SSRN Id3787670

Legal Studies Research Paper Series Paper No.
1677
A Decade of Research and Practice of

Diaspora Philanthropy in the Asia Pacific
Region: The State of the Field
Mark Sidel
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Overview Paper for the Asia Pacific Philanthropy Consortium Conference
Diaspora Giving: An Agent of Change in Asia Pacific Communities?
Hanoi, May 2008
“A Decade of Research and Practice of Diaspora Philanthropy

in the Asia Pacific Region: The State of the Field”
Mark Sidel
Professor of Law and Faculty Scholar
University of Iowa
President-elect, International Society for Third Sector Research (ISTR)
This overview paper on diaspora philanthropy in the Asia Pacific region has four
objectives, as defined by APPC. 1 Based on the Terms of Reference provided by APPC, I
seek to
• Provide an overview of research on diaspora philanthropy over the past ten

years, particularly research on diaspora philanthropy back to the Asia Pacific
region, specifically in China, India, the Philippines, Vietnam, Bangladesh,
Indonesia and Pakistan.
• Identify innovative practices in social investment and social entrepreneurship

through strategic philanthropy by migrants and discuss how these may have
facilitated sustainable social change and development in the diasporas’
communities of origin.
• Analyze the enabling environment for diaspora philanthropy in the key

countries of the region vis-à-vis its degree of conduciveness in
allowing/encouraging the practice.
1
I am grateful to the Asia Pacific Philanthropy Consortium (APPC) for inviting me to write this paper, to
many friends in Asia, the United States, and elsewhere, for valuable discussions of this theme over many
years, to readers and discussants at the APPC paper writers’ workshop in December 2007 for their valuable
comments and suggestions, and to Sanjay Agarwal, Van Dusenbery, Peter Geithner, Le Xuan Khoa, Paula
Johnson, Rory Tolentino, Priya Viswanath, Xiao-huang Yin, Nick Young, and others for suggesting very
useful additions to the bibliography on research on diaspora philanthropy that accompanies this effort. All
references in footnotes are to the attached bibliography.
I am particularly grateful to Rory Tolentino for presenting this paper and seeking comments at the APPC
paper writers’ workshop in Manila in December 2007. Research and writing of this paper has also been
supported by the University of Iowa and its College of Law, Obermann Center for Advanced Studies, and
Provost’s Faculty Scholar Support Fund, to whom acknowledgement is gratefully made. Comments on this
paper are gratefully accepted and should be sent to Mark Sidel at mark-sidel@uiowa.edu. Copyright © Mark
Sidel, 2007.
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• Recommend collective follow up action to encourage effective diaspora giving
and sustainable social development and change in migrants’ communities of
origin.
In terms of organization, the four sections of this overview paper directly track the
four primary “content” areas set forth in the Terms of Reference. Section 1 (beginning on
page 2) covers the “overview of research on diaspora philanthropy in Asia Pacific” and the
specific issues discussed in that part of the terms of reference. Section 2 (beginning on
page 15) discusses “diaspora philanthropy, social investing, strategic philanthropy: what
does the research show, and what more needs to be done?” and the issues identified there.
Section 3 (beginning on page 30) analyzes the “enabling environment” for diaspora
philanthropy in the region. Section 4 (beginning on page 33), continues the discussion in
Section 2 on the gaps and limitations in current research, discusses the specific needs for
“further research on diaspora philanthropy in the Asia Pacific region.” The bibliography of
research on diaspora philanthropy in Asia (perhaps the most comprehensive such reference
list yet compiled) begins on page 35. This discussion does not include the papers prepared
for this APPC conference (May 2008), which are not available to the author in final form
at the time of writing; those references will be added later to the bibliography.
1. Overview of Research on Diaspora Philanthropy in Asia Pacific
(1)(a) History of Research on Diaspora Philanthropy in the Asia Pacific Region and
Specific Countries
The Asia Pacific Philanthropy Consortium’s project on diaspora philanthropy and
the exciting country studies underway mark an important step in our work on the role of
diasporas in equitable social development in Asia. In addition to the fine work that the
country paper writers are contributing, the conference that APPC plans will bring this
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research to a wider audience and will, we all hope, spur further and better work in this
important area.
What could we mean by better work in diaspora giving? What could be better than
émigrés from Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Vietnam, having
gone abroad temporarily or permanently to make their careers and lives abroad, giving
back to their countries of origin? That is one goal of this paper, and of reviewing the rich
results from the first ten years of research on diaspora philanthropy in Asia – to stimulate
further research that can integrate with practical giving and the organization of that giving
and use of funds to improve diaspora philanthropy, particularly giving for equitable social
development. I believe that most or all of us agree that diaspora philanthropy – like other
sorts of giving – should be focused on important social, cultural and economic problems as
identified within specific countries using participatory and democratic processes wherever
possible; should be focused on assisting the poor rather than assisting the already rich and
the elite; and should remain as autonomous as is feasible while also being accountable,
transparent, and responsible.
We must also rely on a review of what we know about diaspora philanthropy in
Asia to help us understand how the next stage of giving, and of research, can help diaspora
giving serve the peoples of Asia even more effectively in the future than it has in the past.
That is the goal of this paper – in reviewing the past, to understand where diaspora
philanthropy to Asia has come, and to give us ideas for improving these processes in the
future. This is, as far as I know, the first such overall effort to analyze the first decade of
research on diaspora philanthropy in Asia, and thus readers are likely to have many
comments and criticisms, particularly on the lessons I draw from this research experience.

I welcome those comments and criticisms and hope that this paper spurs response, and that
it helps to spark more and different and better research – and better diaspora giving.
Ten Years of Research on Diaspora Philanthropy in Asia
In seeking to understand the past to improve the future I begin in this field with the
very recent past. I do so because diaspora philanthropy back to Asia – donations back to
Asian countries for purposes of charitable, social, economic, cultural, religious and other
forms of development as distinct from family relief, business investment, and other forms of
remittances – has a relatively recent history. In Asia, some forms of diaspora giving –
contributions from overseas for religious and charitable work, for example – clearly go
back much further than large-scale contributions for the building of universities or support
for social justice organizations. But research on that phenomenon – what I focus on here –
is even more recent. It is virtually impossible to find significant research on diaspora
giving to Asia that appears much before the mid to late1990s. In the late 1990s, however,
research on diaspora philanthropy to Asia virtually exploded – but unevenly, with strong
emphasis on India, the Philippines, and China, and relatively little work on other countries
and regions of Asia.
Why Is There So Much Research on Diaspora Philanthropy to Asia?
Academic understanding of diaspora giving began with work on the philanthropy
of the Jewish diaspora to Israel (discussed further below), and some very initial work on
Mexico and other countries. 2 But much of the initial modern research on diaspora
philanthropy has sought to understand the scope, channels and goals of giving back to Asia
2
See Sidel 1997 for early references.

– far more, it appears, than we have research on diaspora giving back to Africa, Latin
America, the Middle East, or other parts of the world.
Why has so much of the recent research on diaspora philanthropy focused on Asia
rather than on Africa, Latin America, the Middle East, or other nations and regions of the
world? Or, to put the question a different way, how is it that a bibliography of research on
diaspora philanthropy to Asia (attached to this paper) includes nearly one hundred research
results in the Asian context, while a similar bibliography for any other region would likely
garner only a small fraction of that number? 3
There are a number of possible reasons why initial research on diaspora giving has
focused so significantly on Asia. One reason is the size and demographics of the Asian
diaspora population in the west (and, in the 1990s and this decade, throughout Asia and in
the Middle East and the Gulf as well). The size of that diaspora, its relative youth, and the
relative wealth of those groups made them key actors in 1990s diaspora giving and thus in
initial research efforts. In particular, we can note the growing numbers and wealth of
Indian, Chinese and Filipinos abroad, and their relatively prominent role in giving back
home. Within Asia the focus of the first stage of diaspora philanthropy research from
1997/98 to about 2003, was clearly on India and China. The size, relative youth, and
relative wealth of those diasporas were important factors in the attention we gave them.
But perhaps there were other reasons as well for the strong attention given to the
Asian diaspora philanthropy process when organized research began in the mid to late
3
I have not tried to survey other regions – but I think that the basic point is correct, and that most readers
knowledgeable about diaspora philanthropy research will concede it. There is, of course, a substantial
literature on diaspora giving back to Mexico, but relatively little for the rest of Latin America. For Africa,
unfortunately there has been relatively little research on diaspora philanthropy; much of what is available is
cited in Mojúbàolú Olúfúnké Okome, African Diasporas, in Merz et al 2007.

1990s. Within their own countries, India, Chinese and later Filipino diaspora givers
became rapidly prominent – from the village level in the case of schools and clinics, 4 to
the national level in terms of building universities, hospital, temple and other work.
Governments in some Asian countries appear to have focused earlier on a more rapidly and
sharply growing phenomenon in their countries – again, initially and primarily in India, the
Philippines and China – adding fuel once again to diaspora giving and to research on it.
Nor should we ignore the role played by research institutions, philanthropic
intermediary institutions, donors and others sponsoring and organizing this research: In
response to the rapid development of Asian diaspora giving was developing quickly, and
perhaps more quickly than in other regions, it was perhaps inevitable that the focus of
conferences, articles, volumes and other indicia of research activity should focus on Asia.
That theme – Asian diaspora philanthropy – captured the attention of the Global Equity
Initiative at Harvard, the International Network for Strategic Philanthropy, The
Philanthropic Initiative, Asian Development Bank and other institutions. 5 And within that
substantial research output, particularly for India and the Philippines, we should
particularly note and enthusiastically celebrate the prominent roles played by indigenous
and diaspora scholars and activists in spurring and conducting research on diaspora giving
in their countries and around the Asia Pacific region. 6 Those contributions have been
invaluable to our understanding of these processes and their impacts.
4
See, e.g., Dugger 2000, Greene 2002a.
5
See, e.g., Geithner et al 2004, Johnson 2005, Johnson et al 2005, Westcott and Brinkerhoff 2006, Merz et
al 2007.
6
See Yin 2002, Yin and Lan, 2004, Viswanath 2000, 2003, Taplin 2001, Sundar, 2002, Sahoo 2003, 2005,
Anand 2003, Kumar 2003, Kapur et al 2004, Shiveshwarkar 2004, Viswanath and Dadrawala 2004, Najam
2007, Opiniano 2002, 2004, 2005a, 2005b, 2006a, 2006b, Asis 2007, Garchitorena 2007a, 2007b, 2007c, Lee
2003, Khoa 2001, 2002, 2005a, 2005b.

What Have We Learned? The Achievements of Research on Diaspora Philanthropy to Asia
in the First Decade
There have been both achievements and limitations in this initial ten years of
research on diaspora philanthropy to Asia. The achievements include:
• Detailed description of the types of diaspora giving back to India, 7 the

Philippines, 8 and to some degree for China, 9 through research beginning in the
late 1990s, with initial research on the types of diaspora giving to Pakistan, 10
Vietnam, 11 and Taiwan. 12
The types of diaspora giving identified and described in detail in these country
contexts include giving in kind, giving in cash, giving through remittance transfers (along
with the difficulties of sorting out philanthropic remittances from other forms of
remittances), giving through corporate means, and other types of diaspora giving.
• An initial understanding of the channels for diaspora giving back to India 13 and
the Philippines, 14 and a more initial understanding of the channels for giving
back to China 15 and Pakistan, 16 with some preliminary work done on
Vietnam 17 and Taiwan. 18
7
See, e.g., Viswanath 2000, 2003, Taplin 2001, Sahoo 2002, Anand 2003, Kumar 2003, Kapur et al 2004,
Kelly 2004, Sidel 2004, Viswanath and Dadrawala 2004, Van Dusenbery and Tatla 2008 forthcoming).
8
See, e.g., Opiniano 2002, 2004, 2005a, 2005b, 2006, Powers 2006, Asis 2007, Amott 2007, Garchitorena
2007a, 2007b.
9
See Yin and Lan 2004, Young 2004, Young and Shih 2004.
10
See Najam 2007a, 2007b.
11
See Khoa 2002, 2005a, 2005b, Anh 2005, Sidel 2007.
12
Lee 2003.
13
See the references in note 7 above.
14
See e.g. Opiniano 2002, 2004, 2005a, 2005b, 2006, Powers 2006, Asis 2007, Amott 2007, Garchitorena
2007a, 2007b and other sources for the Philippines listed in the bibliography.
15
See Yin and Lan 2004, Young 2004, Young and Shih 2004.
16
See Najam 2007a, 2007b.
17
See Khoa 2005a, 2005b, Anh 2005, Sidel 2007.

What are these channels for diaspora giving back to Asia? They include family
channels in virtually every country – diaspora giving through families – as well as giving
through clan associations in China and Taiwan, through ethnic and professional groups in
India and other countries, through neighborhood and regional groups in the Philippines,
and through foreign-based ethnic NGOs for virtually every country. We have learned that
these are often elite channels – but not always, and that middle class and poor émigrés
certainly give back too. We have learned that the channels for diaspora giving are as broad
and diverse and imaginative as the full panoply of ways that remittances and other
resources make their way back home.
• Valuable but preliminary inquiries into the nature of diaspora giving for
religious causes, primarily focused on India. 19
What does this work show? First, it indicates that there are truly enormous flows
from the diaspora to religious groups and institutions in India. But it also tells us of the
very significant difficulties in measuring that flow with any precision, and in determining
how those diaspora funds are being deployed for charitable and philanthropic purposes
given the relatively little information released by many receiving groups and the light
regulatory requirements for disclosure on many religious organizations. This work also
gives us an indication – in many cases without details since they are not readily available
to researchers – of the links between overseas philanthropy, religion, and politics in India.
• Initial attempts to understand the relationships between remittance flows,

diaspora giving, and diaspora-promoted social development, with some focus
on Asia. 20
18
Lee 2003.
19
See Sabrang 2002, Sundar 2002a, Sundar 2002b, Anand 2003, Kapur et al 2004, Kelly 2004, Sidel 2004,
Viswanath and Dadrawala 2004, Dusenbery and Tatla 2008 forthcoming.

What does this work show? We have learned that in every country, diaspora
philanthropy is a portion of remittance flows from that nation’s diaspora back home. We
understand now that the distinction between “remittances” and “diaspora giving” or
“philanthropy” can be a complex and fine line – and a distinction that can be measured
differently in different countries. We also now understand the very real difficulties in
measuring both total remittance flows and particularly remittance flows for charitable and
philanthropic purposes.
(1)(b) Successful Initiatives in Diaspora Philanthropy in Countries Outside of

Asia and the Pacific
Along with the achievements in research on diaspora philanthropy to Asia that are
discussed in this paper, there is a long history of successful diaspora giving to other
countries. A full examination of those initiatives is not feasible here, but merely an
indication of that long history, depth and sophistication of research on diaspora giving to
several other countries. It may be that some of the methodologies used in understanding
diaspora giving back to other societies may be of use in deepening research on diaspora
philanthropy in Asia. At the same time, even while we emphasize the history of diaspora
giving in other parts of the world, it is important to recognize the long history of diaspora
giving back to some parts of Asia. Diaspora philanthropy back to China, for example, to
support temples, education, health care and other needs has a long history from the United
States and other countries, and it is important not to lose sight of that history as we seek to
understand and analyze more current patterns. It is important, too, to honor the earlier
scholars of Chinese diasporas and their contributions home, such as Him Mark Lai and
20
See Helweg 1983, Geithner et al 2004, Kapur 2004, Newland 2004, Nowland 2004, Johnson 2005,
2007, Merz et al 2007.

Renqiu Yu, whose valuable work has charted the earlier contributions of the Chinese
diaspora long before the study of diasporas and their giving was a common topic of
research. 21
In other parts of the world, diaspora giving to Israel, for example, has a long
history, and thus a long history of research. Studies have analyzed the structure and
channels for diaspora philanthropy to Israel, but they have also gone beyond structure to
discuss specific case examples, questions of impact, the changing nature of diaspora giving
over time, and the impact of returning diasporas on the philanthropic field. 22 Similarly but
more recently, early cursory research on diaspora giving to Mexico has given way to
sophisticated analyses of the structure and channels for giving to Mexico and then to
considerably deeper and more sophisticated studies at the local and organizational level
that have emphasized the roles of neighborhood associations and other special linkages
between particular groups in the Mexican diaspora abroad and particular localities at
home. 23
In Asia, the research on India and on the Philippines approaches the detail and
sophistication of the research on diaspora giving to Israel and Mexico. The detail and
21
See, e.g., Yu 1983, Lai 1992, Smith 1998, Chen 2000, Hsu 2000.
22
See, e.g., Ephraim Kleiman, Jewish and Palestinian Diaspora Attitudes to Philanthropy and Investment:
Lessons from Israel’s Experience (Harry S. Truman Research Institute for the Advancement of Peace, The
Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1996)..
23
Some of the best work on the Mexico case is in Barbara J. Merz (ed.), New Patterns for Mexico:
Observations on Remittances, Philanthropic Giving, and Equitable Development / Nuevas Pautas para
México: Observaciones sobre Remesas, Donaciones Filantrópicas y Desarrollo Equitativo (Cambridge:
Global Equity Initiative, 2005). For a shorter article on the Mexican case see Barbara Merz and Lincoln
Chen, Diaspora Giving and Equitable Development in Mexico, Alliance 10: 4, December 2005, at
http://www.alliancemagazine.org. For a comparative look at hometown associations that draws on the very
sophisticated research by Manuel Orozco and others, see Manuel Orozco and Rebecca Rouse, Migrant
Hometown Associations and Opportunities for Development: A Global Perspective, Inter-American
Dialogue, February 1, 2007, at http://www.migrationinformation.org/USfocus/print.cfm?ID=579.
10

sophistication of the research on India and the Philippines results from a range of factors,
including the significant amounts of diaspora giving, the intense interest in the social and
charitable uses of remittances in those societies, the growth of a cadre of researchers,
scholars and activists committed to deeper understanding of the phenomenon, the
availability of international networks for discussion of these issues and cross-fertilization
with domestic research, and other factors.
(1)(c) Characteristics of Diaspora Philanthropy in Asia Pacific Societies in Terms

of Widely Utilized Mechanisms for Giving, Motivation Factors and
Beneficiaries
There is extensive research in and on diaspora philanthropy to Asia that addresses
the mechanisms of giving. There is far less on the motivations for diaspora giving. And
there is some, but insufficient, research on identifying beneficiaries and impact.
Much of the first decade of research in Asia has focused precisely the mechanisms
of giving. From this work, we have learned of the enormous diversity and vitality of the
widely used mechanisms for giving. These range from family and banking channels to
corporate, clan, neighborhood associations, informal banking, giving in kind and other
channels as well. We now have a relatively clear picture, at the country level, of the
mechanisms available for giving back to India, the Philippines, and China (including the
full range of philanthropic intermediaries established in those countries, in sending
countries such as the United States, web portals, standard remittance channels (such as
money transfer operators), and other mechanisms). We have some understanding of the
mechanisms for Pakistan, though less than in the three countries first mentioned.
But our understanding of the mechanisms for giving back to Asia fall off quickly
once we get beyond India, the Philippines, and China. There is a bit of work on these
11

mechanisms in Taiwan, 24 and Vietnam. 25 But for other countries in Asia – Bangladesh or
Indonesia, for example – which are being covered by papers for this APPC conference, or
for other possibly important destinations for diaspora giving, such as Burma, Cambodia,
Japan, Korea (both South and North), Laos, Malaysia, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand and
other states, we have little information on mechanisms for giving beyond our very limited
understanding that philanthropic intermediaries in the United States (such as Give2Asia)
also work in some of those countries. That anecdotal and highly restricted knowledge is
no substitute for a fuller understanding of the mechanisms of giving.
When it comes to motivations for diaspora giving, the research record is even more
limited. Motivations for diaspora giving to Asia clearly include the charitable and
philanthropic impulse to do good in these societies, to give back some of what has been
gained and earned abroad, and to bring back models for organization and administration
from other countries. Some initial research in this area for Pakistan shows a range of
motivations from the personal (i.e. recognition) to benefiting local areas of origin, to the
institutional to the political, 26 and a few other papers and articles have sought, in the most
preliminary ways, to touch upon this question. 27 But beyond that there has been very little
study of diaspora motivations for giving back, mostly because the greater amount of
research in this area has focused on the dynamics and mechanisms of flows rather than the
motivations that animate the donors.
24
Lee 2003.
25
Khoa 2005a, 2005b, Sidel 2007.
26
Najam 2007a, 2007b.
27
See, e.g., Johnson 2005, Sidel 2007.
12

Should we do more in this area? If we begin with the premise that the range of
motivations for philanthropic and charitable giving is broad and diverse, then it may be
useful to devote time and resources to exploring motivation in the diaspora context if we
believe that diasporic motivations are in some way different, or more limited, or otherwise
more focused, than in broader philanthropy and charity. Otherwise it may be that research
and advocacy time and resources are best spent in other tasks, such as analyzing impact, or
seeking to preserve an open space for diaspora giving to promote social justice.
Most of the first decade of research on diaspora giving to Asia focused on the
structure and channels for giving, as I have indicated above. With several exceptions, very
little research has focused thus far beyond structure and channels to impact and
beneficiaries (among the exceptions, see several of the essays in Merz et al 2007, as well as
Kapur 2004, 2007, Johnson 2007, and several other works). The next major area for
deepening and detailing research on migrant giving in Asia are precisely the issues of
social, economic and philanthropic impact and on beneficiaries. The initial work on these
issues – sometimes based in knowledgeable conjecture rather than “data” – serves as a
useful bridge to further work on impact and beneficiaries.
(1)(d) Analysis and Characteristics of the Formation of Diaspora Communities in

Countries of Immigration and Their Role in Diaspora Philanthropy
In the characteristics and analysis of the formation of diaspora communities in
countries of immigration and their role in diaspora philanthropy, we have a relatively rich
understanding of the formation and philanthropic role of diasporic Indian, Filipino, and
Chinese communities in the United States, and an initial understanding of Pakistani and
Vietnamese communities in the U.S. The demographics and relative wealth of Indian,
Filipino and Chinese communities in the United States, and to some degree the
13

demographics and relative wealth of Pakistani and Vietnamese communities in the United
States, clearly support extensive diaspora giving, both reported and unreported. Beyond
those countries, there has been virtually no research done on the characteristics of other
diaspora communities in the United States and their role in diaspora giving, including
diasporas from such sites as Burma, Cambodia, Japan, Korea (both South and North),
Laos, Malaysia, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand and other states.
When we move beyond the United States, even the work on the characteristics and
philanthropic role of Chinese and Indian diaspora communities in such countries as
Australia, Canada, the U.K., other countries of Europe, the Gulf, and other regions remains
woefully unstudied. The sole exception here is work on Filipino diaspora giving. Filipino
and other researchers have been considerably more active in seeking to understand the
characteristics and philanthropic role of Filipino diaspora communities far beyond the
United States, including Australia, Canada, 28 New Zealand, 29 and other countries. Beyond
the Philippines, India, and China, there is very little work on the philanthropic role of other
Asian diasporas beyond the United States context. Getting beyond the U.S. context to
understand the characteristics and philanthropic role of a range of Asian diasporas that live
in other countries is a significant strategic task for the next state of research in diaspora
philanthropy.
(1)(e) If Available, Data from Migrant Receiving Countries of US, UK and Canada
That Have Monitored Migrant Giving Through Tax Deductions Which May
Provide an Outlook of Giving by Diaspora Communities
28
See Silva 2006.
29
See Ayalon 2006.
14

The research currently available has not uncovered and does not address data
obtained from tax authorities or through other means on tax deductions for diaspora or
migrant giving. Additional research for this overview paper has also not uncovered such
data for the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada. The availability of tax data on
diaspora giving is identified in Section 4 as a potential task for further research.
2. Diaspora Philanthropy, Social Investing, Strategic Philanthropy: What Does

the Research Show, and What More Needs to Be Done?
This section of the overview paper deals with the four sub-questions asked in the
Terms of Reference provided by APPC. They are as follows:
• Discuss if and how diaspora philanthropy has evolved in countries of Asia from
an ad hoc practice into a more strategic practice of philanthropy, including
factors that influence remittance-sending, charitable giving and social investing,
and if there is a recognizable shift from one to the other. If so, discuss the
factors that influence such shifts.
There is little significant evidence in the research literature on diaspora
philanthropy to Asia thus far to indicate that diaspora philanthropy in Asia has evolved
from an “ad hoc practice into a more strategic practice of philanthropy.” Instead, ad hoc
practices by individuals, families and ethnic, religious, professional, locational and other
communities are generally the order of the day in diaspora giving back to Asia. Some
diaspora giving may be highly organized, especially that undertaken by families and by
communities in the diaspora. But it has not, for the most part, evolved into a more
strategic practice of philanthropy.
At the same time, we should recognize that some strategic questions are being
taken up by some diaspora groups in their giving. The impact of diaspora giving is a
recent and ever stronger concern among donors. So too is the tendency of diaspora giving
to substitute for government expenditures, particularly on health, education and other
15

social services, and for governments to reduce their expenditures in reliance on diaspora
giving. And there is increasing diaspora concern, especially in such countries as India and
the Philippines for issues of social justice in overseas giving. So we should recognize that
strategic issues are gradually coming to occupy some of the concerns of some diaspora
givers, even if a more strategic practice of philanthropy does not yet appear to be evolving
across the board.
• Are remittances social investing? Social philanthropy? Is diaspora giving an

agent of social change and development in communities of origin? How has
strategic philanthropy by migrants become an emerging driver of development
in the communities of origin?
• Discuss the research conducted thus far and still needed on the potential and
challenges of diaspora philanthropy as a driver of sustainable social
development and change in communities of origin.
Recent studies of diaspora giving in Asia have begun to address, in the larger sense
or in the context of individual communities, the impact of diaspora philanthropy on the
communities it serves and on social justice and social change. 30 But these inquiries are at
their very earliest stages and, as research moves toward the sub-national and community
level, and focuses upon particular ethnic, religious, source and other communities, it may
become possible to explore the actual impact and the social justice implications of diaspora
giving in considerably more detail. Left almost entirely uncovered, even in the research
and discussions of the impact and social justice implications of diaspora giving, are
questions of accountability and legitimacy in diaspora philanthropy. Problems of
accountability have begun to be addressed in the context of giving for religious causes in
30
See, e.g., Geithner et al 2004, Merz et al 2007.
16

India, 31 but the accountability of émigré donors must be addressed far more widely in
research on this area.
In general terms, the vast majority of remittances to Asia cannot be considered
social investing or social philanthropy. But a subset of remittances – extremely hard to
quantify – is indeed for diaspora giving. 32 And that giving is starting to shows signs of
concern for social change and equitable development in communities of origin.
Philanthropy by migrants has become an emerging driver of development in some
communities of origin – especially in some areas of India, southern China, the Philippines,
and certain areas of Bangladesh, for example – but in many cases it is not clear that these
drivers of development are in fact strategic, or focused on social change or equitable
development. At root, however, our research on diaspora philanthropy, the research we
support, and the research we use must be encouraged to move from mapping structures and
channels to analyzing impact, social change, social justice, accountability and legitimacy.
That shift in focus in the goals of research on diaspora giving should be the key priority in
the next stage of work in this field.
• Discuss research available on innovative mechanisms and institutions that have

facilitated the transfer of contributions to the diaspora communities of origin
and that have paved the way for strategic philanthropy.
Innovative mechanism and institutions that have facilitated the transfer of
contributions to diasporic communities of origin and may be beginning to pave the way for
strategic philanthropy include the giving by professional groups (such as doctors) in the
Indian community; giving by neighborhood groups back to the Philippines; and the work
31
See, e.g., Sabrang 2002.
32
See Ferranti and Ody 2007.
17

of philanthropic intermediaries for diaspora giving in the United States and other countries
(such as the American India Foundation, Give2Asia, and many others). These are among
the innovative mechanisms and institutions, but it is going too far to say that any of these
have successfully helped the diaspora community make the full transition to “strategic
philanthropy.” Instead, perhaps the most we can say is that these innovative mechanisms
and institutions are helping to make diaspora giving more intentioned and more planned,
more focused on impact, and sometimes more focused on social change and equitable
development. If that is what is meant by “strategic philanthropy,” then perhaps we are
moving in that direction.
The Limitations of the First Decade of Research on Diaspora Philanthropy to Asia – and an
Agenda for Research
The limitations and gaps in research on diaspora giving are also significant, and
those are also discussed in more detail below in response to the Terms of Reference. In
summary, those limitations and gaps include:
• The geographic imbalance of research – work on diaspora giving has been

highly unbalanced, with heavy coverage of India, some coverage of China, the
Philippines, Pakistan, and Vietnam, and almost no research on any other parts
of Asia. 33
• Imbalance in research on source countries for diaspora giving – research has

focused almost entirely on the United States as a source country for diaspora
giving, despite clear evidence that the U.S. is far from the only source of that
philanthropy.
• A lack of studies that focus in depth on cases involving localities and

organizations.
33
In fact, to be completely candid, one might term the first ten years of research on diaspora philanthropy
in Asia as primarily ten years of research on diaspora philanthropy in India, the Philippines, and China, and
the bibliography bears that out to a significant extent.
18

• Overly anecdotal and insufficiently data-based methodology for understanding
the scope and impact of diaspora philanthropy on recipient countries and
communities.
• Insufficient attention to and research on the role of diaspora giving in and

responding to natural disasters and domestic conflicts.
• The pace and sophistication of research on diaspora giving to Asia has fallen
well behind the advances made in the practice of diaspora philanthropy,
particularly through new generation of diasporic intermediaries to Asia – and
the need to link practice and research.
• Related to that, insufficient understanding of the roles of diaspora philanthropy

intermediaries and the methods of facilitation and control of diaspora giving
used by national and sub-national governments of receiving states.
• Insufficient understanding of the impact of diaspora giving on social

development, poverty social justice, accountability, and legitimacy in receiving
states.
• The relative isolation of most early and current research on diaspora

philanthropy from related fields of research – such as diaspora and migrant
studies; studies of the motivation of philanthropists, both diasporic and non-
diaspora; and the rapidly growing field of citizenship studies.
Detailed Discussion of the Limitations and Gaps in Research on Diaspora Philanthropy to

Asia, and Needs for the Future
1. Redressing the Geographic Imbalance in Research
The first ten years of research on diaspora giving back to Asia focused almost
entirely on India, the Philippines, and to some degree China. In recent years we have
begun to see a diversification of focus beyond India, the Philippines, and China, as well as
more detailed attempts to understand the implications and results of diaspora giving for
populations at home as well as for social justice and social equity. Beginning in about
2003 and 2004, a second stage of research built upon earlier surveys and sought to deepen
the analysis for countries already studied (primarily India and the Philippines), as well as
19

diversify research into new countries. In that stage studies began to appear on Pakistan, 34
Vietnam, 35 Taiwan, 36 and other Asian states and territories with substantial and generous
diasporas.
The extensive initial work available for India, the Philippines and China is
unmatched by virtually any work on diaspora contributions to such countries as
Bangladesh, Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Japan, Korea, and Hong Kong, and
by only very limited work on Vietnam and Taiwan. A truer picture of the extent and
impact of diaspora philanthropy in Asia must take these important jurisdictions into
account through a rapid diversification of countries researched and studied, and such new
work should be made widely available, including via the Internet.
2. Redressing the Imbalance in Research on Sources of Diaspora Philanthropy
Much of the initial research on diaspora philanthropy in Asia has focused on giving
from the United States – a function of the location of research sponsors and research
conferences, the activism and relative wealth of India, Filipino, Chinese and other
communities based in the United States, the prominent leadership role played by the
wealthy in these commu-nities in the United States, and the faster building of intermediary
institutions to serve and facilitate diaspora giving (both within ethnic communities and in
the broader philanthropic arena) in the United States than in other countries.
Diaspora giving may have progressed somewhat faster, and perhaps larger, in the
United States than elsewhere, but that is no excuse for the almost complete absence of
34
Najam 2007a, 2007b.
35
Khoa 2005a, 2005b, Sidel 2007.
36
Lee 2003.
20

research and data on diaspora giving back to Asia from most other parts of the world.
There is extensive giving from Bangladeshi immigrants in the United Kingdom back to
Sylhet, where many of them come from, from Vietnamese émigrés in Germany and
Russia, from the Chinese diaspora in Europe, and many others. But we have virtually no
research on the substantial contributions of these communities. And the diasporic
contributions of Asian populations in Canada, Australia, New Zealand and other locations
have been all but ignored – along with the giving within Asia by migrants in other Asian
countries, and by workers in the Gulf and other areas.
The U.S.-based source of much of the initial diaspora philanthropy research must
be diversified and redressed, to provide a more accurate picture of the scope and diversity
of diaspora support for homelands. This process is beginning and must be accelerated. An
early example is Alayon’s preliminary study of giving back to the Philippines by Filipino
associations in Canada, 37 and Silva’s thesis on diaspora giving to the Philippines by the
New Zealand émigré community. 38 The paper on Chinese diaspora philanthropy written
for this APPC process and conference is another excellent example of the directions in
which research must go: Nick Young and Qian Xiaofeng’s paper seeks to redress the U.S.
focus and generality of earlier work on overseas Chinese giving by focusing on
philanthropy from the overseas Chinese in Malaysia back to China. 39
37
Ayalon 2006.
38
Silva 2006.
39
Young and Qian 2007.
21

3. Improving the Insufficiency of Case Studies of Localities and Specific
Sectors of Giving
Virtually all of the first decade of diaspora philanthropy research in Asia focused
on the country level. The result was general and often anecdotal research, undifferentiated
as to differences between locations within countries. Most of the early research on India,
the Philippines, and China suffered from this generality – an approach to national giving
that was inevitable given the data available (often anecdotal accounts of giving and
impact), and continues in newer research on such countries as Vietnam. 40 But in the past
several years some researchers have begun to focus more finely at subnational levels, such
as states and provinces. This work includes, for example, Sadananda Sahoo’s initial work
on diaspora giving in the health care industry to Hyderabad, India, 41 and Jeremaiah
Opiniano’s work on giving to Pororrubio in the Philippines. 42
The first stage of research on diaspora philanthropy to Asia was unable to have a
sectoral or organizational focus – there was insufficient data, or opportunity for detailed
research, on diaspora giving back for religion, the health sector, specific ethnic and
religious groups, or other sectors beyond fairly general information at the national level.
But again this is changing, as researchers begin the process of gathering data on diaspora
giving for religion and for specific religious organizations in India, 43 for the health care
40
Sidel 2007.
41
Sahoo 2003.
42
Opiniano 2002.
43
See, e.g., Sabrang 2002, Sundar 2002, Anand 2003, Kelly 2004, Sidel 2004.
22

sector in India, 44 on the Sikh community in India, 45 and even, if a very preliminary way,
on social justice organizations in China. 46
4. Limitations in Methodology
Closely related to the imbalances in the countries studied, the country sources of
diaspora giving researched, and few studies of giving to specific organizations, localities,
and sectors are limitations in research methodology on diaspora philanthropy. Put simply,
diaspora giving is difficult to define, and almost impossible to measure. Research
conducted in the first decade tended to rely on anecdotal accounts of giving, self-reported
contributions, donors’ optimistic accounts of impact, episodic media coverage, government
and institutional reports, and similar fragmentary data.
The first studies of diaspora philanthropy in Asia surveyed what was clearly a real
and growing phenomenon, but without the tools available to measure it, or its implications,
with any significant accuracy – though, as I point out below, methodologies have already
begun to improve. 47 In the early years of research on diaspora giving in Asia, virtually the
only methodology possible was anecdotal discussion of gifts and their givers, primarily to
India and China and later the Philippines, along with the identification of some key
economic, ethnic, religious and other groups of donors in the diaspora community, and
some initial analysis or conjecture on implications. But this was clearly a nascent field.
Virtually all early work on diaspora philanthropy in Asia in the first stage of this research,
from about 1997 to about 2003, and most work since – whether conducted from the
44
Sahoo 2003.
45
See Murphy 1998, Van Dusenbery 2008 forthcoming.
46
Jackson et al 2005.
47
For a key example, see Najam 2007a.
23

perspective of remittance research, or through a philanthropy lens, or as a new way of
looking at diasporas – reflects this sort of anecdotal methodology. I do not criticize this,
but merely point it out. 48
In recent years researchers are attempting to utilize remittance data to ascertain and
analyze diaspora giving, part of a re-conception of the development role of remittances. 49
But disaggregating giving for public and charitable purposes from the other purposes of
remittances is exceptionally difficult given the data currently available. That problem is
not likely to be sufficiently redressed until the collectors of remittance data – governments
and multilateral development organizations such as the World Bank – begin supporting
large scale studies of the purposes of remittance flows that specifically include
understanding the philanthropic and public goals of at least some remittances.
Another methodology has focused not on financial contributions through various
channels of philanthropy or remittances, but on transfer of knowledge by diasporic
communities home. The recent work coordinated by Westcott and Brinkerhoff typifies this
approach. 50
5. Insufficient Research on Diaspora Giving in Natural Disasters and

Domestic Conflict Situations
There has been very little research on the role of diaspora giving in recovery and
re-development after significant natural disasters, and the role of diaspora philanthropy in
conflict situations. The role of philanthropy, including diaspora giving, after the Asian
48
And I have done it myself, on multiple occasions (Sidel 1997, 2004, 2007).
49
See Kapur 2004, Maimbo and Ratha 2004, Newland 2004, Nowland 2004, Johnson 2005, Merz et al
2007, Kapur 2007.
50
Westcott and Brinkerhoff 2006a, 2006b.
24

tsunami of 2004 was discussed in a 2005 APPC report, 51 and informs recent work on
philanthropy and nonprofit sector activity in Sri Lanka. 52 At a workshop of the APPC-
convened Philanthropy and Law in South Asia research group in August 2007, for
example, the twin influences of the tsunami and insurgency played a substantial role in the
discussions of Sri Lanka. 53 But much more is needed in this important area.
The role of philanthropy in conflict situations in Asia, and the related issues of
diaspora giving to insurgents have received only little research attention so far. There has
been some very preliminary work on the complex nonprofit and philanthropic scene in
conflict-ridden Sri Lanka, including diaspora giving to insurgents there. 54 But little work
in Asia approaches the detail and depth of the debate over diaspora support for groups in
the Middle East that overlaps charitable relief, political contributions, and the use of
donated funds for military purposes. 55 The fast-moving and dangerous situations in both
Sri Lanka and Nepal, for example, have not yet allowed substantial analytical research on
the role of diasporas in insurgent territory and with insurgent groups, particularly work that
relies on gathering data in the field.
51
APPC 2005.
52
Philanthropy and Law in South Asia 2007, Flanigan forthcoming 2008. There is some research and
reporting on the role of philanthropy after the Katrina disaster in New Orleans, which is interesting as an
analogy to the Asian tsunami but, of course, does not include the element of diaspora giving.
53
Philanthropy and Law in South Asia 2007.
54
See Flanigan 2006.
55
On different aspects of this issue see, e.g., Jonathan Benthall and Jerome Bellion-Jourdan, The
Charitable Crescent: Politics of Aid in the Muslim World (I.B. Tauris, 2003); Janine A. Clark, Islam, Charity,
and Activism: Middle-Class Networks and Social Welfare in Egypt, Jordan, and Yemen (Indiana University
Press, 2003); Matthew Levitt, Hamas: Politics, Charity and Terrorism in the Service of Jihad (Yale
University Press, 2007); Jonathan Benthall, Islamic charities, faith-based organizations and the international
aid system, in J. Alterman and K. van Hippel (eds.), Islamic Charities (Center for Strategic and International
Studies, 2007).
25

6. The Pace and Sophistication of the Practice of Diaspora Philanthropy to
Asia Is Ahead of Research – and the Need for Better Understanding of
Philanthropic Intermediaries
A wide and diverse array of mechanisms has developed for channeling and linking
diaspora philanthropy back to Asia. Most of these mechanisms have developed in the
United States, and relatively few have developed in other parts of the world – a key
limitation and gap in diaspora giving practice since the mid-1990s. Despite that glaring
gap, it is clear that the pace and sophistication of diaspora philanthropy practice has
outstripped research into these issues. That is indicated by the diversity of mechanisms:
recipient country-based foundations and institutions (such as the Ayala Foundation in the
Philippines), diaspora giving intermediary organizations in the United States (such as
Give2Asia), and to a considerably less degree in other countries; web portals and online
channels; the use of community foundations and commercial charitable giving funds, and
other mechanisms.
Research needs to keep up with practice in this area – not only tapping into the
extensive knowledge base on diaspora philanthropy that the practical intermediaries have
amassed, but reassessing the role of the intermediaries themselves. Whether diaspora
giving intermediaries are engaging in social engaging, social philanthropy, promoting
social change and development in communities of origin, and whether they are indeed
assisting migrant philanthropy to emerge as a driver of development in the communities of
origin are questions raised by the terms of reference but not in any significant way
answered by the literature available in the first decade of research on diaspora giving to
Asia.
26

Reassessing and deepening understanding of the role of diaspora giving
philanthropies is complicated by the fact that so much of the research in this area is in fact
facilitated or even sponsored by the intermediaries themselves. This is particularly the
case in such countries as India and the Philippines, where intermediary institutions have
developed quickly and have linked effectively to international researchers. Negotiating
these already close relationships in the interest of strong research will be a significant task.
7. The Need for Better Understanding of the Roles of Receiving States
The first decade of research on diaspora giving to Asia focuses on émigré donors,
the intermediary institutions that have developed to channel their gifts back to Asia, and, to
a very preliminary degree, recipients – both organizations and individuals – in home
countries. A key gap in our understanding of this chain of diaspora giving has been an
absence of a keen sense for the policies and regulatory attitudes of receiving states toward
migrant philanthropy. Receiving state policies are discussed in a fragmented way in a
number of chapters and articles, with a focus either on specific instances of national
facilitation of diaspora giving (such as the conference of the Indian diaspora in India in
2000, discussed in several chapters of Geithner et al 2004), or channeling, limiting,
restricting, and controlling diaspora gifts (discussed in a number of country contexts,
perhaps most frequently for India and the Philippines, but without significant depth). Little
diaspora giving research has focused directly on the role of receiving states. 56
Receiving state policies can, of course, be political, legal, and financial in nature –
and perhaps incorporate other types of facilitation and control as well. I deal with this
understudied area in Section 3, because the terms of reference seek separate information
56
But see a very preliminary effort in Sidel 2007.
27

about the “enabling environment” for diaspora gifts in receiving states, but take this
opportunity to emphasize that the research agenda for diaspora giving must re-focus on the
views and policies of receiving states.
8. Diaspora Philanthropy, Development, Poverty Relief, Social Justice,

Accountability, Legitimacy: Some of the Larger Questions in Future
Research
Recent studies of diaspora giving in Asia have begun to address, in the larger sense
or in the context of individual communities, the impact of diaspora philanthropy on the
communities it serves and on social justice and social change (i.e., Geithner et al 2004,
Merz et al 2007). But these inquiries are at their very earliest stages and, as research
moves toward the sub-national and community level, and focuses upon particular ethnic,
religious, source and other communities, it may become possible to explore the actual
impact and the social justice implications of diaspora giving in considerably more detail.
Left almost entirely uncovered, even in the research and discussions of the impact and
social justice implications of diaspora giving, are questions of accountability and
legitimacy in diaspora philanthropy. Problems of accountability have begun to be
addressed in the context of giving for religious causes in India, 57 but the accountability of
émigré donors must be addressed far more widely in research on this area.
At root, however, our research on diaspora philanthropy, the research we support,
and the research we use must be encouraged to move from mapping structures and
channels to analyzing impact, social change, social justice, accountability and legitimacy.
That shift in focus in the goals of research on diaspora giving should be the key priority in
the next stage of work in this field. And that research may be inseparable from a more
detailed look at the special roles of overseas elites in diaspora giving to such countries as
57
Sabrang 2002.
28

India, China, and the Philippines. In India, for example, overseas wealthy donors have
come to dominate the public aspects of the diaspora giving community and the attentions
of Indian policymakers and local officials as they seek to lead and dominate giving
campaigns. The role of such overseas elites bears considerably more research, and more
critical analysis.
9. Linking Research on Diaspora Philanthropy to Related Fields of Research:

Diaspora and Migrant Studies, Philanthropic Motivation, and Citizenship
Studies
Research on diaspora philanthropy, both in Asia and more broadly, has tended to be
a field enclosed in a bubble – largely cut off from other areas of inquiry that might well
contribute to a broader understanding of the diaspora giving phenomenon. Researchers
and scholars in other areas are also looking at diasporas and their giving, and our research
needs to link to those efforts rather than remaining apart from them. Three streams of
research are of particular importance here:
• The burgeoning fields of diaspora and migrant studies, where the impact of
diasporas on social development in the original home country is of significant
interest.
• The equally burgeoning field of citizenship studies, where commitments and

donations home as an element of a re-assessment of modes and meanings of
citizenship is increasingly important.
• Considerably stronger linkages to the growing corps of researchers focused on

remittances and the social impact of remittances.
• Research focusing on philanthropic motivation, since those who study diaspora

giving must begin to look at the motivations of émigré donors who give back
home.
In general terms, there is a need to link diaspora philanthropy research to other
changes in and research on state-diaspora relations – research on diaspora philanthropy has
been conducted in too much of a vacuum for too long.
29

3. The Enabling Environment
The following section seeks to address the key issues in the Terms of Reference
exploring the enabling environment for diaspora philanthropy in countries around the Asia
Pacific region. The Terms of Reference request discussion of
• The current state of research and practice on how government involvement has
encouraged or discouraged diaspora philanthropy or has remained neutral.
Illustrate involvement through examples such as the formation of agencies or
departments, projects and initiatives.
• How the legal and fiscal framework facilitates or hinders diaspora philanthropy.
• The state of research on support of different sectors for strategic philanthropy

by migrants, particularly non profit and business sectors.
• Gap areas in the enabling environment for diaspora philanthropy as a driver of

sustainable social change in communities of origin and provide
recommendations on how to address these areas to further encourage social
investing by migrants.
Given the importance of the role of receiving states in diaspora philanthropy, and
the enabling or restrictive environment that receiving states mandate, it is surprising and
unfortunate how little detailed research has been conducted on the role of the receiving
states and the policy and legal environment that they put into place. States can be
facilitative, controlling, restrictive, or channeling in their policies toward diaspora giving,
and in every state in Asia in which there is significant diaspora giving the state plays one
or more of those roles, at least episodically and in certain areas of policy and law. But in
the long international chain of diaspora giving – from émigré donors through institutional
or organizational or financial intermediaries through home state governments, financial
institutions to schools, clinics and other recipients of diaspora aid – perhaps the most
understudied institutional elements are receiving states and their policy and legal responses
to diaspora giving.
30

That said, some work on the role of receiving states and enabling (or restrictive,
controlling, or channeling) environment for diaspora giving has been done (Sidel 2007). In
India and the Philippines, the state’s role in diaspora giving processes cannot be ignored
and researchers have at least outlined state responses to diaspora giving. In each of these
countries, the authorities have established government bodies and policies to facilitate and
channel diaspora giving. But beyond those two countries, research coverage of national
policies toward the receipt and utilization of diaspora giving is woefully lacking.
In specific terms, states encourage, enable, restrict, control or channel diaspora
giving through a number of mechanisms. Already existing legal and policy channels play
this role, such as tax authorities in India, the Philippines and China; the Foreign
Contribution Registration Act (FCRA) authorities in India and other overseers of foreign
donations in other parts of the region; and existing police, security and civil affairs
authorities. But states have also set up new bodies to encourage, enable, restrict, control
diaspora giving, including commissions dealing with the diaspora, sub-national authorities
dealing with diaspora social and financial investments; and other new bodies.
Similarly legal and fiscal frameworks are diverse as well – and are variously
intended, in different countries and sometimes in the same country, to encourage, enable,
restrict, control or channel diaspora giving. The purposes or objects of diaspora
philanthropy can be restricted or left uncontrolled; tax authorities can take small pieces of
diaspora giving for state purposes; administrative or security authorities can seek and use
authority to license, investigate or otherwise involve themselves in diaspora giving and
utilization. In many countries of the region we see a number of these methods at work,
31

sometimes seemingly at cross purposes – some ostensibly to facilitate and encourage social
development by the diaspora, and others to control or restrict diaspora giving.
The primary gaps in the enabling environment for diaspora philanthropy as a driver
of sustainable social change in communities of origin largely rest in the mechanisms,
structures, policies and rules that national and sub-national authorities have established to
enable and yet control or channel diaspora giving. In most cases, even where the state is a
facilitative actor, it seeks to facilitate either state-sponsored projects or causes, or it
preferences traditional social service, education, health and similar charitable works rather
than activities that can be “driver[s] of sustainable social change,” innovative community-
based projects, advocacy work, public interest law, and other philanthropic purposes that
may challenge the state.
In a number of countries, state ambivalence toward diaspora giving is the order of
the day – support for diaspora giving in general terms, but seeking to channel and control
it, for example. Governments around the region face significant choices in strengthening
the enabling environment for diaspora giving: they can decide to lift and relax
governmental channeling functions, leaving diaspora giving almost entirely to the market.
They can maintain certain controls and channeling functions. They can affirmatively seek
to strengthen the social change and equitable development aspects of diaspora giving, but
privileging philanthropy for poorer areas, for social change, for equitable development, and
other progressive causes. This author’s preference is clear – that state policy should seek
to nudge diaspora giving toward social change, equitable development and serving the
poor through additional tax privileges, government matching funds, and other means.
32

4. Further Research on Diaspora Philanthropy in the Asia Pacific Region
This concluding section seeks to address two key issues, as identified in the terms
of reference provided by APPC:
• Given the challenges to diaspora philanthropy, provide leads for regional and
national research and action for the promotion of social investing by migrants
• Recommend strategies to significant institutional and societal actors to

encourage transformative philanthropy by migrants. These actors include
government, business, financial services and non profit sectors, associations of
migrant communities and philanthropy support organizations.
The issues identified in this overview paper lead rather directly to a series of
recommendations for research on diaspora philanthropy in the Asia Pacific region. These
are preliminary and subject to change and addition based on comments by readers, at the
writers’ workshop, and at the APPC conference in 2008. My recommendations are as
follows:
• We must redress the enormous geographic imbalance of research of diaspora

philanthropy in Asia. As the attached bibliography shows, there has been
extensive and excellent work on India, the Philippines, and to some degree
China – though of course with limitations as further discussed below. Some
initial work has been done on Pakistan and Vietnam. Virtually no research has
yet been conducted on other countries and sub-regions of Asia, and we must
focus on mapping and analyzing the situation in those countries. The APPC
paper-writing and conference process will contribute to that, for example with
respect to Indonesia, Vietnam, and other countries, but much more needs to be
done.
• We must redress the imbalance in research on source countries for diaspora

giving – the almost complete focus of research on the United States as a source
country for diaspora giving, despite clear evidence that the U.S. is far from the
only source of that philanthropy. In a few cases – isolated writing about India
and the Philippines – a few researchers have discussed aspects of diaspora
giving from Canada or New Zealand. But much, more more needs to be done
on diaspora philanthropy back to Asia from Europe, Latin America, the Middle
East and the Gulf, other parts of Asia, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, and
other countries and regions.
33

• We must encourage and accelerate research in depth on case studies, research
on diaspora philanthropy that focuses on giving to particular communities,
organizations, and sectors and that makes the understanding of these processes
far more specific and detailed.
• We must develop a wider range of methodologies for studying the structures,

channels, recipients, and impact of diaspora giving, including mechanisms that
are more data-driven as well as those that focus on cases and deep
understanding of specific localities and organizations. In doing so we should
focus on strengthening methodologies that particularly help in understanding
the scope and impact of diaspora philanthropy on recipient countries and
communities.
• We should encourage and support research on the role of diasporas in

responding to natural disasters and significant domestic conflicts, and the role
of diasporas in reconstructing institutions and social development in the wake
of disasters and conflict situations.
• We must encourage research that links to the rapid pace and increasing
sophistication of diaspora philanthropy practice in Asia, including the learning
for action that has taken place through intermediary institutions in the
Philippines, India, the United States and other countries. The pace and
sophistication of research on diaspora giving to Asia has fallen well behind the
advances made in the practice of diaspora philanthropy, particularly through
new generation of diasporic intermediaries to Asia.
• We must encourage deeper understanding of the role and impact of diaspora

philanthropy intermediaries.
• We must encourage deeper understanding of the roles of receiving states in the

diaspora philanthropy process and on the enabling environment for diaspora
giving, including legal constraints and facilitation, state power toward diasporas
and other aspects of the enabling environment.
• We must deepen understanding of the impact of diaspora giving on social

development, poverty, social justice, accountability, and legitimacy.
• We must encourage research and researchers on diaspora giving to link to

important related fields of research and to step outside the “bubble” of research
in this field – to link to the exciting work underway in diaspora and migrant
studies; citizenship studies; remittance research and impact on social
development; and studies of the motivation of philanthropy and philanthropists.
34

Bibliography on Diaspora Philanthropy in Asia
Compiled by Mark Sidel
March 2008
This draft bibliography focuses entirely on diaspora philanthropy to Asia, rather

than more general work on diaspora, international or global philanthropy unrelated to Asia.
Each citation here has a specific tie to diaspora philanthropy to Asia, either in the regional
context or analyzing a particular country. Within categories citations are by date. This
bibliography does not yet include the papers presented at the APPC conference on diaspora
philanthropy to be held in Hanoi in May 2008; those references will be added after the
conference to an updated bibliography.
This bibliography is based on an extensive review of sources on diaspora

philanthropy to Asia, including bibliographies in other books and articles such as the
excellent compilation by Trina Vithayathil, An Annotated Bibliography of the Chinese and
Indian Diasporas, in Geithner, Johnson, and Chen, Diaspora Philanthropy and Equitable
Development in China and India (Global Equity Initiative, Harvard University, 2004),
references in the chapters of that volume, references in the chapters of Diaspora and
Development (edited by Merz, Chen, and Geithner, Global Equity Initiative, Harvard
University, 2007), and numerous other sources.
This is a draft – additions most welcome, and gratefully appreciated! Please email
Mark Sidel at mark-sidel@uiowa.edu with any suggestions.
Research on Diaspora Philanthropy with Asia Content or Focus
Mark Sidel, Giving Home: Diaspora Giving from the United States as a Funding Source
for Indigenous Philanthropic and Nonprofit Institutions (Report prepared for the Ford
Foundation worldwide philanthropy meeting, London, 1997)
Thomas Silk (ed.), Philanthropy and Law in Asia: A Comparative Study of the Nonprofit
Legal Systems in Ten East Asian Societies (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1999)
Esther Lethlean, Diaspora: The New Philanthropy? (New York: CUNY Center for the
Study of Philanthropy, 2001) [check for Asia content]
[Pnina Werbner, The Place Which is Diaspora: Citizenship, Religion, and Gender in the
Making of Chaordic Transformation, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 28: 1, pp.
119-133 (January 2002)] [check for Asia content]]
Hein de Haas, Engaging Diasporas: How Governments and Development Agencies Can
Support Diaspora Involvement in the Development of Origin Countries (Oxford:
35

International Migration Institute, James Martin 21st Century School, University of Oxford,
2003)
Graeme Hugo, Migration and Development: A Perspective from Asia (Vienna:

International Organization for Migration, 2003).
Promoting Diaspora Philanthropy: Lessons Being Learned, APPC Post (Special Issue),
2004 [http://www.asianphilanthropy.org/pdfs/post/appcpostissue18.pdf]
Peter F. Geithner, Paula D. Johnson, and Lincoln C. Chen, Diaspora Philanthropy and
Equitable Development in China and India (Cambridge: Global Equity Initiative, Harvard
University, 2004)
Overview, in Geithner, Johnson, and Chen, Diaspora Philanthropy and Equitable

Development in China and India (Cambridge: Global Equity Initiative, Harvard
University, 2004), pp. xiii-xxii
Diaspora Philanthropy Workshop: Conference Report, in Geithner, Johnson, and Chen,

Diaspora Philanthropy and Equitable Development in China and India (Cambridge: Global
Equity Initiative, Harvard University, 2004), pp. 325-385
Andrew Ho, Asian-American Philanthropy: Expanding Knowledge, Increasing

Possibilities (Center for Public & Nonprofit Leadership Working Paper 4, Georgetown
University, 2004) [http://cpnl.georgetown.edu/doc_pool/WP04Ho.pdf]
Devesh Kapur, Remittances: The New Development Mantra? United Nations Conference
on Trade and Development, G-24 Discussion Paper Series, No. 29, April 2004
[http://www.unctad.org/en/docs/gdsmdpbg2420045_en.pdf]
Katherine Newland, Beyond Remittances: The Role of Diaspora in Poverty Reduction in

their Countries of Origin (Washington DC: Migration Policy Institute, Department of
International Development, 2004)
Kathleen Nowland with Erin Patrick, Beyond Remittances: The Role of Diaspora in
Poverty Reduction in their Countries of Origin (Scoping Study by the Migration Policy
Institute for the Department of International Development, July 2004)
[http://www.migrationpolicy.org/pubs/Beyond_Remittances_0704.pdf]
Asia Pacific Philanthropy Consortium (APPC), Philanthropy and Disaster: Tsunami and
After (APPC, 2005) [http://www.asianphilanthropy.org]
Paula Johnson, Diaspora Philanthropy: Existing Models, Emerging Applications,

(International Network for Strategic Philanthropy (INSP), 2005) [www.insp.efc.be and
www.tpi.org], digested at Diaspora Philanthropy: Existing Models, Emerging
Applications, Alliance, November 2005 [http://www.efc.be/ftp/public/EitW/alliance/
INSPdiasporaDec05.pdf]
36

Paula Johnson, Andrew Kingman, and Stephen Johnson, Promoting Philanthropy: Global
Challenges and Approaches (Boston: The Philanthropic Initiative, 2005)
[http://www.tpi.org/tpi_services/strengthening_global_philanthropy.aspx]
Samuel M. Maimbo and Dilip Ratha (eds.), Remittances: Development Impact and Future
Prospects (Washington: World Bank, 2005)
John Paul, What Works: Thamel.Com: Diaspora-Enabled Development (Washington:

World Resources Institute, 2005)
Jayaram K. Manivannan, Virtual Leadership: The Next Phase of Diaspora Philanthropy

(New York: CUNY Center for the Study of Philanthropy, 2006)
Clay G. Westcott and Jennifer Brinkerhoff (eds.), Converting Migration Drains into Gains:
Harnessing the Resources of Overseas Professionals (Manila: Asian Development Bank,
2006, focusing on the PRC, the Philippines, and Afghanistan) [http://www.adb.org/
Documents/Books/Converting-Migration-Drains-Gains/default.asp]
Clay G. Wescott, Harnessing Knowledge Exchange Among Overseas Professionals,

International Public Management Review 2006, 7:1, pp. 30-69 (focusing on PRC,
Philippines, and Afghanistan) [http://www.unisg.ch/org/idt/ipmr.nsf/]
Barbara J. Merz, Lincoln C. Chen, and Peter F. Geithner, Overview: Diasporas and
Development, in Merz, Chen, and Geithner, Diasporas and Development (Cambridge:
Global Equity Initiative, Harvard University, 2007), pp. 1-23.
Mark Sidel, Focusing on the State: Government Responses to Diaspora Giving and
Implications for Equity, in Merz, Chen, and Geithner, Diasporas and Development
(Cambridge: Global Equity Initiative, Harvard University, 2007), pp. 25-54 (examples
from Asia).
Devesh Kapur, The Janus Face of Diasporas, in Merz, Chen, and Geithner, Diasporas and
Development (Cambridge: Global Equity Initiative, Harvard University, 2007), pp. 89-
118.
Adil Najam, Diaspora Philanthropy to Asia, in Merz, Chen, and Geithner, Diasporas and
150.
Paula D. Johnson, Diaspora Philanthropy: Influences, Initiatives, and Issues (Cambridge:

The Philanthropic Initiative, 2007) [http://www.tpi.org/tpi_services/
strengthening_global_philanthropy.aspx]
37

Christopher Helland, Diaspora on the Electronic Frontier: Developing Virtual
Connections with Sacred Homelands, 2007 Journal of Computer-Mediated
Communication 12(3), article 10 [http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol12/issue3/helland.html]
Afghanistan
Harnessing the Resources of Overseas Professionals (Asian Development Bank, 2006,
focusing on the PRC, the Philippines, and Afghanistan) [http://www.adb.org/

Bangladesh
Sumaiya Khair and Saira Khan, Bangladesh, in Philanthropy and Law in South Asia
(Manila: Asia Pacific Philanthropy Consortium, 2004, Sidel and Zaman eds.)
Philanthropy and Law in South Asia: Recent Developments in Bangladesh, India, Nepal,
Pakistan and Sri Lanka (PALISA), Report from the New Delhi workshop, Asia Pacific
Philanthropy Consortium, 2007 [available at www.asianphilanthropy.org, www.istr.org,
and other sites]
China
Renqiu Yu, Chinese American Contributions to the Educational Development of Toisan

1910-1949, Amerasia Journal 10.1 (1983): 47-72
Him Mark Lai, From Overseas Chinese to Chinese American: History of Development of
Chinese American Society during the Twentieth Century (1992, in Chinese)
J.F. Handlin Smith, Chinese Philanthropy as Seen Through a Case of Famine Relief in the
1640s, in Ilchman, Katz, and Queen, Philanthropy in the World’s Traditions (Bloomington:
Indiana University Press, 1998)
Yong Chen, Chinese San Francisco: A Trans-Pacific Community, 1850-1943 (Stanford

University Press, 2000)
Madeline Hsu, Dreaming of Gold, Dream of Home: Transnationalism and Migration

Between the United States and South China, 1882-1942 (Stanford University Press, 2000)
John Deeney, A Neglected Minority in a Neglected Field: The Emerging Role of Chinese
American Philanthropy in US-China Relations, in Peter Koehn and Xiao-huang Yin (eds.),
38

The Expanding Role of Chinese-Americans in US-China Relations: Transnational
Networks and Trans-Pacific Interactions (Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 2002)
Peter Koehn and Xiao-huang Yin (eds.), The Expanding Role of Chinese-Americans in
US-China Relations: Transnational Networks and Trans-Pacific Interactions (Armonk:
M.E. Sharpe, 2002)
Norton Wheeler, A Civic Trend Within Ethnic Transnationalism? Some Insights from
Classical Social Theory and the Chinese American Experience, Global Networks 4, 4
(2004), 391–408 [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1471-
0374.2004.00100.x]
Xiao-huang Yin and Zhiyong Lan, Why Do They Give? Chinese American Transnational
Philanthropy since the 1970s, in Geithner, Johnson, and Chen, Diaspora Philanthropy and
Equitable Development in China and India (Global Equity Initiative, Harvard University,
2004), pp. 79-127
Nick Young, Richesse Oblige, and So Does the State: Philanthropy and Equity in China,
in Geithner, Johnson, and Chen, Diaspora Philanthropy and Equitable Development in
China and India (Global Equity Initiative, Harvard University, 2004), pp. 29-77.
Nick Young and June Shih, Philanthropic Links between the Chinese Diaspora and the
People’s Republic of China, in Geithner, Johnson, and Chen, Diaspora Philanthropy and
2004), pp. 129-175
Edward T. Jackson, Gregory Chin and Yixin Huang, Financing Social-Justice Civil-
Society Organizations in China: Strategies, Constraints and Possibilities in Rural Poverty
Alleviation (Paper presented to the International Conference of the International Society
for Third-Sector Research, Toronto, July 2004, revised February 2005)
[http://www.istr.org/conferences/toronto/workingpapers/jackson.edward.pdf]

India
Arthur W. Helweg, Emigrant Remittances: Their Nature and Impact on a Punjabi Village,
New Community, (1983) 10 (3), Pp. 435-43
39

Priya Viswanath, Rejuvenating the Spirit of India: Diaspora Philanthropy and Non-
Resident Indians in the US (New Delhi: Charities Aid Foundation India, June 2000)
Shahnaz Taplin and Associates, Diaspora Philanthropy: Silicon Valley Indian Americans
Care, Commit, Contribute (2001)
Report of the High Level Committee on the Indian Diaspora, Chapter 39: Philanthropy
(2002) (http://indiandiaspora.nic.in/pressrelease.htm)
Sabrang Communications Private Limited (India), A Foreign Exchange of Hate: IDRF and
the Foreign Funding of Hindutva (November 2002) [www.mnet.fr/aiindex]
Pushpa Sundar (ed.), For God’s Sake: Religious Charity and Social Development in India
(New Delhi: Sampradaan Indian Centre for Philanthropy, 2002)
Pushpa Sundar, Responses of Faith to the Challenges of Modernization: Religious

Organizations and Social Development in India, International Society for Third Sector
Research, Fifth International Conference, Cape Town, South Africa, July 2002
Sadananda Sahoo, Can India Catch Up with China: From a Diaspora Perspective (Center for
the Study of the Indian Diaspora, September 2002)
[www.geocities.com/husociology/china.htm]
Sadananda Sahoo, Indian Diaspora and Healthcare: A Case of Corporate Hospitals in

Hyderabad (Center for the Study of the Indian Diaspora, University of Hyderabad, 2002)
[www.geocities.com/husociology/health.htm] (revised version in R. Gopa Kumar, Indian
Diaspora and Giving Patterns of Indian Americans in USA, 2003)
Priya Anand, Hindu Diaspora and Religious Philanthropy in the United States (CUNY
Center for the Study of Philanthropy, 2003) [revised version at
http://www.istr.org/conferences/toronto/workingpapers/anand.priya.pdf]
Gopa Kumar (ed.), Indian Diaspora and Giving Patterns of Indian Americans in the US
(New Delhi: Charities Aid Foundation India, 2003)
Priya Viswanath, Diaspora Indians: On the Philanthropy Fast Track (Mumbai: Centre for
Advancement of Philanthropy, 2003)
Priya Viswanath, Diaspora and the Emerging Challenge in India’s Social Development –
The Role of Pravasi Bharatiyas (Address at the first Pravasi Bhartiya Divas, New Delhi,
January 2003) [http://www.catalystindia.net/Documents/
PravasiBhartiyaDivasThemeAddress10Jan2003.doc
Upala Devi Banerjee, Engaging Diaspora Indian Women Entrepreneurs in Building

Sustainable Mechanisms for Gender Issue Support in India: Challenges and Opportunities
(CUNY Center for the Study of Philanthropy, 2004)
40

Noshir Dadrawala and Sanjay Agarwal, India, in Philanthropy and Law in South Asia
Devesh Kapur, Ajay S. Mehta, and R. Moon Dutt, Indian Diaspora Philanthropy, in
Geithner, Johnson, and Chen, Diaspora Philanthropy and Equitable Development in China
and India (Global Equity Initiative, Harvard University, 2004), pp. 177-214.
Melissa Kelly, The Guru Nanak Mission Medical and Educational Trust: An Exploration
of Diaspora-Homeland Linkages in a Voluntary Organization (M.A. Thesis, Centre for
East and South-East Asian Studies, Lund University, 2004)
[http://theses.lub.lu.se/archive/2006/02/13/1139828913-2615-604/MelissaKelly.pdf
Anne Murphy, Mobilizing SEVA ('Service'): Modes of Sikh Diasporic Action, in Knut A.
Jacobsen and P. Pratap Kumar (eds.), South Asians in the Diaspora: Histories and
Religious Traditions (Brill, 2004), pp. 337-372
Shyamala Shiveshwarkar, Mapping for Diaspora Investment in the Social Development

Sector in India (New Delhi: CAF India, 2004) [discussed at http://indianngos.com/nri/
diasporapublication.htm]
Mark Sidel, Diaspora Philanthropy to India: A Perspective from the United States, in
Geithner, Johnson, and Chen, Diaspora Philanthropy and Equitable Development in China
and India (Global Equity Initiative, Harvard University, 2004), pp. 215-258.
Shinder Thandi, Diasporas as Development Agents: Can Diaspora Philanthropy Aid the
Rural Development Process in Punjab, India? (Paper presented to the International
Conference on Indian Diaspora, University of Hyderabad, 2004)
Priya Viswanath and Noshir Dadrawala, Philanthropic Investment and Equitable

Development: The Case of India, Geithner, Johnson, and Chen, Diaspora Philanthropy and
2004), pp. 259-289.
Sanjay Chaturvedi, Diaspora in India’s Geopolitical Visions: Linkages, Categories, and

Contestations, Asian Affairs: An American Review, Fall 2005 (32: 3), pp. 141-168
Sadananda Sahoo, Indian Diaspora and Nation Building: Philanthropic Engagement with
the Country of Origin (2005) [http://www.geocities.com/husociology/philanthropy7.htm]
and other sites]
Van Dusenbery and Darshan S. Tatla, Sikh Diaspora Philanthropy in Punjab: Global
Giving for Local Good (manuscript in preparation, forthcoming 2008)
41

John R. Hinnells and Alan Williams, Parsis in India and the Diaspora (London: Routledge,
2007)
Nepal
Anil Kumar Sinha and Sapana Malla, Nepal, in Philanthropy and Law in South Asia
and other sites]
Pakistan
Pakistan Center for Philanthropy, Building Credibility for NGOs: The Enabling
Environment Initiative Report, International Journal of Civil Society Law, January 2003
Zafar Ismail and Qadeer Baig, Pakistan, in Philanthropy and Law in South Asia (Manila:
Asia Pacific Philanthropy Consortium, 2004, Sidel and Zaman eds.)
Irfan Mufti, New Non-Profit Law and Certification of Non-Profit Organizations in

Pakistan, 2 International Journal of Civil Society Law 88-91, October 2004
Muhammad Ahsan Rana, Setting Standards in the Nonprofit Sector: The Certification
Experience in Pakistan, 2 International Journal of Civil Society Law 83, October 2004
Adil Najam, Portrait of a Giving Community: Philanthropy by the Pakistani-American

Diaspora (Cambridge: Global Equity Initiative, Harvard University, 2007)
Adil Najam, Diaspora Philanthropy to Asia, in Merz, Chen, and Geithner, Diasporas and
150 (focus on Pakistan)
and other sites]
Philippines
Jeremaiah M. Opiniano, The Dynamics of Transnational Philanthropy by Migrant Workers

to the Communities of Origin: The Case of Pororrubio, Philippines (Paper presented to
the Fifth International Society for Third-Sector Research (ISTR) International Conference,
July 2002) [http://www.istr.org/conferences/capetown/ volume/opiniano.pdf]
42

Jeremaiah M. Opiniano, Our Future Beside the Exodus: Migration and Development
Issues in the Philippines, Institute for Migration and Development Issues, August 2004
[http://www.fes.org.ph/pdf/Our%20Future%20Beside%20the%20Exodus.pdf]
Jeremaiah M. Opiniano, Filipinos Doing Diaspora Philanthropy: The Development

Potential of Transnational Migration, Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 14:1/2, pp. 225-
241 (2005) [http://www.filipinodiasporagiving.org] [check and expand]
Jeremaiah M. Opiniano, Good News for the Poor: Diaspora Philanthropy by Filipinos
(Quezon City: Association of Foundations, 2005)
John Richard Simon Alayon, Diaspora Philanthropy: New Zealand Filipino Communities
and the Practice of International Community Development (Paper presented to the biennial
conference on “Southern Perspectives on Development: Dialogue or Division?” Otago
University (New Zealand), December 2006) [http://www.filipinodiasporagiving.org]
Jeremaiah M. Opiniano, Filipinos Abroad as Social Development Partners (Paper

presented at the workshop on Tapping Diaspora Philanthropy for Philippine Social
Development, Mandaluyong City, April 2006) [http://www.filipinodiasporagiving.org]
Jeremaiah M. Opiniano, Migrant Philanthropy: The Philippines (Presented at the

Roundtable on Diaspora Philanthropy: Giving Back to the Homeland, November 2006,
University of San Francisco) [http://www.filipinodiasporagiving.org/]
Shawn Powers, Bayanihan Across the Seas: Diaspora Philanthropy and Development in
the Philippines (Report completed under a U.S. Fulbright grant, 2006)
[http://www.filipinodiasporagiving.org/Attached%20files/
Shawn%20Powers%20study.pdf]
Jon Silva, Engaging Diaspora Communities in Development: An Investigation of Filipino

Hometown Associations in Canada (MPP Thesis, Simon Fraser University (Canada),
2006) [http://www.sfu.ca/mpp/pdf_news/Capstone/Silva_Jon.pdf]

Maruja M.B. Asis, How International Migration Can Support Development: A Challenge
for the Philippines, Migración y Desarrollo, 2007, no. 2, pp. 96-122
[http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/redalyc/pdf/660/66000705.pdf]
43

Natasha Amott, Cases from the Philippines in Innovative Philanthropy: An Overview of
the Philippines, in Helmut K. Anheier, Adele Simmons, and David Winder, Innovation in
Strategic Philanthropy (Springer, 2007)
Victoria P. Garchitorena, Diaspora Philanthropy: The Philippine Experience (Boston: The

Philanthropic Initiative, 2007) [http://www.tpi.org/tpi_services/
Victoria P. Garchitorena, Migration and Development: Philippine Diaspora Philanthropy

(UN Institute for Training and Research, 7 March 2007)
[http://www.unitarny.org/mm/File/Migration/VPG_diaspora%20philantropy.pdf]
Sri Lanka
Sujeevan Perera, The Development of Local Philanthropy and Management of Foundation

Resources (CUNY Center for the Study of Philanthropy, 2003)
Arittha Wikramanayake, Sri Lanka, in Philanthropy and Law in South Asia (Manila: Asia
Pacific Philanthropy Consortium, 2004)
Shawn Teresa Flanigan, Nonprofit Service Provision by Insurgent Organizations –

The Cases of Hizballah and the Tamil Tigers, Studies in Conflict and Terrorism,
forthcoming 2007/8
and other sites]
Taiwan
Snow (Hsueh-Lin) Lee, Make It Powerful: Tap Diaspora Philanthropy to Resource, an

Example for Taiwanese-Americans (CUNY Center for the Study of Philanthropy 2003)
[www.tpic.org.tw/EPhilNews/ show_news.asp?ENEWSID=4081]
Vietnam
Le Xuan Khoa, Normalization of Relations Between the Overseas Vietnamese and Vietnam
(November 2001) [www.giaodiem.com/doithoai/lexuankhoa.htm]
Le Xuan Khoa, Vietnamese Expatriates and Vietnam: Challenges and Opportunities,

Review of Vietnamese Studies (November 2002)
Nguyen Hoai Duc Tri, MD, Returning to Vietnam: An Alternate Perspective (2002)
44

Nguyen Hoai Duc Tri, MD, Perspectives of the VMA [Vietnamese Medical Association],
From a Younger Physician (2002)
Pacific Links Foundation, Report on the First Vietnamese American Nongovernmental

Organization Conference (May 7-9, 2004) and VA NGO Network Activities (September
2003-May 2005); Executive Summary and Post Conference Statement issued after the first
conference of Vietnamese American NGOs in May 2004 [www.va-ngo.org/vjmla]
Dang Nguyen Anh, Enhancing the Development Impact of Migrant Remittances and
Diaspora: The Case of Vietnam, Asia-Pacific Population Journal 20:3 (April 2005)
[www.unescap.org/esid/psis/population/journal/2005/No3/DevelopmentImpactOfMigrant.
pdf]
Statement by Professor Le Xuan Khoa at the Reception of the VA NGO Lifetime

Achievement Award (November 2005) [www.va-ngo.org/vjmla/]
Le Xuan Khoa, Vietnamese Americans’ Charity and Social Development Work in Vietnam
(Delivered at the second conference of Vietnamese American NGOs, November 2005)
[www.va-ngo.org/vjmla/] [Also available in Vietnamese as Le Xuan Khoa, Hoat dong Tu
thien va Phat trien xa hoi cua nguoi My goc Viet o Viet Nam (Charitable and Social
Development Activities by Vietnamese Americans in Vietnam (2005)]
VA NGO Collaborations 2004-05 (November 2005) [www.va-ngo.org/vjmla]
Le Xuan Khoa, The Role of the Vietnamese American Community (2005)
Mark Sidel, Vietnamese-American Diaspora Philanthropy to Vietnam (Boston: The

Philanthropic Initiative, 2007) [http://www.tpi.org/tpi_services/
Newspaper articles on diaspora philanthropy in Asia (more to be added)
Celia W. Dugger, In New York, Just a Cabby. In India, A School’s Hero, The New York
Times, January 23, 2000.
Stephen G. Greene, New Philanthropies Court Prosperous Indian-Americans, Chronicle of

Philanthropy, May 16, 2002
Stephen G. Greene, Giving Back to Their Homelands: Charities Worldwide Get Support
from Emigrants in America, Chronicle of Philanthropy, May 16, 2002
When Times are Tight, Roots Become Stronger, India Abroad, June 6, 2003 (33:36)
Phuong Ly, Moving Forward, Giving Back; U.S. Immigrants Become Homeland
Philanthropists, The Washington Post, March 4, 2004
45

Robert Marquand, As South China Rises, Giving from Overseas Chinese Shifts, Christian
Science Monitor, April 27, 2005, p. 7
Juan L. Mercado, Diaspora Philanthropy, Philippine Daily Inquirer, March 30, 2006
Diaspora Philanthropy, The Nation (Pakistan), September 24, 2006
Greg B. Macabenta, Diaspora Philanthropy, The Manila Times, November 8, 2006

[http://www.manilatimes.net/national/2006/nov/08/yehey/opinion/20061108opi4.html]
What Did We Learn about Giving by Pakistan Diaspora in the US, Business Recorder
(Pakistan), January 8, 2007
Time for Giving (interview with Rory Tolentino), Forbes, March 12, 2007
[http://members.forbes.com/global/2007/0312/052.html]
46

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Legal Studies Research Paper Series Paper No.

A Decade of Research and Practice of

This paper can be downloaded without charge from the

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3787670

“A Decade of Research and Practice of Diaspora Philanthropy

objectives, as defined by APPC. 1 Based on the Terms of Reference provided by APPC, I

• Provide an overview of research on diaspora philanthropy over the past ten

• Identify innovative practices in social investment and social entrepreneurship

• Analyze the enabling environment for diaspora philanthropy in the key

1. Overview of Research on Diaspora Philanthropy in Asia Pacific

The Asia Pacific Philanthropy Consortium’s project on diaspora philanthropy and

transparent, and responsible.

We must also rely on a review of what we know about diaspora philanthropy in

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3787670

Ten Years of Research on Diaspora Philanthropy in Asia

is even more recent. It is virtually impossible to find significant research on diaspora

and regions of Asia.

Why Is There So Much Research on Diaspora Philanthropy to Asia?

Academic understanding of diaspora giving began with work on the philanthropy

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3787670

America, the Middle East, or other parts of the world.

garner only a small fraction of that number? 3

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3787670

Nor should we ignore the role played by research institutions, philanthropic

Initiative at Harvard, the International Network for Strategic Philanthropy, The

invaluable to our understanding of these processes and their impacts.

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3787670

research on diaspora philanthropy to Asia. The achievements include:

• Detailed description of the types of diaspora giving back to India, 7 the

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3787670

resources make their way back home.

• Initial attempts to understand the relationships between remittance flows,

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3787670

(1)(b) Successful Initiatives in Diaspora Philanthropy in Countries Outside of

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3787670

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3787670

charitable uses of remittances in those societies, the growth of a cadre of researchers,

scholars and activists committed to deeper understanding of the phenomenon, the

availability of international networks for discussion of these issues and cross-fertilization

with domestic research, and other factors.

(1)(c) Characteristics of Diaspora Philanthropy in Asia Pacific Societies in Terms

There is extensive research in and on diaspora philanthropy to Asia that addresses

there is some, but insufficient, research on identifying beneficiaries and impact.

full range of philanthropic intermediaries established in those countries, in sending

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3787670

understanding that philanthropic intermediaries in the United States (such as Give2Asia)

no substitute for a fuller understanding of the mechanisms of giving.

motivations that animate the donors.

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3787670

issues – sometimes based in knowledgeable conjecture rather than “data” – serves as a

useful bridge to further work on impact and beneficiaries.

(1)(d) Analysis and Characteristics of the Formation of Diaspora Communities in

In the characteristics and analysis of the formation of diaspora communities in

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3787670

philanthropic role of Chinese and Indian diaspora communities in such countries as

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3787670

diaspora giving is identified in Section 4 as a potential task for further research.

2. Diaspora Philanthropy, Social Investing, Strategic Philanthropy: What Does