SOCSCI221 -ETHICS

REVIEWER

Introduction:
The myth of Scientific objectivity affirms that unless our beliefs are
validated by science, the remains in the realm of mere opinion: personal,
subjective, arbitrary, biased. In common understanding, Science is a method for
attaining knowledge, a body of information or ‘Facts’ gained through that method,
and a device for controlling and changing the world. Science is not purely objective
and value-neutral resource it includes engineering, technology and the social
sciences that contributes in resolving problems. But its use depends on the user’s
value or purpose.
Science without ethics is blind. Ethics without science is empty.
Empirical disciplines contribute to ethics. Much of ethics is considered with
offering and defending normative judgement. Even the ability to recognize and
understand an ethical issue as an ethical issue depends on information furnished
by empirical sciences such as issue on global warming, ecosystem ecology, toxic
disposal, the Gulf war, sexuality and so on.
Empirical analysis as practiced by philosopher is fairly abstract
enterprise. Philosophers deal with general concepts such as “right”, “justice”,
“goodness” and “respect”. But these abstract concepts furnish little practical
guidance unless they are given scientific interpretations.
Translating ethical concepts from the abstract to the more practical level
demands knowledge, particularly in social and scientific facts. The formula “oath
implies can” suggest that we cannot responsibly hold people responsible for doing
what is impossible. It demands us to know the good deal about human nature.
(Ethics, Nery, 2003)

Philosophy
Is deduced from the Greek words “philein” meaing “love” and “Sophia” meaning
“wisdom”. Philosophy is the science of being in their ultimate reasons, causes and
principles, acquired by the aid of human reason alone.

Branches of Philosophy
1. Logic – is the science and art of correct thinking and reasoning.
2. Ethics – is the study of the nature and morality of the human acts
3. Epistemology – is the study of human knowledge.
4. Metaphysics – is the science of the ultimate principles and properties of
real beings.
A. General Metaphysics
a. Ontology - is the science of being in its most general
aspects.
B. Specific Metaphysics
a. Cosmology- the study of inanimate physical being.
b. Rational/ Philosophical Psychology – the study of the life
principle, particularly that of man.
 c. Theodicy – the study of essence and existence of God based
mainly on reasons.
5. Aesthetic – the study of beauty, its nature and appreciation.
6. Social/ Political Philosophy – the study of man and his place in society.

ETHICS
Etymologically, the word moral comes from the Latin word “mos” (pl. mores)
which in the Roman language and culture, expresses the same concept as the
Greek word “ethos” which means “culture, habit or character”. “mores” comes
from the root word moral and morality. Morality is the quality of goodness or
evilness which is attributed to human acts or particular aspect of life such as
sexual behavior, religious practices and the wide range of the free and
conscious acts of man whether as an individual or in a group.

Norms of Morality
It is an authoritative standard to which a human-act must conform to be
morally good. There are criteria to be considered.
1. It must not be subject to change.
2. It must be universal
3. It must be accessible to all
4. It must apply to all conditions of life
5. It must be a single standard.

Law
The highest norm of morality is the eternal law, this law is the objective
and universal law whereby God orders, directs and governs the entire universe
and the ways of the human community according to the plan of His Divine
wisdom and love. Man is not only a participant and sharer of the eternal law
but also a subject of the natural law. Man is a person and not a thing. He is a
self- determining agent as he possesses the spiritual faculties of intellect, will
and intuition not possessed by other beings on earth.

Conscience
The most secret core and sanctuary of man there he is alone with God,
whose voices echoes in his depths. It is the whole person’s commitment to
values and the judgement one must make in the light of the commitment to
apply those values.
Dimension of Conscience
a. Synderesis – is the basic tendency or capacity within us to know and to do
the good.
b. Moral Science – is the force of conscience. It empowers us to search out
the objective moral values in each specific situation on order to discover
the right thing to do.
c. Conscience – the specific judgement of the good which “I must do” in this
particular situation.

Sources of Moral Wisdom: Formation of Conscience

a. Experience
b. Testimony of Scripture
 c. Rich heritage of Stories, image, language, rituals, devotional practices,
and spiritual disciplines which nurtures one’s moral vision and practices.
The proper formation of conscience uses these sources of moral wisdom to inform
the four point of moral analysis such as the agent, beliefs, situational analyses and
moral norms.

Kinds of Conscience

Almoro et. al, in their book Righteous living informs us the different kinds of
conscience.
1. Antecedent/ Consequent
Antecedent – if the judgement on the morality of an action is passed before
the action is realized.
Consequent – if it evaluates an act already performed.
a. Right – if the act conforms to the objective norms of morality.
b. Erroneous – If the act does not conform to the objective norms of
morality.

2. Vincible / Invincible
Vincible – the error can be corrected with some good will and thus,
culpable.
Invincible – the Moral agent is not aware of any errors and thus,
Inculpable.
a. Perplexed – when confronted with two alternative precepts the agent
is afraid of choosing any of the alternatives.
b. Lax – without sufficient evidence, the person is inclined to judge a
thing to be lawful when in reality, it is unlawful, slightly evil when
actually it is gravely evil.
c. Scrupulous - when a person is in constant fear of doing wrong when
there is none.

3. Certain/ Doubtful
Certain –when judgement is passed with no fear whatsoever of being in
error.
Doubtful – when practical reasons cannot definitely decide whether the
action to be done is good or evil.

ETHICS & MORALITY

Morality is about the rules that governs the promotion of human goodness
so that individuals and the society may flourish (Pojman 2005) Morality speaks of
norms or rules of human conduct. If ethics is theoretical, morality is practical and
most of the time relative.
What we believe to be moral in our culture may not be for the other. Despite
the fact that legality and morality should always go hand in hand, this may not
always the case, Law is a system of rules enacted by its ruling agency and once
violated a corresponding punishment is given.
Importance of the Ethical Act
1. Acting ethically is a requirement for life.
2. Acting ethically is a requirement for society.
3. Acting ethically has a religious purpose.
4. Acting ethically is for the benefit of oneself
5. We act ethically because humans are basically good.
The Purpose of Morality
Morality may restrict our freedom, acting morally upright brings greater freedom to
do good to oneself and to others. Pojman 2005
1. To keep the society intact
2. To improve human life
3. To encourage growth
4. To ensure justice and order in resolving indifferences
5. To recognize individual action by providing due compensation that
corresponds to such actions.
The Nature of Moral Principles
1. Prescriptivity
2. Universality
3. Overriddingness
4. Publicity
5. Practicability

Moral VS Non-moral Standards

Moral Standards are principles that have moral impact. This definitely
point out to knowing what is good and bad. It Provides a structure on how you are
going to live your life and how you relate with others in harmony as it outlines the
values that you share with others to promote goodness to everyone, or the common
good.
Non-moral Standards are rules about table manners, classroom procedures
and routines or dressing up for a party be because they are outside the
scope of morality, they don’t have ethical considerations and would not give
a great dose of guilt when not followed.

MORAL EXPERIENCE
Moral experience has two elements: moral agent and moral act. The moral
agent is the doer of the act, it is thought that they have the ability to make sound
moral judgement through the reasoning ability.

Self-regarding motives or virtues

1. Prudence – prudence is defined as doing the right thing at the right
moment, with the right person, for the right reason and to the appropriate
degree.
2. Temperance – it’s the standing firm to have only what is enough despite
great enticement or opposing drive and works together with prudence
(Skutch, 2007).
3. Fortitude – perseverance even in the face of challenges so to achieve a very
important goal.
4. Patience – it is not acting on impulse. It is about taking time to think
through a certain act before doing it.
 5. Altruism – is the act of helping others. Altruism and all other regarding
virtues can be called as ‘Benovelence’.

Moral dilemma
Sometimes choosing is a hard thing to do. Just like in the activity, orders
coming from powerful persons that you are working for might not be aligned with
the beliefs of your religion or with what your education says. Not following orders
from your boss might make you lose your job. Setting aside your ideals might also
give you a gnawing experience.

Levels of Moral Dilemma

1. Individual or Personal Level – this involves making moral judgement and
eventually come up with a sound moral decision that concerns the individual
live of a person.
2. Organizational Level – this is about the moral dilemma of a person in an
organization. Workplaces, business establishments, schools, and other
organizations have regulations, procedures or even values that may
challenge the moral principles of a member of the organization,
3. Systematic Level – this is in the level at a large. Moral dilemmas
concerning the different social institutions that affect the life of the whole
society covers this level.

Moral Reasoning
We said that a moral dilemma urges us to choose, to come up with a
decision because we cannot perform all at the morally relevant options. It is in this
sense that we are to come up with a sound moral reasoning.

Culture
A simple definition of culture is that it is a way of life. It is characterized as
the people’s way of life which is shared by other people in a certain cultural region.
It is not saved to assume that everyone in a given society shares the same culture
or people who are far from each other can no longer share the same way of life.

Characteristics of Culture
Anthropologist, sociologist and behavioral scientist in the study of culture
came up with a list of traits and characteristics shared by all cultures.

1. Culture is learned – we acquire knowledge that are passed on to us by our

parents, primal adults and the people around us both directly and indirectly.
Children absorbed the information given to them from the day they were
born.
2. Culture is collective or shared – Culture is social in nature and not by any
means to be defined as a private or personal values of property. The
knowledge one has now is a product of accumulation of bits an pieces within
a society or culture. We become enculturated to the society and society to
which we belong.
3. Culture is transmitted orally and in writing – Sharing and learning of
culture can be done either consciously or unconsciously, within generations
or across generation in unlimited ways. Oral transmission of culture is
potent through the life cycle of man.
4. Culture is symbolic – culture operates within a realm of symbol
construction and symbol usage. It is learned, shared and transmitted using
a complex set of symbols used to communicate called language.
5. Culture is a holistic and integrated – of parts of culture are intricately
connected to one another into a holistic entity. For Durkheim, culture is a
product not a single individual but of a collective consciousness
6. Culture is adoptive – cultural adaptation is the evolutionary process that
modifies the social life of the people in the given natural environments.
7. Culture satisfies needs – culture defines the activities of a man. It is
likewitse within a culturewhere these activities can be gratified. Gratification
refers to the granting of a quality of life or lifestyle for personal or social
gratification.
8. Culture is compolsury – being a member of society also means that you
become a subject ogf the society to which you are born and socialize.
9. Culture is dynamic – no culture is static and permanent. Since
membership culture is continuously changing by the influx and changes in
and among members; people move in and out of a culture.
10.Culture is cumulative – everytime the transmission of knowledge is
conducted through socialization, accumulation occurs-from old to new. The
cycle happens repeatedly every time, knowledge it’s accumulated and
transformed.
11.Culture interacts and undergoes information – all human cultures and
societies interact to each other’s cultures which are either related or totally
distinct from one another. This contact could either result to copying or
borrowing of some aspect of one culture resulting to the transformation of
one culture or both.

The influence of culture and moral development

All human cultures and societies interact to other cultures which are either
related or totally distinct from one another. This contact could either resolve to
copying or borrowing some of the aspects of one culture resulting to the
transformation of one culture or both. Interaction can happen in the form of
domination or colonialism. A dominated society is forced and the subjected to
the culture of that defeated and this may result to the acceptance of the
dominant religion, political authority, educational system, and even the way of
speaking and thinking.

Culture influences the moral development of the people through the

following points:
1. Culture is always a social and communal by which the relationship of people
towards one another.
2. Culture defines normative principles and behaviors of the society. It defines
which particular principle and behavior that should be kept that would serve
the best interest of the community.
3. A culture is as best exemplified in the experience of people, develop
restriction and set boundaries and limitation as they liver and relate with
one another. These would create an atmosphere of promoting the welfare of
the community.
4. Culture helps in gathering the character and identify of its people, it also
includes the moral character. Culture conditions the mind— the way people
 think and the way we perceive the world and their relationship with one
another.
5. Culture identifies the authorities or the governing individuals or groups.
They are the symbol of guidance and control. In many cultures, men are
most of the time looked up to as leaders overseeing the order of the
community. They are expected to give guidance to the body.