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Behavioral Objectives

Behavioral Objectives

Susan B. Bastable
Melissa F. Alt

CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS
Types of Objectives
Characteristics of Goals and
Objectives
The Debate About Using Behavioral
Objectives
Writing Behavioral Objectives and
Goals

Performance Words with Many

or Few Interpretations

Common Mistakes When Writing

Objectives
Taxonomy of Objectives According to
Learning Domains

The Cognitive Domain

The Affective Domain
The Psychomotor Domain

Development of Teaching Plans

Use of Learning Contracts

Components of the Learning

Contract
Steps to Implement the
Learning Contract

The Concept of Learning Curve

State of the Evidence

KEY TERMS
taxonomy
educational objectives
instructional objectives
behavioral (learning) objectives
goal
objective
subobjectives
cognitive domain
massed practice
distributed practice
affective domain
psychomotor domain
situated cognition
transfer of learning
selective attention
intrinsic feedback
augmented feedback
teaching plan
learning contract
learning curve

OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, the reader will be able
to

Identify the differences between goals and

objectives.
Recognize opposing viewpoints regarding the
use of behavioral objectives in education.
Demonstrate the ability to write behavioral
objectives accurately and concisely using the
four components of condition, performance,
criterion, and who will do the performing.
Cite the errors most frequently made in writing
objectives.
Distinguish among the three domains of
learning.
Explain the instructional methods appropriate
for teaching in the cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor domains.
Develop teaching plans that reflect internal
consistency between elements.
Recognize the role of the nurse educator in
formulating objectives for the planning,
implementation, and evaluation of teaching
and learning.
Describe the importance of learning contracts
as an alternative approach to structuring a
learning experience.
Identify the potential application of the
learning curve concept to the development of
psychomotor skills.

Previous chapters addressed the characteristics and

attributes of the learner with respect to learning
needs, readiness to learn, and learning styles.
Clearly, assessment of the learner is an essential
first step in the teaching-learning process.
Assessment determines what the learner needs to
know, when and under which conditions the learner
is most receptive to learning, and how the learner
actually learns best or prefers to learn.

Before a decision can be made about selecting the

content to be taught or choosing the instructional
methods and materials to be used to change learner
behavior, the educator must first decide what the
learner is expected to accomplish. Client needs are
determined by identifying gaps in the learner’s
knowledge, attitudes, or skills. Identification of needs
is a prerequisite to formulating behavioral objectives
that serve as a “road map” (Nothwehr, Dennis, &
Wu, 2007, p. 794) guiding subsequent planning,
implementation, and evaluation of teaching and
learning.

In the 20th century, noted educators and education

psychologists developed approaches to writing and
classifying behavioral objectives that offer teachers
assistance in organizing instructional content for
learners functioning at various levels of ability.
Mager (1997) has been the primary educator
credited with developing a system for writing
behavioral objectives that serves to help teachers
make appropriate instructional decisions as well as
to assist learners in understanding what they need
and are expected to know. The underlying principle
has been that if one does not know where he or she
is going, how will the person know when he or she
has arrived?

In addition, the taxonomic system devised by Bloom,

Englehart, Furst, Hill, and Krathwohl (1956) for
categorizing learning objectives according to a
hierarchy of behaviors has been the cornerstone of
teaching for over half a century. This concept of
taxonomy—that is, the ordering of these behaviors
according to their type and complexity—pertains to
the nature of the knowledge to be learned, the
behaviors most relevant and attainable for a
particular learner or group of learners, and the
sequencing of knowledge and experiences for
learning.

Skill in preparing and classifying behavioral

objectives is a necessary function of the educator’s
role, whether teaching patients and their families in
healthcare settings, teaching staff nurses in in-
service and continuing education programs, or
teaching nursing students in academic institutions.
The importance of understanding the systems of
writing and categorizing behavioral objectives for the
purpose of specifying learner outcomes is
imperative if data yielded from educational efforts
are to be consistent and measurable. Additionally,
the knowledge and use of these techniques are
becoming essential because of the need to quantify
and justify the costs of teaching others in an
environment characterized by ever-increasing cost-
containment pressures.

This chapter examines the importance of behavioral

objectives for effective teaching; describes how to
write clear and precise behavioral objectives;
explores the levels of achievement in the taxonomic
hierarchy of cognitive, affective, and psychomotor
domains; and outlines the development of teaching
plans and learning contracts. All of these elements
provide a framework for the successful instruction of
the learner.

TYPES OF OBJECTIVES
It is important to clarify the meaning of the terms
educational objectives, instructional objectives, and
behavioral or learning objectives. Although often
used synonymously, these terms can be
distinguished from one another. Educational
objectives are used to identify the intended
outcomes of the education process, whether in
reference to an aspect of a program or a total
program of study, that guide the design of curriculum
units. Instructional objectives describe the
teaching activities and resources used to facilitate
effective learning (Morrison, Ross, & Kemp, 2004).
Behavioral objectives, also referred to as learning
objectives, make use of the modifier behavioral or
learning to denote that this type of objective is action
oriented rather than content oriented, learner
centered rather than teacher centered, and short-
term outcome focused rather than process focused.
Behavioral objectives describe precisely what the
learner will be able to do following a learning
situation.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOALS
AND OBJECTIVES
The terms goal and objective are often used
interchangeably—albeit incorrectly. In fact, a real
difference exists between the two terms. This
distinction must be clearly understood by nurse
educators. Time span and specificity are the two
factors that differentiate goals from objectives
(Haggard, 1989).

A goal is the final outcome of what is achieved at

the end of the teaching-learning process. A goal is a
statement that describes the ideal or ultimate state
of being at some future point in time. Goals are
global and broad in nature; they serve as longterm
targets for both the learner and the teacher. Goals
are the desired outcomes of learning that are
realistically achievable usually in weeks or months.
They are considered multidimensional in that a
number of objectives are subsumed under or
incorporated into an overall goal.

An objective, in contrast, is a specific, single,

unidimensional behavior. As stated by Anderson et
al. (2001), “When we teach, we want our students to
learn. What we want them to learn as a result of our
teaching are our objectives” (p. 3). Objectives are
short term in nature and should be achievable at the
conclusion of one teaching session or usually within
a matter of days following a series of teaching
sessions. According to Mager (1997), an objective
describes a performance that learners should be
able to exhibit before they are considered
competent. A behavioral objective is the intended
result of instruction, not the process or means of
instruction itself. Objectives are statements of
specific, short-term behaviors that lead step by step
to the more general, overall long-term goal.

Subobjectives also may be written and reflect

aspects of a main objective. They, too, are specific
statements of short-term behaviors that lead to the
achievement of the primary objective. Objectives
and subobjectives specify what the learner will be
able to do as a result of being exposed to one or
more learning experiences.

Objectives must be achieved before the goal can be

reached. They must be observable and measurable
for the educator to be able to determine whether
they have been met by the learner. Objectives can
be thought of as advance organizers—that is,
statements that inform the learner of what is
expected from a cognitive, affective, or psychomotor
perspective prior to meeting the goal, which is the
intended outcome (Babcock & Miller, 1994).
Objectives are derived from a goal and must be
consistent with and related to that goal. As an
analogy, a goal can be thought of as an entire pie,
the objectives as individual portions of the pie that
make up the goal, and the subobjectives as bite-
sized pieces of a single portion of the pie.

Together, objectives and goals form a map that

provides directions (objectives) as to how to arrive at
a particular destination (goal). For example, a goal
might be that a patient with diabetes will learn to
manage his or her disease. To accomplish this goal,
which both the nurse and the patient have agreed
on, specific objectives must be outlined to address
changes in behavior such as those related to diet
therapy, insulin administration, exercise regimens,
stress management, and glucose monitoring. The
objectives to accomplish the goal become the
blueprint for attaining the desired outcomes of
learning.

The successful achievement of predetermined

objectives is, in part, the result of appropriate
instruction. Certainly, many other factors, such as
learner motivation and ability to perform, are also
key factors to the successful demonstration of
specific behaviors before the learner can be
declared to have overall competence in the desired
behavior.

If the teaching-learning process is to be successful,

the setting of goals and objectives must be a mutual
decision on the part of both the teacher and the
learner. Both parties must participate in the decision-
making process and buy into the immediate
objectives and ultimate goals. Involving the learner
right from the start in creating goals and objectives
is absolutely crucial. Otherwise, time and effort on
the part of the educator and the learner may be
wasted, because the learner may choose to reject
the content if it is deemed—at least from his or her
perspective—to be unimportant, irrelevant,
impractical, unattainable, or something already
known.

Goal and objective setting for any educational

experience should be as much a responsibility of the
learner as it is of the teacher. Blending what the
learner wants to learn with what the teacher has
determined that the learner needs to know into a
common set of objectives and goals provides for an
educational experience that is mutually accountable,
respectful, developmental, and fulfilling (Reilly &
Oermann, 1990).

Objectives and goals must also be clearly written,

realistic, and learner centered. If they do not
precisely state what the learner is expected to do in
the short and long term, then the learning process
will lack clear guideposts to follow or an obvious end
result to strive for. Likewise, if goals and objectives
are unrealistic in that they are too difficult to achieve,
the learner can become discouraged, which
dampens motivation and interferes with the ability to
comply. For instance, a goal that a patient will
maintain a salt-free diet is likely to be impossible to
accomplish or to adhere to over an extended period
of time. Establishing a goal of maintaining a low-salt
diet, with the objectives of learning to avoid eating
and preparing high-sodium foods, is a much more
realistic and achievable expectation of the learner.

Also, goals and objectives must be directed to what

the learner is expected to be able to do, not what the
teacher is expected to teach. Educators must be
sure not only that their teaching remains objectives
oriented, but also that the objectives are learner
centered. This approach keeps educators targeted
on results, not on the act of teaching. Educators
must remember, as Anderson et al. (2001)
emphasize, not all learners will take away the same
thing from the same instruction, unless objectives
are focused and precisely expressive.

THE DEBATE ABOUT USING

BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES
Educators have made strong arguments both for
and against the use of behavioral objectives for
teaching and learning. Certainly, behavioral
objectives are not a panacea for all the problems
encountered in the planning, implementation, and
evaluation of education (Reilly & Oermann, 1990).
The following list, based on the contributions by
Arends (2011); Reilly and Oermann (1990); Haggard
(1989); Durbach, Goodall, and Wilkinson (1987);
Brottman (2009); and Morrison et al. (2004),
presents some common arguments by educators
against using behavioral objectives:

The understanding by experienced educators

of learners’ needs is so sophisticated that the
exercise of writing behavioral objectives is
superfluous.

The practice of writing specific behavioral

objectives leads to reductionism, a format that
reduces behavioral processes into
equivalents that do not reflect the sum total of
the parts.

Objective writing is a time-consuming task,

requiring more effort for development than is
warranted by their effect on an instructional
program. That is, the cost-benefit ratio does
not justify the amount of time required to
formulate objectives.

The preparation of objectives is merely a

pedagogic exercise often expressing the
teacher’s expectations of the outcome of
teaching and precluding the opportunity for
learners to seek their own objectives.

Predetermined objectives, with their emphasis

on precise and observable learner behaviors,
force teachers and learners to attend only to
specific areas, which stifles creativity and
interferes with the freedom to learn and to
teach.

The writing of specific objectives is

incompatible with the many complex fields of
study such as nursing because an infinite
number of objectives are possible for almost
any subject or topic.

Behavioral objectives are unable to capture

the more intricate cognitive processes that are
not readily observable and measurable.

The rationale for using behavioral objectives,

however, far outweighs the arguments against their
use. The following considerations justify the need for
writing behavioral objectives (Ferguson, 1998; Krau,
2011; Morrison et al., 2004). Careful construction of
objectives

Helps to keep educators’ thinking on target

and learner centered.

Communicates to others—both learners and

healthcare team members alike—what is
planned for teaching and learning.

Helps learners understand what is expected

of them so that they can keep track of their
progress.

Forces the educator to organize educational

materials so as not to get lost in content and
forget the learner’s role in the process.

Encourages educators to question their own

motives—to think deliberately about why they
are doing things and analyze which positive
results will be attained from accomplishing
specific objectives.

Tailors teaching to the learner’s particular

circumstances and needs.

Creates guideposts for teacher evaluation and

documentation of success or failure.

Focuses attention not on what is taught but on

what the learner will come away with once the
teaching-learning process is completed.

Orients both teacher and learner to the

specific end results of instruction.

Makes it easier for the learner to visualize

performing the required actions.

Robert Mager (1997), a recognized authority on

preparing behavioral objectives, points out three
other major advantages realized through writing
explicit objective statements:

1. They provide a sound basis for the selection or

design of instructional content, methods, and
materials.

2. They provide learners with the means to organize

their efforts and activities toward accomplishing the
intent of instruction.

3. They allow for a determination as to whether an

objective has, in fact, been accomplished.

As Mager (1997) asks, “If you don’t know where

you’re going, how will you know which road to take
to get there?” (p. 14). That is, before the educator
prepares instruction, before materials and teaching
methods are selected and implemented, and before
the means to evaluate learning is chosen, it is
important to clearly and concisely state the intended
results of instruction. To paraphrase Mager’s
thinking, mechanics do not select repair tools until
they know what has to be fixed; surgeons do not
choose instruments until they know which operation
is to be performed; and builders do not buy
construction materials before drafting a blueprint.

Haggard (1989) summarizes the following questions

that arise if objectives are not always written:

How will anyone else know which objectives

have been set?

How will the educator evaluate and document

success or failure?

How will learners keep track of their

progress?

The writing of objectives is not merely a mechanical

task, but rather a synthesizing process. The process
of developing behavioral objectives not only helps
educators explore their own knowledge, values, and
beliefs about the entire spectrum of teaching and
learning but also encourages them to examine the
experiences, values, motivations, and knowledge of
the learner. The time and effort expended in writing
objectives represent a thoughtful deliberation about
the knowledge, attitude, and skill requirements
needed by the learner in meeting the desired level of
competency.

The educator and learner should work together to

compose objectives and goals that focus on what is
to be accomplished in the short and long run. This
process provides direction that helps the educator
and learner identify the following aspects of the
teaching-learning process:

The time that will be needed for teaching and

learning

The clues as to how the learner best acquires

information

The teaching methods that will work most

effectively

The best ways to evaluate the learner’s

progress

In addition, the process of stating well-written

objectives encourages the educator to seriously
contemplate what is worth teaching and what is
worth spending time to accomplish. Also, this
process can serve to highlight the value of an
existing instructional program and provide the basis
for improving a current teaching plan. Thus the
mutual setting of objectives and goals is considered
by many educators to be the initial, most important
consideration in the education process (Haggard,
1989; Mager, 1997).

WRITING BEHAVIORAL
OBJECTIVES AND GOALS
Well-written behavioral objectives give learners very
clear statements about what is expected of them
and assist teachers in being able to measure learner
progress toward achieving outcomes of learning.
Over the years, Robert Mager’s (1997) approach to
writing behavioral objectives has become widely
accepted among educators. His message to
educators is that for objectives to be meaningful,
they must precisely, clearly, and very specifically
communicate the teacher’s instructional intent
(Arends, 2011).

According to Mager (1997), the format for writing

concise and useful behavioral objectives includes
the following three important characteristics:

1. Performance: Describes what the learner is

expected to be able to do or perform to demonstrate
the kinds of behaviors the teacher will accept as
evidence that objectives have been achieved.
Activities performed by the learner may be visible,
such as writing or listing, or invisible, such as
identifying or recalling.

2. Condition: Describes the testing situation,

resources, assistance, or constraints under which
the behavior will occur, will be observed, or will be
completed.

3. Criterion: Describes how well, with which level of

accuracy, or within which time frame the learner
must be able to perform for the behavior to be
considered acceptable; the standard, quality level,
or amount of performance defined as satisfactorily
demonstrating mastery. It is the level of competence
that a learner must achieve.

These three characteristics translate into the

following questions: (1) What should the learner be
able to do? (2) Under which conditions should the
learner be able to do it? (3) How well must the
learner be able to do it?

A fourth component must also be included; it should

describe the “who” to ensure that the behavioral
objective is learner centered. For education in health
care, the learner may be the patient, family
members or significant others of the patient, staff
nurses, or student nurses.

Thus behavioral objectives are statements that

communicate who will do what under which
conditions and how well (Cummings, 1994). The
more complete the statements of objectives, the
better the objectives will communicate what is
expected of the learner and what the intent of
instruction is. An easy way to remember the four
elements that should be in a behavioral objective is
to follow the ABCD rule proposed by Smaldino,
Lowther, and Russell (2012):

A—audience (who)

B—behavior (what)

C—condition (under which

circumstance)

D—degree (how much; how

well; to what extent)

To link the behavioral objectives together, the

following four steps are recommended:

1. Identify the testing situation (condition).

2. Identify who will perform (learner).

3. State what the learner will demonstrate

(performance).

4. State how well the learner will perform (criterion).

For example, the following behavioral objective

follows these steps: “Following a 20-minute teaching
session on relaxation techniques (condition), Mrs.
Smith (learner) will be able to identify (performance)
three distinct techniques for lowering her stress level
(criterion).”

Table 10-1 outlines the four-part method of objective

writing. Table 10-2 gives examples of well-written
and poorly written objectives.

There are actually two accepted approaches to

writing behavioral objectives, depending on the
audience of learners. Reilly and Oermann (1990)
distinguish between what are known as specific
behavioral objectives and general behavioral
objectives. With both types of objectives, the
learners and the behaviors to be learned must be
clearly stated. The difference between the two types
of objectives lies in the desirability of including the
conditions of learning and the criteria for the level of
performance expected.

Specific behavioral objectives are closed-ended

statements that incorporate the condition and
criterion for learning, which makes them more
prescriptive and predictive for the measurement of
outcomes. This relatively linear format for writing
specific behavioral objectives is an asset to help
focus the learning process on a step-by-step basis,
especially when a low-level skill is the intended
outcome. For example, when teaching a patient to
test blood glucose levels or teaching a nurse a new
procedural protocol for a dressing change, the
writing of specific behavioral objectives is preferred.

TABLE 10-1 The Four-Part Method of Objective Writing

Criterion
(Quality
or
Condition Who Performance Quantity
(Testing (Identify (Learner of
Situation) Learner) Behavior) Mastery)

Without the will solve 5 out of 6

using a student math
calculator problems

Using a the staff will the

model nurse demonstrate correct
procedure
for
changing
sterile
dressings

Following the will list at least

group patient two
discussion reasons
for losing
weight

After the will select high-

watching caregiver protein
a video foods with
100%
accuracy

General behavioral objectives, which do not include

the condition or criterion for learning, are open-
ended statements that lend themselves to use in
evaluating higher cognitive skills. This format is
more appropriate for stating outcomes of an
academic program, when knowledge of the learner
is not expected to be merely an accumulation of
designated parts, but rather an integration and
synthesis of broader concepts and theories over
time. As such, the writing of general behavioral
objectives is more compatible when teaching nurses
in a staff development program or nursing students
in a course within a professional program of study.
This approach allows teachers to be more creative
in teaching and accommodates acceptable
variations in the learner that foster the creative
expression of ideas and knowledge. In addition, it
allows the educator to assign grades, which
distinguishes high achievers from moderate to lower
achievers.

It is important to recognize the existence of and

distinction between these two types of behavioral
objectives. In this chapter, however, the focus is on
writing specific behavioral objectives appropriate for
the learning of particular skill sets by patients and
their significant others.

TABLE 10-2 Samples of Written

Objectives

Well-Written Objectives

After watching a demonstration

on suctioning, the staff member
will be able to correctly suction a
tracheostomy tube using aseptic
technique.

Following a class on
hypertension, the patient will be
able to state three out of four
causes of high blood pressure.

On completing the reading

materials provided on the care of
a newborn, the mother will be
able to express any concerns she
has about caring for her baby
after discharge.

After conducting a thorough

health assessment, the staff
nurse will create a nursing care
plan consisting of at least three
needs of the patients.

After a 20-minute teaching

session, the patient will verbalize
at least two feelings or concerns
associated with wearing a
colostomy bag.

After reading handouts, the

patient will be able to state three
examples of foods that are
sources of protein.

Poorly Written Objectives

The patient will be able to

prepare a menu using low-salt
foods. [Condition and criterion
missing]

Given a list of exercises to relieve

low back pain, the patient will
understand how to control low
back pain. [Performance not
stated in measurable terms;
criterion missing]

The nurse will demonstrate crutch

walking postoperatively to the
patient. [Teacher-centered]

During discharge teaching, the

patient will be more comfortable
with insulin injections.
[Performance not stated in
measurable terms; condition
missing; criterion missing]