Chapter 2

Geodomination in Graphs

The concept of Geodomination was introduced [16]. The main aim of

this chapter is to establish further results in this area.

2.1 Introduction

Let G = (V, E) be a connected graph of order n ≥ 2. For a subset S

of vertices, < S > denotes the subgraph induced by S. The distance d(u, v)

between two vertices u and v is the length of the shortest u − v path in G.

A u − v path of length d(u, v) is called a u − v geodesic. A vertex v lies in an

x − y geodesic P , if v is an internal vertex of P . The closed interval I[x, y]

consists of x, y and all vertices lying in some x − y geodesic of G. For S ⊆ V ,

S
I[S] = I[x, y].
x,y∈S

14
Definition 2.1.1 A set S of vertices in a graph G is said to be a geodetic

set or geodominating set of G if I[S] = V (G).

Equivalently, S ⊆ V is a geodetic set of G if for every vertex v ∈ V −S,

there exists a pair of vertices x, y in S such that v lies in some x − y geodesic

of G.

A geodetic set S is a minimal geodetic set if no proper subset of S

is a geodetic set. The minimum cardinality of a minimal geodetic set of G

is the geodetic number of G and is denoted by gn(G) and the maximum

cardinality of a minimal geodetic set of G is the upper geodetic number of G

and is denoted by Gn(G). A geodetic set of cardinality gn(G) is called as a

g-set of G.

Example 2.1.2
2 3
s s

1 s s4
s s
6 5
G

15
 In the graph G, the minimal geodetic sets are {1, 4}, {2, 5}, {3, 6},

{1, 3, 5} and {2, 4, 6} and hence the geodetic number is 2 and the upper

geodetic number is 3.

The geodetic number was first introduced in 1990 [16] and is further

studied in [2], [8], [9], [10], [11], [16] and [21]. An algorithm for finding

the geodetic number of a graph has been proposed in [16]. In [18], Hansen et

al. provide counterexamples for the algorithm given in [16] and show why the

proposed approach must fail. They then develop a 0-1 integer programming

model to find the geodetic number and give computational results.

The complexity of the problem of finding the geodetic number has been

studied in [2], where Atici has shown that the corresponding GEODETIC

SET decision problem, namely ”given a nontrivial connected graph G = (V,

E) and an integer k ≤ |V |, is there a set S ⊆ V with |S| = k such that

I[S] = V ?”, is NP-complete.

Several generalizations were made for geodetic concepts. In a natural

way, the definition extends to the directed case which is studied in [12]. In

a directed graph D = (V, A), let I[u, v] denote the set of nodes either on a

directed u − v geodesic or on a dir4ected v − u geodesic. Extensions of the

16
definitions of geodesic closure I[S] of S ⊆ V , geodetic set, minimum geodetic

set and geodetic number to the directed case is straightforward. The set of

all values g(D) for all possible orientations D is called the geodetic spectrum

of a graph. Among them, the minimum and maximum received are called the

lower orientable geodetic number g − (D) and the upper orientable geodetic

number g + (G) respectively. The geodetic spectrum of a graph is further

studied in [8].

Atici defined and studied the edge version of the geodetic number in [3],
S
and in [4] with Vince. For a non-empty subset S ⊆ V , (S) = (x, y),
x,y∈S

where (x, y) is the set of all edges lying on some x − y geodesic of G. A

subset S ⊆ V is called an edge geodetic set, if (S) = E. An edge geodetic

set of minimum cardinality is called a minimum edge geodetic set and this

cardinality is the edge geodetic number of G, denoted by ge (G).

Definition 2.1.3 The link of a vertex v is its neighborhood N (v). A vertex

is said to be link-complete, if its link induces a complete subgraph of G.

Example 2.1.4 In the graph given below, the vertices 1 and 4 are link-

complete vertices.

17
 2 3
w w

1
w
w4
w w
6 5
Fig. 2.2

Remark 2.1.5

• In any graph, every pendent vertex is a link-complete.

• In a complete graph, all vertices are link-complete.

• Cycle Cn , n ≥ 4 has no link-complete vertices.

• If v is a link-complete vertex of a graph G, then v ∈

/ I[x, y], for all

x, y ∈ V (G) − {v}.

It is clear that if v is a link-complete vertex of G, then v is in every

geodetic set of G. Throughout this thesis, L denotes the set of all link-

complete vertices of G.

18
Observation 2.1.6 [20]

Every geodetic set of a graph G contains every link-complete vertex of G.

In particular, if the set W of link-complete vertices is a geodetic set of G,

then W is the unique g-set of G and so gn(G) = |W |.

2.2 Bounds on Geodetic Number

Theorem 2.2.1 [20]

For any connected graph G on n ≥ 2 vertices, 2 ≤ gn(G) ≤ n.

Lemma 2.2.2 [23]

1. gn(Kn ) = n, for all n ≥ 2.

(
2 if n is even
2. gn(Cn ) =
3 if n is odd

3. For 2 ≤ m ≤ n, gn(Km,n ) = min {4, m}.

n
4. gn(Wn ) = 2
, where Wn = Cn−1 + K1 is a wheel, n ≥ 5.

n
5. gn(Fn ) = 2
, where Fn = Pn−1 + K1 is a fan, n ≥ 4.

6. gn(T ) = l, where T is a non-trivial tree with l pendent vertices.

19
Proof:

Since every vertex of Kn is a link-complete vertex, a geodetic set contains

all the vertices of Kn . Therefore gn(Kn ) = n.

For Cn , when n is even, the set {u, v} is a g-set, where d(u, v) = diam(Cn )

and when n is odd, no vertex subset of cardinality 2 is a geodetic set and

{a, b1 , b2 } is a g-set, where d(a, b1 ) = d(a, b2 ) = diam(Cn ). Hence (2) follows.

Consider Km,n , where 2 ≤ m ≤ n. Let (X, Y ) be a bipartition of V (Km,n )

with |X| = m and |Y | = n. For m ≤ 4, X is a minimum geodetic set of Km,n

and for m ≥ 5, {xi , xj , yk , yl }, where xi , xj ∈ X and yk , yl ∈ Y , is a minimum

geodetic set of Km,n . Hence (3) follows.

Consider Wn , where n ≥ 5. Let V (Wn ) = {v, v1 , v2 , v3 , ..., vn−1 } with

d(v) = n − 1. If n is even, then {v1 , v3 , v5 , ..., vn−1 } is a g-set of Wn and hence

n
n
gn(Wn ) = 2
= 2
. If n is odd, then {v1 , v3 , v5 , ..., vn−2 } is a g-set of Wn and

n−1
n
hence gn(Wn ) = 2
= 2
.

Consider Fn , where n ≥ 4. Let V (Fn ) = {v, v1 , v2 , v3 , ..., vn−1 } with d(v) =

n − 1. Since v1 and vn−1 are the link-complete vertices of Fn , every geodetic

set contains v1 and vn−1 . If n is even, then {v1 , v3 , v5 , ..., vn−1 } is a g-set of

n
n
Fn and hence gn(Fn ) = 2
= 2
. If n is odd, then {v1 , v3 , v5 , ..., vn−2 , vn−1 }

20
 n+1
n
is a g-set of Fn and hence gn(Fn ) = 2
= 2
.

Let T be a non-trivial tree with l pendant vertices. Then gn(T ) ≥ l, by

observation 2.1.6. Since the set D of all l pendant vertices is a geodetic set

of T , gn(T ) ≤ |D| = l. Hence gn(T ) = l.

Theorem 2.2.3 [11]

If G is a connected graph of order n ≥ 2 and d is the diameter of G, then

2 ≤ gn(G) ≤ n − d + 1.

Theorem 2.2.4 [13]

If G is a connected graph of order n ≥ 2, then gn(G) = n if and only if

G = Kn .

Theorem 2.2.5 [13]

If G is a connected graph of order n ≥ 2, then gn(G) = n − 1 if and only

if G = (Kn1 ∪ Kn2 ∪ Kn3 ∪ .... ∪ Knr ) + K1 , where n1 + n2 + n3 + .... +

nr = n − 1 and r ≥ 1 is an integer.

Theorem 2.2.6 [23]

If G is a connected graph of order n ≥ 2 and d is the diameter of G, then

q
1
2
+ 14 + 1+d2n
≤ gn(G) ≤ n − d + 1.

21
Proof:

Since gn(G) ≤ n − d + 1, by theorem 2.2.6, it remains only to prove the

lower bound.

Let S be a g-set of G and let gn(G) = |S| = k.

Then n = |V |

= |I[S]|
 
 S 
= I[x, y]
 
x,y∈S 
P
≤ (1 + d(x, y))
x,y∈S
P
≤ (1 + d)
x,y∈S
(1+d)k(k−1)
= 2
.

This implies that (1 + d)k 2 − (1 + d)k − 2n ≥ 0.

√ √ q
1+d+ 1+d+8n
Since k is positive, k ≥ √
2 1+d
1
= 2 + 14 + 2n
1+d
.

Remark 2.2.7 The upper bound in the theorem 2.2.6 is best possible.
q
For example, let G = Pn , n ≥ 2. Then d = n − 1 and hence 2 + 14 +
1 2n
1+d
q
= 12 + 14 + 2 = 12 + 32 = 2 = gn(Pn ).

22
Theorem 2.2.8 [23]

Let G be a graph without link-complete vertices and has n vertices. Then

gn(G) + β0 (G) ≤ n. The bound is attained for K2,p , p ≥ 2.

Proof:

Let S be a maximum independent set of G. Since G has no link-complete

vertices, every vertex in G has degree at least 2.

Let v ∈ S. Since S is independent and v is not link-complete, there exist

x, y ∈ V − S such that x, y ∈ N (v) and xy ∈

/ E(G). That is v ∈ I[x, y].

Hence V − S is a geodetic set of G. Therefore, gn(G) ≤ |V − S| = n − β0 (G).

For G = K2,p with p ≥ 2, n = p + 2, gn(G) = 2, β0 (G) = p and

gn(G) + β0 (G) = n.

Remark 2.2.9 In a graph G, there exists a connected spanning subgraph H

such that either gn(G) = gn(H) or gn(G) < gn(H) or gn(G) > gn(H).

Example 2.2.10 1.Let G = Cn , n is even and n ≥ 4. Consider the spanning

subgraph H = Cn − {e} = Pn , where e ∈ E(Cn ). Therefore, gn(G) = 2 =

gn(H).

23
 2. Let G = Fn = Pn−1 + K1 , n ≥ 4. Let V (Fn ) = {v, v1 , v2 , ..., vn−1 },

where V (K1 ) = {v}. Consider the spanning subgraph H = Fn − {vi vi+1 1 ≤

n
i ≤ n − 2}. That is H = K1,n−1 . Therefore, gn(G) = 2
< n − 1 = gn(H).

3. Let G = Cn , n is odd and n ≥ 3. Consider the spanning subgraph

H = Cn − {e} = Pn , where e ∈ E(Cn ). Therefore, gn(G) = 3 > 2 = gn(H).

Remark 2.2.11 In a graph G, there exists a connected induced subgraph H

such that either gn(G) = gn(H) or gn(G) < gn(H) or gn(G) > gn(H).

Example 2.2.12

Let G be the path Pn , n ≥ 3. Consider the induced subgraph H =<

V (Pn )−{v} >= Pn−1 , where v is a pendent vertex of Pn . Therefore, gn(G) =

2 = gn(H).

Example 2.2.13

Let G be a graph with V (G) = {v1 , v2 , v3 , ..., v2n , x, y}, n ≥ 2 and E(G) =

{xvi 1 ≤ i ≤ n} ∪ {yvn+i 1 ≤ i ≤ n} ∪ {vi vj 1 ≤ i 6= j ≤ 2n}. Since {x, y} is

a geodetic set of G, gn(G) = 2. Consider the subgraph H induced by the set

{v1 , v2 , v3 , ..., v2n }. Then H = K2n . Therefore, gn(G) = 2 < 2n = gn(H).

24
 x
x

x x x
v2 vn K2n
G: v1
vn+2 vn+1
v2n
x x x

x
y
Example 2.2.14

Let G = Kn , n ≥ 2. Let V (Kn ) = {v1 , v2 , v3 , ..., vn }. Consider the

subgraph H induced by the set, {v1 , v2 , v3 , ..., vl }, 1 ≤ l ≤ n − 1. Then H =

Kl . Therefore, gn(G) = n > l = gn(H).

Definition 2.2.15 For any graph G = (V, E), the Mycielski’s graph µ(G) =

(V1 , E1 ) is the graph with V1 = V ∪ V 0 ∪ {w}, where V 0 = {v 0 v ∈ V } and

E1 = E ∪ {xy 0 , x0 yxy ∈ E(G)} ∪ {wv 0 v 0 ∈ V 0 }.

25
Example 2.2.16
us u’ s
u s

G H sw

s s
v s v v’
Fig. 2.3

In the figure 2.3, a graph G and its Mycielski’s graph H = µ(G) are given.

Observation 2.2.17 If G is a connected graph with at least 2 vertices, then

µ(G) has no link-complete vertices.

Proof:

Let µ(G) be the Mycielski’s graph of G, where V (µ(G)) = V (G)∪V 0 ∪{w},

where V 0 = {v 0 v ∈ V (G)} and E(µ(G)) = E(G) ∪ {xy 0 , x0 yxy ∈ E(G)} ∪

{wv 0 v 0 ∈ V 0 }. Let a ∈ V (µ(G)).

If a = w, then it is clear that a is not a link-complete vertex in µ(G),

since u0 , v 0 ∈ Nµ(G) (w), but u0 v 0 ∈

/ E(µ(G)).

Let a = v 0 ∈ V 0 . Let v ∈ V (G) be the corresponding vertex for v 0 . Since

G is connected, v is adjacent to a vertex x ∈ V (G). Now x, w ∈ Nµ(G) (v 0 )

and xw ∈
/ E(µ(G)).

26
 Therefore, a is not a link-complete vertex in µ(G).

Let a = v ∈ V (G). Since G is connected, v is adjacent to a vertex

u ∈ V (G). Now u, u0 ∈ Nµ(G) (v) and uu0 ∈

/ E(µ(G)).

Therefore, a is not a link-complete vertex in µ(G).

Theorem 2.2.18 For n ≥ 2, gn(µ(Kn )) = 3.

Proof:

Let V = {v1 , v2 , v3 , ... , vn } be the vertex set of Kn . Then V (µ(Kn )) = V ∪

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
V ∪{w}, where V = {v1 , v2 , v3 , ... , vn }. Nµ(Kn ) (vi ) = (V −{vi })∪(V −{vi }),

0 0
Nµ(Kn ) (vi ) = (V − {vi }) ∪ {w} and Nµ(Kn ) (w) = V .

0 0 0 0
Let Si = {vi , vi , w}, 1 ≤ i ≤ n. Then I[vi , vi ] = V ∪ {vi }, I[vi , w] = (V −

0 0 0
{vi }) ∪ {vi , w} and I[vi , w] = {vi , w}. This implies that I[Si ] = V (µ(Kn )).

Therefore, Si is a geodetic set of µ(Kn ). Hence gn(µ(Kn )) ≤ |Si | = 3.

Suppose there exists a geodetic set S ⊆ V (µ(Kn )) such that |S| = 2.

Since dµ(Kn ) (vi , vj ) = 1 for i 6= j, S is not a subset of V .

0 0 0 0 0 0 0
If S ⊆ V , let S = {vi , vj }. Then I[S] = I[vi , vj ] = {vi , vj } ∪ {w} ∪ (V −

{vi , vj }) 6= V (µ(Kn )), a contradiction to the assumption that S is a geodetic

0
set of µ(Kn ). Therefore, S is not a subset of V .

27
 0 0
If S = {vi , w}, then I[S] = I[vi , w] = {vi , w} ∪ (V − {vi }) 6= V (µ(Kn )),

a contradiction to the assumption that S is a geodetic set of µ(Kn ).

0 0 0
If S = {vi , w}, then I[S] = I[vi , w] = {vi , w} 6= V (µ(Kn )), a contradic-

tion to the assumption that S is a geodetic set of µ(Kn ).

Therefore, no vertex subset of cardinality two is a geodetic set of µ(Kn ).

It implies that gn(µ(Kn )) ≥ 3. Hence gn(µ(Kn )) = 3.

n+1
Theorem 2.2.19 For any connected graph G, gn(µ(G)) ≤ 2
, where n is

the order of µ(G) and the bound is best possible.

Proof:

If n = |V (µ(G))|, then |V (G)| = n−1

2
. The set V 0 which is defined as in

the definition of Mycielski’s graph is an independent set of µ(G). Therefore,

β0 (µ(G)) ≥ |V 0 | = |V (G)| = n−1

2
. By observation 2.2.17, µ(G) has no link-

complete vertices. Therefore, by theorem 2.2.8, gn(µ(G)) ≤ n − β0 (µ(G)) ≤

n−1 n+1
n− 2
= 2
.

If G = K2 , then µ(G) = C5 and hence gn(µ(G)) = gn(C5 ) = 3 =

|V (C5 )|+1
2
.

28
2.3 Minimal Geodetic Sets

A geodetic set S is said to be a minimal geodetic set if no proper subset of

S is a geodetic set. The geodetic set has the superhereditary property. That

is a superset of a geodetic set is also a geodetic set. Therefore, a geodetic set

is minimal if and only if it is 1-minimal.

In this section, some results on minimal geodetic sets are given.

Theorem 2.3.1 [23]

A geodetic set S of a connected graph G is minimal if and only if for

every v ∈ S, either

(i) v ∈
/ I[x, y], for all x, y ∈ S − {v}, or

(ii) there exists a vertex t ∈ V − S such that if t ∈ I[a, b], a, b ∈ S, then

either a = v or b = v.

Proof:

Let S be a minimal geodetic set of G. Suppose (i) is not true for a vertex

v ∈ S. Therefore, there exists a pair x, y of vertices in S − {v} such that

v ∈ I[x, y]. Suppose (ii) is not true for v. That is for all t ∈ V −S, there exist

29
a, b ∈ S − {v} such that t ∈ I[a, b]. This means that S − {v} is a geodetic set

of G, which is a contradiction to the minimality of S. Hence every vertex in

a minimal geodetic set satisfies the condition (i) or (ii) of the theorem.

Conversely, let S be a geodetic set of G such that every vertex of S

satisfies the condition (i) or (ii) of the theorem. Suppose S is not a minimal

geodetic Set. Then there exists a vertex v ∈ S such that S −{v} is a geodetic

set. Since S − {v} is a geodetic set and v ∈

/ S − {v}, there exists a pair of

vertices x, y in S − {v} such that v ∈ I[x, y]. That is v does not satisfy the

condition (i) of the theorem. Hence v must satisfy the condition (ii). That

is there exists a vertex t ∈ V − S such that if t ∈ I[a, b], a, b ∈ S, then either

a = v or b = v. Therefore t ∈
/ I[x, y], for all x, y ∈ x, y ∈ S − {v}, which is a

contradiction, since S − {v} is a geodetic set. Hence S is a minimal geodetic

set.

30
Theorem 2.3.2 [23]

A graph G has a unique minimal geodetic set if and only if the set L of

all link-complete vertices is a geodetic set of G.

Proof:

Let S be the unique minimal geodetic set of G. Then L ⊆ S, by observa-

tion 2.1.6. Suppose there exists a vertex x such that x ∈ S − L. Since x ∈

/ L,

there exist u, v ∈ N (x) such that uv ∈

/ E(G). Then S − {x} is a geodetic

set of G and hence it contains a minimal geodetic set S1 . Since x ∈ S and

x∈
/ S1 , S 6= S1 , a contradiction. Hence S = L.

Conversely, suppose the set of link-complete vertices L is a geodetic set

of G. Then by observation 2.1.6, L is the unique minimal geodetic set of G.

Lemma 2.3.3 Given any two integers a, b with 2 ≤ a ≤ b, there exists a

connected graph G such that gn(G) = a and Gn(G) = b.

Proof:

For a = 2 or 3, consider the graph G = Ka,b . Then gn(Ka,b ) = a and

Gn(G) = b.

31
 Let a ≥ 4. Consider the graph Kb,b . Let V1 = {x1 , x2 , x3 , ..., xb } and

V2 = {y1 , y2 , y3 , ..., yb } be a bipartition of V (Kb,b ). Then construct a graph

G such that V (G) = V1 ∪ V2 ∪ {z1 , z2 , z3 , ..., za−2 } and E(G) = E(Kb,b ) ∪

{zi xi /1 ≤ i ≤ a − 2}. Then {z1 , z2 , z3 , ..., za−2 , yi , yj } and {z1 , z2 , z3 , ..., za−2 ,

xa−1 , xa , xa+1 , ..., xb } are the only two minimal geodetic sets of G. Hence

gn(G) = a and Gn(G) = b.

z1 z2 za−2
w w w

' $
w w w w
x1 x2 xa−2 xb
Kb,b
G:
y1 y2 yb
w w w

& %

32