Work friendships

are critical for

long-term
happiness

75
Perception Meaning

The word Perception comes from the Latin

words, “percipio” meaning “receiving,
collecting, action of taking possession,
apprehension with the mind or senses”.
Perception Definition

a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in

order to give meaning to their environment

Stephen P. Robbins

Perception is an important meditative cognitive process through which persons

make interpretations of the stimuli’s or situation they are faced with

Fred Luthans
Why is perception important in the study of Organisational
Behavior?

Simply because people’s behavior is based on their perception

of what reality is, not on reality itself. The world as it is perceived
is the world that is behaviorally important.

For example, in appraising performance, managers use their

perceptions of an employee’s behaviour as a basis for
evaluation. One work situation that highlights the importance of
perception is the selection interview. Perception is also culturally
determined. Based on our cultural backgrounds, we tend to
perceive things in certain ways.
Nature of perception

1.Perception is the process by which an individual gives

meaning to the environment.

2.People‘s actions, emotions, thoughts and feelings are

triggered by their perceptions of their surroundings.

3.Perception has been defined in a variety of ways; it basically

refers to the manner in which a person experiences the world.

4.Perception is an almost automatic process and works in the

same way within each individual, yet it typically yields different
perceptions.
Factors that Influence Perception
1.Characteristics of the Perceiver
2.Characteristics of the Target
3.Characteristics of the Situation
Characteristics of the Perceiver

Several characteristics of the perceiver can affect perception. When an

individual looks at a target and attempts to interpret what he or she stands for,
that interpretation is heavily influenced by personal characteristics of the
individual perceiver.

The major characteristics of the perceiver influencing perception are:

Attitude
Motives
Interest
Experience
Expectation
Self-Concept
Characteristics of the Target

Characteristics in the target that is being observed can affect what is perceived.
Physical appearance plays a big role in our perception of others. Extremely
attractive or unattractive individuals are more likely to be noticed in a group
than ordinary looking individuals.

Motion, sound, size and other attributes of a target shape the way we see it.

Physical appearance
Verbal communication
Non-verbal communication
Objects
Characteristics of the Situation

Change in situation leads to incorrect perception about a person.

The factor that influence the perception are:

Time
Work setting
Social setting
Managerial Implications of Perception

People in organizations are always judging each other. Managers

must appraise their subordinate’s performance. Let us look at the
more obvious applications of perceptions in organizations.

Employment Interview
Performance Evaluation
Performance Expectations
Employee Loyalty
The Effects of Power and Politics in Modern
Organizations and its Impact on Workers’
Productivity
Acquiring and Using Power and Influence A considerable portion of
any manager’s time is directed toward power-oriented behavior;
which is an action directed at developing or using relationships in
which other people are willing to defer wholly or partially to one’s
wishes. There are three dimensions of managerial power and
influence which are; downward, upward and lateral. Effective
managers build and maintain position power and personal power to
exercise these downward, upward and lateral influences.
Building Position and Personal Power

Position power can be built and achieved in three (3) different ways
which are listed below:

 Increasing the centrality and criticality within an organization.

 Increasing the task importance of own activities and unit’s activities.
 Attempting to define tasks so that they become difficult to evaluate.

Personal power is done building expertise by advanced training and

education and also in
project involvement; it is also done by learning political savvy and
enhancing likeability.
Behavior of Powerful Leaders and Managers

Powerful leaders and managers in an organization tend to increase the total

power of the work group; they also increase the opportunities of their
subordinates getting promoted in time.

They tend to be highly effective. Some of the behaviors of powerful leaders are
listed below:

  They see people’s talent as a resource to be harnessed.

  They delegate decision authority.
  They can change people’s working conditions.
  They take risk and press for innovations.
  They share power widely and also help people to develop.
Behavior of Powerless Leaders and Managers

Powerless leaders and managers in an organization are direct opposite of the

powerful ones.

They tend to lower the total power of the work group; they also decrease the
opportunities of their subordinates getting promoted in time. They tend to be
highly ineffective. Some of their behaviors are listed below:

 They supervise closely.

 They do not delegate authority to make decisions.
 They often distrust subordinates and see people’s talents as a threat.
 They stick to the rules and do not take risks.
 They strongly focus on the work and protect his or her territory.
Organizational Politics

Organizational politics can be referred to as the structure and process of use of authority
and power to effect definitions of goals, directions and other parameters of the
organization.

It can be defined as the management of influence to obtain ends not sanctioned by the
organization or to obtain sanctioned ends through non-sanctioned influence means.

Politics is an important function that results from differences in the self-interests of

individuals. It is the art of creative compromise or bargain amongst competing interests.
It is the use of power to develop socially acceptable ends and means that balance
individual and collective interests.
Factors Influencing Political Behavior in Organization
Not all groups or organizations are equally
political. In some organizations, for instance,
politicking is overt and rampant, while in others,
politics plays a small role in influencing outcomes.
Why is there this variation?
Individual Factors

Researchers have identified certain personality traits, needs, and

other factors that are likely to be related to political behavior.
•Employees who are high self-monitor, possess an internal locus of
control, and have a high need for power are more likely to engage in
political behavior.
•The high self-monitor is more sensitive to social cues and is more
likely to be skilled in political behavior than the low self-monitor.
•Individuals with an internal locus of control are more prone to take
a proactive stance and attempt to manipulate situations in their
favor.
•The Machiavellian personality is comfortable using politics as a
means to further his/her self-interest.
An individual’s investment in the organization’s perceived alternatives and
expectations of success will influence the tendency to pursue illegitimate
means of political action.

 The more that a person has invested and the more a person has to lose,
the less likely he/she is to use illegitimate means.
 The more alternative job opportunities an individual has, a prominent
reputation, or influential contacts outside the organization, the more likely
he/she will risk illegitimate political actions.
 A low expectation of success in using illegitimate means diminishes the
probability of its use.
Positive Types of Power

Positive power in an organization involves encouraging productivity.

This includes giving employees the power to make decisions, rewarding

employees for strong performance and appointing employees who
perform strongly to supervise other employees.

Positive power builds employee confidence and motivates.

Be a Good Role Model

It is well established that role models, high-level personnel, set the

standards by which, lower-level employees operate. Political activities by
managers make their subordinates indulge in similar behaviors.

Managers will find it difficult to constrain the political actions of their

subordinates unless they set a clear example of hones and reasonable
treatment of others in their behavior.
Creating Awareness

Creating, awareness within the organization can limit political

behaviors.

Being aware of the causes and consequences will help

organizational members resist the temptations of resorting to
political maneuvering.
Conflict & Negotiation
Conflict and negotiation are aspects of running a business. Business
owners face conflict with partners, managers, employees and the
general public. Negotiation is often a key part of conflict-management
skills for creating an amicable solution for all parties involved in the
conflict. Many small or home-based businesses avoid internal conflict
and negotiation because owners are primarily responsible for
completing business functions. However, external conflict and
negotiation occur for most companies in the business environment.
Facts About Conflict

Conflict and negotiation in the workplace takes place when individuals

have different ideas, beliefs or theories regarding business operations.
Business owners may also find conflict when bargaining with individuals or
other businesses. Acquiring economic resources or other business assets
often involves bargaining.

Negotiation is the process of discussing each individual’s position

about a topic and attempting to reach a solution that benefits both
parties. Conflict and negotiation are usually more prevalent in larger
business organizations since more individuals are involved in the
company's operations.
Options for Solving Conflict

Successful conflict and negotiation in organizational behavior relies on

using different techniques to resolve difficult situations. Business owners
might follow a few steps when processing discussion options and
solutions: identifying the problem, analyzing the issue, creating different
strategies or approaches, and acting on outcomes or ideas. These steps
provide a logical process to follow when solving conflict and negotiation
issues.