Biology

Biochemistry (Part I) – Macromolecules – Guided Notes

Chemistry of Life
atom: the smallest unit of matter - composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons
• element : simplest form of a substance - cannot be broken down any further without changing its
composition
• compound: a substance formed by the chemical combination of 2 or more elements in definite
proportions
– EXAMPLES: _______________________ (_______________________), _______________________ (_______________________),
_______________________ (_______________________), & _______________________ (_______________________)
• The cell is a complex chemical factor containing some of the same elements found in the
nonliving environment.
• Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N) are present in the greatest percentages.
– Sometimes, sulfur (S) and/or phosphorus (P)

Formulas
• The chemical symbols and numbers that compose a compound ("recipe")
• structural formula– line drawings of the compound that shows the elements in proportion and
how they are bonded
• molecular formula– the actual formula for a compound

Carbohydrates
• Living things use carbohydrates as a key source of energy!
• Plants use carbohydrates for structure (cellulose)
– include simple sugars and complex carbohydrates (starches)
– contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (the hydrogen is in a 2:1 ratio to
oxygen)

(Simple Sugars)
• all have the formula C6H12O6
• all have a single ring structure
– EXAMPLE: glucose
Disaccharides
• all have the formula C12H22O11
• EXAMPLE: surose (table sugar) and maltose
• Formed of three or more simple sugar units
• glycogen - animal starch stored in liver & muscles
• cellulose - indigestible in humans - forms cell walls
• starches - used as energy storage

How are complex carbohydrates formed and broken down?

Dehydration Synthesis
• Combining simple molecules molecules to form a more complex one with the removal of water
– EXAMPLE: monosaccharide + monosaccharide 🡪 disaccharide + water
C6H12O2 ➡️C12H22O11➕H2O
● Polysaccharides are formed from repeated dehydration syntheses of water
– They are the stored extra sugars known as Starch
Hydrolysis
• Addition of water to a compound to split it into smaller subunits
– (also called chemical digestion)
– EXAMPLE: disaccharide + H2O 🡪 monosaccharide + monosaccharide
c12h22o11 ➕h2o🡪 c6h12o6➕c6h12o6
Lipids
• fats, oils, waxes, & steroids
• Chiefly function in energy storage, insulation,& protection
• Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen but the H:O is NOT in a 2:1 ratio
• Tend to be large molecules
• Neutral lipids are formed from the union of 1 glycerol molecule & 3 fatty acids
• 3 fatty acids + glycerol 🡪 neutral fat (lipid)
• Fats - found chiefly in animals
• Oils and liquids- found chiefly in plants
• Oils are liquid at room temperature, waxes are solids
• Lipids along with proteins are key components of cell membranes
• Steroids are special lipids used to build many reproductive hormones and cholesterol
Proteins
• contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
 • composed of many amino acid subunits
• It is the arrangement of the amino acid that forms the primary structure of proteins.
• REMEMBER:
• The basic amino acid form has a carbonyl group on one end, a methyl group that only has one
hydrogen in the middle, and an amino group on the other end.
• Attached to the methyl group is an r group.
• AN R GROUP IS ANY GROUP OF ATOMS – THIS CHANGES THE PROPERTIES OF THE PROTEIN!

Functional Groups
• There are certain groups of atoms that are frequently attached to the organic molecules we will
be studying, and these are called function groups.
• These are things like hydroxyl groups, which form alcohols,carbonyl groups, which form
aldehydes
• or ketones, carbonyl groups, which form carboxylic acids, and amino groups, which form
amines.

Major Protein Functions

• Growth and repair
• Energy
• Buffer - helps keep body pH constant

Dipeptide
• formed from two amino acid subunits
• formed by the process of dehydration Synthesis
• amino acid + amino acid ----- dipeptide + water

Hydrolysis of a Dipeptide
• breaking down of a dipeptide into amino acids
• dipeptide + H2O ---> amino acid + amino acid
Polypeptide
• composed of three or more amino acids linked by synthesis reactions
• Examples of proteins include insulin, and hemoglobin.
• ** There is an extremely large number of different proteins.
• The bases for variability include differences in the number, kinds, and sequences of amino acids
in the proteins.
Nucleic Acids
• in all cells
• composed of nucleotides
• store & transmit hereditary/genetic information
• Nucleotides consist of three parts:
1. 5 carbon sugar
2. Phosphate Group
3. nitrogenous Base

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

• contains the genetic code of instructions that direct a cell's behavior through the synthesis of
proteins
• found in the chromosomes of the nucleus (and a few other organelles)
RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
• directs cellular protein synthesis
• found in ribosomes & nucleoli
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