Review Related Literature

This chapter presents a review of related literature and studies both local and foreign

that the researcher abstracted from the sources considered relevant to the topic. It also

summarized many issues about training, operations and other related topics.

ROTC Training

According Merriam Webster dictionary (2014), the term ‘training’ indicates the

process of planned programs and procedures undertaken for the improvement of employee’s

performance in terms of his attitude, skills, knowledge and behaviour. These training and

development programs can significantly improve the overall performance of organization.

Training is teaching, or developing in oneself or others, any skills and knowledge that relate

to specific useful competencies. Training has specific goals of improving one’s capability,

capacity, productivity and performance. It forms the core of apprenticeships and provides the

backbone of content an organization. In addition to the basic training required for a trade,

occupation or profession, observers of the labor-market recognize the need to continue

training beyond initial qualifications: to maintain, upgrade and update skills throughout

working life. People within man professions and occupations may refer to this sort of training

as professional development

ROTC Implementation in Abroad

According to Armstrong (2001), “Training is systematic development of knowledge,

skill and attitudes required by an individual to perform adequately a given task or job”.

Morrill Act is the concept of ROTC in the United States began with the established the land-

grant colleges. Part of the federal government’s requirement for these schools was that they
include military tactics as part of their curriculum, forming what became known as ROTC.

The college from which ROTC originated is Norwich University in Northfield, Vermont.

Norwich was founded in 1819 at Norwich, Vermont, as the American Literary, Scientific and

Military Academy. The university was founded by former West Point instructor Captain

Alden Partridge, who promoted the idea of a “citizen soldier”—a man trained to act in a

military capacity when his nation required, but capable of fulfilling standard civilian

functions in peacetime. This idea eventually led to the formation of Reservist and National

Guard units with regimented training in place of local militia forces. There are research

studies which have been conducted on ROTC. Most of these have been based – outcome

studies which have focused on the effects of participation in an Army JROTC program.

One of the first of these studies was conducted in Pennsylvania’s public secondary

schools in 1973 by Seiverling. He investigated the effectiveness of JROTC (Air Force, Army,

and Navy) in relationship to three desired learning outcomes: leadership, citizenship and self-

reliance. He used the Gordon Personal Profile to measure leadership, the Pennsylvania

Student Questionnaire (Secondary), Section F-Citizenship to measure citizenship and the

Self-Concept as a Learner Scale to measure self-reliance. In a comparison of 97 JROTC cadet

seniors with 97 senior non-JROTC seniors matched on sex and Intelligent Quotient (IQ)

scores, Seiverling found no significant differences at the .05 level between the mean scores of

JROTC cadets versus non-JROTC seniors on any of the three desired learning outcomes.

Since that time, there have been at least two studies similar to that of Seiverling’s.

Hawkins (1988) compared 83 senior level Army JROTC Cadets with 92 senior level students

who were not exposed to nor taught JROTC courses in seven public secondary schools

located in Central Virginia. Each cadet had received JROTC courses for at least two years.
Although Hawkins used the same measure of citizenship as Seiverling, he used Stogdill’s

Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire Form XII to measure leadership and used the

California Test of Personality, Section A, Self-Reliance to measure self-reliance. The

collective mean scores revealed that JROTC cadets scored higher than non JROTC students

in all three variables of interest, but none were significant at the .05 level.

Bachmann (1994) and Rivas (1995) found that JROTC participation may significantly

increase self-esteem scores for some students. Bachmann analyzed the effects of participation

in an Army JROTC program on leadership behavior and self-esteem for 94 high school

juniors in three separate secondary schools located in California. There were 47 students in

each group from a comparable demographic sample in California. The JROTC cadets had

been in the program for at least two years. Bachmann utilized the same questionnaire as

Roberts to measure leadership, the Self-Esteem Inventory to measure self-esteem and

designed a Student Demographic Questionnaire which surveyed gender, ethnicity and

academic achievement. Results indicated that the mean scores for JROTC students on

leadership and self-esteem were significantly higher than for students not exposed to the

JROTC program. Bachmann found differences within gender. Male JROTC students scored

significantly higher than non JROTC males on their mean scores for leadership, but no

significant difference was found on their mean score for self-esteem. However, female

JROTC students scored significantly higher than their non-JROTC counterparts on mean

scores in self-esteem, but no significant difference was found on their mean scores for

leadership.

Reserve Officers’ Training Corps in South Korea is a college-based officer training

program which was established in 1961. South Korea’s Conscription Law applies to males,
aged between 18 and although women are allowed to enroll in the ROTC as of 2010.

Applicants to the ROTC program go through a screening process; a written exam, an

interview and health examination, and a background check. Once accepted, members undergo

physical and military education throughout the semester; they are also required to undergo

actual military training during school holidays. After commissioning, they serve for two and a

half years; an individual may choose to extend his or her service past the required period in

pursuit of an active military career.

Reserve Officers’ Training Corps in Taiwan was first proposed by the Ministry of

National Defence in September 1995 and has been in operation since 1997or 1999. Other

sources mention that an ROTC program was already active in Taiwan in the 1960s.ROTC in

Taiwan is based on the Reserve Officers’ Training Corps program of the United States. The

proposed training regimen consisted of three to four additional hours of military courses each

week aside from university classes. During the winter vacation, students were to attend a one

or two-week boot camp and in the summer, they would undergo six weeks of military

training. The Ministry of National Defence provides three years of financial aid for the

students’ university studies, as well as stipends. Graduates of the ROTC program are given

the rank of second lieutenant; they then proceed with specialized military training. ROTC

graduates are required to serve in the military for five years, after which they are free to rejoin

civilian life. They may also elect to remain in the military as career officers. Other

developments as of 2001, the Taiwan ROTC program was only available for college students

aiming to join the Army. By 2009, the Ministry of Education has reduced the number of

ROTC courses in the National Taiwan University, considering the program a symbol of
autocracy. Despite this, the ROTC program remains popular among Taiwanese college

students.

ROTC Implementation in the Philippines

During Spanish colonial rule, Filipinos were drafted for military service and deployed

as auxiliary forces both in local and foreign campaigns of the Spanish Empire. One author

states that the Spanish friars supervised the conscription of parishioners into the colonial

army. The Spaniards evidently commended the Filipinos’ military service, citing them as

excellent soldiers in campaigns such as the taking of Ternate. During the first phase of the

Philippine Revolution (1896-1897), more than 17,000 native Filipinos were in the Spanish

order of battle, 60% of which were made up of members of the Guardia Civil.

ROTC in the Philippines began in 1912 when the Philippine Constabulary

commenced with military instruction at the University of the Philippines. The university’s

Board of Regents then made representations to the United States Department of War through

the Governor-General and received the services of a United States Army officer who took on

the duties of a professor of Military Science. Through this arrangement, the first official

ROTC unit in the Philippines was established in the University of the Philippines on 3 July

1922. The National University, Ateneo de Manila University, Liceo de Manila, and Colegio

de San Juan de Letran soon followed suit and organized their own respective ROTC units. In

1936, the Office of the Superintendent for ROTC Units under the Philippine Army was

activated to supervise all ROTC units in the country.

President Manuel L. Quezon issued Executive Order No. 207 in 1939 in order to

implement the National Defense Act of 1935, otherwise known as Commonwealth Act No. 1,
the embodiment of the national defense plan formulated by General Douglas MacArthur for

the Philippine Commonwealth. This executive order made ROTC obligatory at all colleges

and universities with a total enrollment of 100 students and greater. This measure was made

in order to help fill out the reserve force requirement of 400,000 men by 1946 and especially

for junior reserve officers. At the onset of World War II in 1941, thirty-three colleges and

universities in the Philippines had organized ROTC units, the cadets and officers of which

would see action for the first time. Elements from different ROTC units in Metro Manila took

part in the Battle of Bataan. ROTC cadets of Silliman University in the Visayas made up 45%

of the strength of the 75th Infantry Regiment of the United States Army Forces in the Far East

(USAFFE). Volunteers from the Philippine Military Academy and various other ROTC units

formed the Hunters ROTC guerrilla group, which took part in the resistance movement

during the Japanese occupation after the last American and Filipino forces had surrendered.

There are research studies about ROTC in the Philippines, which have focused on the

effects of participation in an ROTC program. One of these researches was conducted in Don

Mariano Marcos Memorial State University- South La Union Campus by Manuel T. Libao

Situation Analysis the ROTC remains a valuable tool in the total education of youth. The

objectives of the study were primarily conducted to evaluate the ROTC Program in

DMMMSU to determine the reason for the continuous decline in enrollment and recommend

measures to remedy the same. To improve the ROTC program some measures were presented

which may help improve the Program and ultimately sustain or increase enrollment. These

measures were rated using the following scale: 5 (4.21 to 5.00)= Very highly recommended 4

(3.41 to 4.20)= Highly recommended 3 (2.61 to 3.40)= Moderately recommended 2 (1.81 to

2.60) = Slightly recommended 1 (1.00 to 1.80) = Not recommended 57 Administrators must

provide better support for the Program. This was rated highest with a weighted mean of 4.07

or “highly recommended.” The ROTC program or any program, for that matter, could not

succeed if administrative support is lacking. Administrative support provides direction for the

attainment of the objectives of the program. Seemingly, there is a need to strengthen the

support that the ROTC program is getting from administration. This could be in the form of

allocating more logistics for the program, prioritizing the program in terms of planning and

budgeting and such other similar measures.

Chapter 2

Research Methodology

Research Design

The study used the descriptive method of research that is designed to assess the status

of the implementation of Reserved Officers Training Corps in any College School in the

Philippines in terms of the following factors: human resource, physical facilities, logistics,

policy and objectives, budget and finance and training pursuant to Republic Act No. 7077.

The objective of descriptive method of research is to gather information about the

current condition, its emphasis is to describe the present existing situations rather than to

judge or interpret (Creswell, 2009).

Descriptive method also attempts to accurately describe or characterize an Individual

or group’s attitudes, behaviour’s or characteristics. In other words, it may be defined as a

purposive process of gathering, analyzing, classifying, and tabulating data about prevailing

conditions, practices, beliefs, processes, trends and cause and effect relationships and then

making adequate and accurate interpretation about such data with the aid of statistical

method.

Research Locale

This study will be conducted in Luna National High School which was located at Luna, La

Union. This school is a public high school which offers Junior High School and Senior High

School curriculum.

Population and Sampling Design

The researcher will be using 50 students as a sample respondents based on the result of

random sampling technique among 300 total population of Grade 12 students in Luna

National High School. Random sampling technique is a subset of statistical population in

which each members of the subset has an equal probability of being chosen