with the increase in
the number of UEs. Because the number of UEs increases, the throughput obtained by its
the number of UEs. Because the number of UEs increases, the throughput obtained by its
system increases, and thus the system energy efficiency increases. When the number of
system increases, and thus the system energy efficiency increases. When the number of
UEs increases, the impact of channel interference increases, so it is necessary to effectively
UEs increases, the impact of channel interference increases, so it is necessary to effectively
controlthe transmit
control the transmitpower
powerbetween
betweeneach
eachBS
BSto
toreduce
reduce channel
channel interference.
interference.FTPA and
FTPA and
equal power allocation schemes, which allocate more power to UEs with poor channel
equal power allocation schemes, which allocate more power to UEs with poor channel
conditions, increase the power consumption of the system, thus causing the system to be
conditions, increase the power consumption of the system, thus causing the system to be
less energy efficient. From the figure, it is shown that Algorithm 4 is significantly better
less energy efficient. From the figure, it is shown that Algorithm 4 is significantly better
than the other schemes in terms of EE, and it has a better performance for user association
than the other schemes in terms of EE, and it has a better performance for user association
and power allocation, which is due to the improved PSO in solving the power allocation
and power allocation, which is due to the improved PSO in solving the power allocation
problem witha ahigher solution
problem with higher solutionaccuracy.
accuracy. By improving the
By improving theupdate
updateformula
formulaof
ofparticle
particle
swarm parameters, the accuracy of the particle swarm search is effectively improved,
swarm parameters, the accuracy of the particle swarm search is effectively improved, so so
it can ensure that UEs can obtain the QoS, while its consumption of energy is lower
it can ensure that UEs can obtain the QoS, while its consumption of energy is lower and
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW and
18 of 23

search for
search for better
better power
power allocation points.
allocation Therefore,
points. thisthis
Therefore, solution is more
solution suitable
is more for dense
suitable for
UE scenarios.
dense UE scenarios.

Figure 5. Energy efficiency versus the number of UEs for different joint algorithms.
Figure 6 shows the relationship curve between the number of UEs and the through‐
put. At the rate threshold, it can be seen from the figure that the system throughput in‐
creases with the number of UEs, because as the number of UEs increases, the throughput
obtained by its system increases accordingly. The FTPA and equal power allocation
schemes, which allocate more power to UEs with poor channel conditions, exacerbate the
E

Electronics 2022, 11, 1605 17 of 21
Figure 6 shows the relationship curve between the number of UEs and the through‐
Figure 6 shows the relationship curve between the number of UEs and the throughput.
put. At the rate threshold, it can be seen from the figure that the system throughput in‐
At the rate threshold, it can be seen from the figure that the system throughput increases
creases with the number of UEs, because as the number of UEs increases, the throughput
with the number of UEs, because as the number of UEs increases, the throughput obtained
obtained by its system increases accordingly. The FTPA and equal power allocation
by its system increases accordingly. The FTPA and equal power allocation schemes, which
schemes, which allocate more power to UEs with poor channel conditions, exacerbate the
allocate more power to UEs with poor channel conditions, exacerbate the channel inter-
channel interference with other UEs, thus affecting the high UE throughput. The figure
ference with other UEs, thus affecting the high UE throughput. The figure shows that the
shows that the Algorithm 4 is significantly better than the other schemes in terms of
Algorithm 4 is significantly better than the other schemes in terms of throughput perfor-
throughput performance, which is mainly influenced by the power allocation algorithm
mance, which is mainly influenced by the power allocation algorithm due to the improved
due to the improved PSO in solving the power allocation problem with higher solution
PSO in solving the power allocation problem with higher solution accuracy, which can
accuracy, which can effectively suppress the channel interference and improve the overall
effectively suppress the channel interference and improve the overall throughput, while
throughput, while ensuring the quality of service for the UEs.
ensuring the quality of service for the UEs.
Throughput(bits/s)

Figure 6. Throughput versus the number of UEs for different joint algorithms.
Figure 6. Throughput versus the number of UEs for different joint algorithms.
Figure 7 shows that the convergence performance of Algorithm 4 is better than other
Figure 7 shows that the convergence performance of Algorithm 4 is better than other
algorithms. We set number of UEs and BSs
algorithms. We set number of UEs and BSs N = 25,
N = 25,MM = 5. The iterative performance is
= 5. The iterative performance
mainly affected by the number of iterations of the power allocation algorithm. In Algo‐
is mainly affected by the number of iterations of the power allocation algorithm. In
rithm 4, the 4,improved
Algorithm
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW PSO PSO
the improved power allocation
power allocationalgorithm improves
algorithm improvesthe the
inertia weights,
inertia weights,
19 of 23
whichimprove
which improvethe theglobal
globalsearch
searchability
abilityof ofthe
theparticle
particleswarm
swarmin inthe
theearly
earlystage
stageof ofthe
the
search, avoiding the disadvantage of only finding local solutions. In the late stage of the
search, avoiding the disadvantage of only finding local solutions. In the late stage of the
search, it improves the particle search accuracy in the local search accuracy; therefore, the
search, it improves the particle search accuracy in the local search accuracy; therefore, the
EE obtained is higher. On the other hand, the improved trajectory strategy improves the
EE obtained is higher. On the other hand, the improved trajectory strategy improves the
speed of particle search, so the convergence speed of the algorithm is accelerated.
speed of particle search, so the convergence speed of the algorithm is accelerated.

Figure 7. Convergence performance of joint algorithm.
Figure 8 shows the iterative convergence plots of each scheme in terms of through‐
put. The convergence performance and throughput of Algorithm 4 are better than other
algorithms. We set the number of UEs and BSs N = 25, M = 5. In Algorithm 4, the im‐
proved PSO power allocation algorithm improves the inertia weights to improve the
search accuracy, and the allocated transmit power can effectively suppress the co‐channel

Electronics 2022, 11, 1605 18 of 21
Figure 8 shows the iterative convergence plots of each scheme in terms of through‐
Figure 8 shows the iterative convergence plots of each scheme in terms of throughput.
put. The convergence performance and throughput of Algorithm 4 are better than other
The convergence performance and throughput of Algorithm 4 are better than other algo-
algorithms. We set the number of UEs and BSs N = 25, M = 5. In Algorithm 4, the im‐
rithms. We set the number of UEs and BSs N = 25, M = 5. In Algorithm 4, the improved
proved PSO power allocation algorithm improves the inertia weights to improve the
PSO power allocation algorithm improves the inertia weights to improve the search accu-
search accuracy, and the allocated transmit power can effectively suppress the co‐channel
racy, and the allocated transmit power can effectively suppress the co-channel interference
interference and effectively improve the UE throughput. On the other hand, the improved
and effectively improve the UE throughput. On the other hand, the improved trajectory
trajectory strategy improves the speed of particle search, so the convergence speed of the
strategy improves the speed of particle search, so the convergence speed of the algorithm is
algorithm is accelerated.
accelerated.

Figure 9
Figure show that the
9 show EE EE
that the of the system
of the systemdecreases as the
decreases rate
as the threshold
rate increases.
threshold increases.
Because the increase in QoS will make the base station transmit more power to meet the
Because the increase in QoS will make the base station transmit more power to meet the
QoS of each UE, and the increase in transmit power will cause the increase in system
QoS of each UE, and the increase in transmit power will cause the increase in system en‐
energy consumption, so the energy efficiency of the system decreases. On the other hand,
ergy consumption, so the energy efficiency of the system decreases. On the other hand,
the scheme Algorithm 4 in this paper outperforms other schemes in terms of its energy
the scheme Algorithm 4 in this paper outperforms other schemes in terms of its energy
efficiency, while the FTPA scheme will significantly increase the power consumption
efficiency, while the FTPA scheme will significantly increase the power consumption to
Electronics 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW to
20 of 23
meet the quality of service for UEs with poor channel conditions, which will not only
meet the quality of service for UEs with poor channel conditions, which will not only in‐
increase the system energy consumption, but also cause serious channel interference, so
crease the system energy consumption, but also cause serious channel interference, so the
the throughput
throughput ofdecreases.
of UEs UEs decreases.
While While the algorithm
the algorithm proposed
proposed in this
in this paper
paper is mainly
is mainly
influenced by the power allocation algorithm in terms of EE, the improved particle swarm
influenced by the power allocation algorithm in terms of EE, the improved particle swarm
algorithm outperforms other schemes in terms of search accuracy, so the scheme obtains
algorithm outperforms other schemes in terms of search accuracy, so the scheme obtains
higher EE.
higher EE.

109
12
10
6
UPE-EQ-DES
UPE-SPSO-DES
4
UPE-NLPSO-DES
Propose algorithm 4
2 UPE-FTPA-DES
0
10 60 110 160 210
Minimum QoS(Mbits/s)
Figure 9. Tradeoff between the energy efficiency and the minimum QoS for joint algorithm.
From Figure 10, it can be seen that the EE of the system decreases as the number of
BSs increases because the power consumption of the circuits at the base stations increases
and the EE decreases. The simulations show that the EE of Algorithm 4 is better than that
of the same algorithm in a no‐cooperation scenario, while the EE of several other joint
Ene
Propose algorithm 4
2 UPE-FTPA-DES
0
10 60 110 160 210
Minimum QoS(Mbits/s)
Electronics 2022, 11, 1605 19 of 21
of the same algorithm in a no‐cooperation scenario, while the EE of several other joint
of the same algorithm in a no-cooperation scenario, while the EE of several other joint
energy cooperation schemes is significantly better than that of the non‐energy cooperation
energy cooperation schemes is significantly better than that of the non-energy cooperation
schemes. This is because energy cooperation can efficiently use RE and transfer excess
schemes. This is because energy cooperation can efficiently use RE and transfer excess
energy to other base stations. In the non‐energy collaborative scheme, the excess RE is
energy to other base stations. In the non-energy collaborative scheme, the excess RE is
wasted, and thus consumes energy from the grid, reducing the EE of the system. Although
wasted, and thus consumes energy from the grid, reducing the EE of the system. Although
the EE advantage of the system is not clear with the increase in the number of BSs, AL
the EE advantage of the system is not clear with the increase in the number of BSs, AL
Algorithm 4 is more suitable for high‐density base station scenarios because it outper‐
Algorithm 4 is more suitable for high-density base station scenarios because it outperforms
forms the other schemes.
the other schemes.
109
14
UPE-FTPA-DES(no-cooperation)
UPE-SPSO-DES(no-cooperation)
12 Propose algorithm 4(no-cooperation)
UPE-FTPA-DES
UPE-SPSO-DES
10 Propose algorithm 4
2
5 7 9 11 13
Number of BSs
Figure 10. Energy efficiency versus the number of BSs for different joint algorithms.
Figure 10. Energy efficiency versus the number of BSs for different joint algorithms.
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
With the aim of achieving a successful 5G network with energy harvesting and en‐
With the aim of achieving a successful 5G network with energy harvesting and en-
ergy cooperation, this paper studied the resource allocation problem of energy efficiency
ergy cooperation, this paper studied the resource allocation problem of energy efficiency
maximization. Considering the QoS constraints of UEs, power constraints of cellular base
maximization. Considering the QoS constraints of UEs, power constraints of cellular base
stations and renewable energy harvesting constraints, three problems of user association,
power allocation and energy cooperation were jointly optimized. We propose a fixed
variable iterative algorithm, which uses a Lagrange dual method, improved particle swarm
optimization method and matching algorithm to solve these three sub problems. The
simulation results show that a base station with energy cooperation has lower power grid
energy consumption. In addition, compared with the comparison algorithm, the proposed
algorithm has a faster convergence performance and better search accuracy and can ef-
fectively improve energy efficiency. Simulation results demonstrate for the scenario of
multi-UE and multi base station, the joint algorithm proposed in this paper has a good
adaptability, can effectively coordinate the interference between cells and meet the QoS
of UEs.
Our proposed algorithm is able to obtain a good resolution through iterative conver-
gence, and the algorithm can be applied to hybrid energy supply networks with different
network architectures, such as 4G networks, which are the most widely deployed today.
To further extend this work, load balancing is also a problem that needs to be solved for
current user associations. In addition, this paper considers perfect CSI conditions, while
imperfect CSI may have a significant impact on the outage probability and average data
rate in the network. Under imperfect CSI conditions, a robust and optimized design is
needed. On the other hand, the energy collaboration scheme outlines in this paper only
considers the optimization of energy consumption from a base station perspective, while
ignoring the issue of mutual economic benefits between two subjects, the operator and the
Electronics 2022, 11, 1605 20 of 21
grid intermediary. In future work, energy management needs to be traded off in terms of
energy consumption and economic benefits.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.C. and Y.Z.; methodology, Y.Z.; software, Y.Z.; vali-
dation, Y.C.; formal analysis, Y.C.; data curation, Y.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.Z.;
writing—review and editing, Y.C., Y.Z., X.P. and S.P.; visualization, Y.C. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: Project supported by the Education Commission foundation of Chongqing (Grant No.
KJ1500934), Science and technology project of Chongqing Education Commission (Grant No. KJ1709205),
the graduate scientific research innovation project of Chongqing (Grant No. CYS18311), the basic and
frontier research program of Chongqing (Grant No. cstc2015jcyjA40051), the science and technology
program of Chongqing Banan (Grant No. 2019TJ07), and the science and technology research youth
project of Chongqing Education Com-mission (Grant No. KJQN202101124): Chongqing Univer-
sity of Technology Graduate Education Quality Development Action Plan Funding Results (No.
gzlcx20222024). Scientific Research Foundation of Chongqing University of Technology under (Grant
No. 2019ZD42, Grant No. 2019ZD63).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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1 Periodical Agency of Chongqing University of Technology, Chongqing 400054, China; caoyang@cqut.edu.cn

Citation: Cao, Y.; Zhong, Y.; Peng, X.;

Electronics 2022, 11, 1605. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11101605 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

Let Let j ∈j {{1,

According to the Shannon formula [9], the

Table 1. List of symbols list with description.

2.2. Energy Model

Tm0m Tmm0 − Eloss

2.3. Problem Formulation

C5 : Pmtotal m ≥ 0, Tmm0 ≥ 0, Tm0m ≥ 0

3. Joint Optimization of User Association, Power Allocation and Energy Cooperation

3.1. User Association Problem

where, λ j and θm are non-negative Lagrange multipliers.

2: Output: UE selection of base stations x *jm

3: for 1 < t < Tout

6: update λ j and θ m according to (15) and (16)

7: if x jm (t ) = x jm (t + 1) , obtain the optimal associated base station x *jm , exit loop;

3.2.1. Standard PSO Algorithm

vid (t + 1) = wvid (t) + c1 rand( pBestid (t) − xid (t))

3.2.2. Improved PSO Algorithm

Algorithm 2 Improved PSO-Based Power Allocation Algorithm

3.3. Energy Cooperation Problem

When the BS m− sends an energy 

Algorithm 3 Energy Cooperation Algorithm Based on Matching Theory

1: Input: given transmit power Pm and collected energy Em , convergence threshold ε,

3.5. Complexity and Convergence Analysis

Table 2. System parameters.

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