Photodiode characteristics:-

LAXMI NARAYAN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF ENGGINIRING PHISICS  The photodiode V-I characteristics are as shown in Fig.2(a) and the
variation of photocurrent with light intensity as shown in Fig 2(b).
 Dark Current: It is the current flowing through a photodiode in the
EXPERIMENT # Date:-…./…./…. absence of light. Dark current flows due to the thermally generated
minority carriers, and hence increases with increase in temperature.
 The reverse current Iλ depends only on the intensity of light incident
Object :- Draw the V-I characteristics of Photodiode. on the junction. It is almost independent of the reverse voltage.

Required Apparatus: - Advantages of photodiode:-

Photodiode, Voltmeter, Ammeter, Source of light, Connecting wires.  High sensitivity: This means, a large in the photocurrent for a small
change in light intensity.
Theory:  High speed of operation as compared to LDR (Light Dependent
Resistor).
 The photodiode is a P-N junction semiconductor diode which is
always operated in the reverse biased condition. Disadvantages of Photodiode:-
 The construction of a photodiode and its circuit symbols are as
shown in Fig.1(a) and 1(b) respectively.  Dark current increase with temperature.
 The light is always focused through a glass lens on the junction of  Poor temperature stability.
the photodiode.  External bias voltage is essential for operation.
 As the photodiode is reverse biased, the depletion region is quite  Amplification is required, as the output current is of small
wide, penetrated on both sides of the junction, as shown in Fig. (1a). magnitude.
 The photons incident on the depletion region will impart their energy
to the ions present there and generate electron hole pairs.
 The number of electron hole pairs will be dependent on the intensity
of light (number of photons). These electrons and holes will be
attracted towards the positive and negative terminals respectively of
the external source, to constitute the photocurrent.
 With increase in the light intensity, more number of electron hole
pairs are generated and the photocurrent increases. Thus the
photocurrent is proportional to the light intensity.

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 Photons

Iλ VF
VR (Volts)

Depletion region
vR - +- +-
Dark current
+ +-
n
Iλ
Electron hole (Reverse current) (μA)
Iλ Fig-2(a): V-I characteristics of a photodiode
pairs

Photocurrent
Fig-1(a) Construction of photodiode
(μA)

A C

Fig-1(b): Symbol of Photodiode

Intensity

Fig-2(b): Variation of photocurrent with intensity of

light.

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Why is the photodiode operated in reverse biased condition?

In the reverse biased condition the only current flowing through

the diode in the absence of light is the reverse saturation current which is
very small in magnitude. Hence the change in diode current due to the
light incident on it is significant (photocurrent is in μA). If the diode was
forward biased current due to light will not be even noticeable. Hence Light Source
the photodiode is operated in the reverse biased condition.
Conveyer Counting Display
Applications of photodiode:- belt Movement Mechnism
Objects
 A popular application of the photodiode is as object counting system
shown in Fig 3 Fig.3 Object counting system using photodiode
 This system is used for counting the number of objects that are
passing on a conveyor belt. A light beam is focused continuously on
the photodiode and the reverser photocurrent is flowing through it.
 As soon as an object passes and interrupts the beam of light, the
photocurrent flowing through the photodiode will reduce to zero.
This will be counting mechanism to count the number of objects.
 In general the applications of photodiode are same as those of an
LDR. In addition they can be used in optical measurement system
and fibre optic communication.

Other Applications:-

1. In the camera for sensing the light intensity.

2. In the fibre optic receiver.
3. In light intensity meters.

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LAXMI NARAYAN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF ENGGINIRING PHISICS
EXPERIMENT # Date:-…./…./….
Object:- To study the characteristics of a photo-voltaic (solar) cell and
find the fill factor.
Apparatus:- A solar (photo voltaic) cell, a D. C. voltmeter (or milli-
voltmeter), a D.C. milli-ammeter (or micrometer), a dial resistance box,
a 100 watt lamp, connecting wires etc.
 A Solar cell consists of P-N junction diode. The top layer is made
very thin so that the light radiation may penetrate to fall on junction.
(Fig.1)
 When the solar radiation is incident on the cell, electron hole pairs
are generated in the N and P regions. The majority of them cannot
recombine in the regions.
 At the junction they face a barrier potential i.e. Jumction electric
field which separate them.
 The barrier potential sweeps the electron from P-region N-region
and as well as holes from N-region to P-region. this increase the
number of holes on P-side and electron on N-side of the junction.
 The accumulation of electrons and holes on the two sides of the
junction produces a voltage or emf known as photo emf.
 The photo emf is also known as open circuit voltage (VOC) which is
proportional to illumination and the size of illumination area.
 When an external circuit is connected a current flow through a
circuit and solar cell behave as a battery.

Theory : -

 A Solar cell is a solid state/photovoltaic device designed to convert

solar energy into electrical energy.
Fig.2

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Procedure: -

 Place the solar cell and light source opposite to each other on a
wooden plank. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 2

 Select the voltmeter range to 2V and current meter range to 250μA

and load resistance RL.

 Switch on the lamp to expose the lights on solar cell.

 The distance between solar cell and lamp is in such a way that
current meter shows 250V deflection. Note down the observation of
voltage and current in observation table.

 Vary the load resistance through the knob and note down the current Graph
and voltage reading every time in observation table.
Precautions:
Observation Table: 1. Light from the lamp should fall normally on the cell.
2. The solar cell should be exposed to sunlight before using it is the
Resistance Voltmeter Ammeter experiment.
S.No.
R (ohms) V (volt) I (mA) 3. A resistance in the cell circuit should be introduced so that the current
does not exceed the safe operating limit.

Result: The V-I characteristics of Solar cell shown in the graph .

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LAXMI NARAYAN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF ENGGINIRING PHISICS

EXPERIMENT # Date:-…./…./….

Object:- To study the wavelength of laser light with a diffraction

grating.

Required apparatus:-Laser source, Diffraction grating, Screen with a

mm graph paper and a meter scale.

Theory:- Measuring the wavelength of Laser by using diffraction

grating we use the formula.
(Fig-1)
nλ = d sinθ
where 3. A mm graph paper is fixed on the screen & put the screen at
n = the order of the image(o,1,2,3,……….) suitable.
d = the distance between two lines of grating 4. The position of the grating is moved so that the laser beam gets
θ = the angular position of the image (measured from the normal diffracted to give the bright spots on the graph paper fixed at
to the grating screen.
5. The positions of the bright spots are marked on the mm graph
By measuring D and y, θ can be found & we can calculate the paper with the help of a soft pencil.
wavelength λ. 6. The mid-point is located from the positions of the direct laser
spot and the spot due to zeroth order of diffraction.
Procedure:- 7. The separations of bright spots of different orders of diffractions
from the point o (op1 in fig-1)) are measured and the observations
1. The laser is switches on. are tabulated i.e. y.
2. Put the diffraction grating of the stand of test bench at some 8. Measuring the distance between the diffraction grating & graph
distance from the laser source (Fig-1) screen (Go in fig-1) i.e. D.

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ObservationTable: Example to Calculate θ

Order of the Position of Distance of Measure the distance between diffraction grating & screen i.e. D = 101 mm
distance between mid bright spot of laser to first order of spot (n=1) i.e. y =
S.No. diffraction diffraction order different order of 36 mm
band i.e. n of spot from spot from origin
grating i.e. D (o) i.e. y So we can calculate θ = tan-1 y
D
= tan-1 36 = 19.61
101
1 Sin 19.61 = 0.33
2
3 Wavelength of laser
4 λ = nd sinθ
= 1× (2 ×10-6m) × 0.33
5
= 0.66 × 10-6
= 660nm

We take the observation by using the 500 lines per mm diffraction

grating so that distance between two lines of grating

d= 1
500
= 0.002mm = .002×103m
= 2×10-6m

Result:- The wavelength λ of the laser light = ………nm/Å

% error = ……………..

Precautions:-

i. The laser beam should be handled very carefully.

ii. The laser beam either directly or reflected must
never reach the eye. It is extremely dangerous for
the eye.