Cell Cycle (Interphase, Mitosis & Meiosis) Chromatin

 Scientists have identified a  repeating  cycle of  Chromosomes unwind when the cell is not
 events in the  life of a cell dividing
 Unwound chromosomes are available to be
 This cycle of events is called the cell cycle
“read” by the cell’s machinery
 like an open book
Cell Division  the DNA is accessible
 thus the cell can carry out the
 Every hour, about one billion (109) cells die
instructions coded in it
and one billion cells are made in your body. Part
of the cell cycle includes making new cells in a   Not visible under the microscope
process called cell division. Condensed Chromosomes

     Condensation occurs at the beginning of cell

division
   Condensed chromosomes are unavailable to be
“read” (like a closed book)
 visible under the microscope

Gap 1 (G1) – First Growth Phase

 Period of rapid growth
 New proteins and organelles are produced
 Chromosomes are unwound (chromatin)
 Preparing for DNA synthesis (S phase)
The cell cycle has four phases:
G1 Phase - S Phase - G2  Phase - M Phase G zero (G0)
 Cell leaves cell cycle
INTERPHASE
 Composed of G1, S, G2  Can be temporary or permanent
 Where cell spends most (~90%) of its time  But not necessarily dead
 Often called the “resting” phase but cell is not  Example: neurons
at rest
Checkpoints
 Cell may not be dividing but it is active
 Where a cell checks to make sure it is able to
CHROMOSOMES continue to the next phase
 Chromosomes are stored in the nucleus
 Every cell that contains a nucleus will have G1 Checkpoint
chromosomes
 Cell size must be large enough
DNA: The Genetic Code  Environment must be suitable
 Genetic information is  stored on chromosomes
 The coded information  on chromosomes is 
Next Phase: S
called DNA  (deoxyribonucleic acid) DNA Synthesis Phase (S)
CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE  Cell makes a copy of its entire set of
Chromatin: the unwound form of the chromosome chromosomes (DNA)
Condensed: the tightly wound (coiled) form of the
chromosome Duplicated Chromosomes
 Chromsomes that have duplicated will have
two sister chromatids attached to the same
centromere
 Sister chromatids have identical genetic
information
Next Phase: G2 Image is showing:
¡
Chromosomes condensing
Gap 2 (G2) – Second Growth Phase ¡
Nuclear envelope disappearing
 Cell grows larger in size in preparation for cell
division
 Produces organelles and structures needed for
cell division
 Example: centrioles and nucleolus are
duplicated
 Shortest part of interphase
G2 Checkpoint
 DNA is replicated
 Cell size must be large enough
 Environment must be suitable

Next Phase: M Illustration is showing:

 Nuclear envelope disappearing
M phase: Cell Division  Centrioles moving to poles
 All of the cell’s energy is devoted to the process  Spindle fibers forming
of cell division Metaphase
 M phase is divided into mitosis and cytokinesis
 Chromosomes line up along equator (center
Mitosis: 4 phases of the cell)
PMAT  Spindle fibers attach to the centromeres of
each chromosome
 Prophase
 Metaphase
 Anaphase
 Telophase

Prophase
 Chromosomes condense (no longer chromatin)
and become visible
 Nuclear envelope disappears
 Centrioles move to the poles of the cell
 Spindle fibers begin to extend from the poles
Anaphase Outcome of Mitosis
 Spindle fibres shorten  Two daughter cells each
pulling the chromosomes containing identical genetic
to opposite poles information
 Sister chromatids separate  Daughter cells have the same
at the centromere and move number of chromosomes as the
to the poles original parent cell
Telophase
 Chromosomes uncoil and Overview of Cell Division
become invisible
 Nuclear envelope reappears
 Spindle fibers disappear
 Occurs simultaneously with
cytokinesis
 Daughter cells have identical
genetic information
Cytokinesis
 Separation of the cell and cell contents:
 Cytoplasm
 Organelles
 Cell membrane
 Does not have to be an
equal division
 Daughter cells can:
 be different sizes
 Have different cellular
content (but nuclear content is the same)
¡
Example: budding
Telophase & Cytokinesis

Interphase
 Phases of Meiosis I
Meiosis I:
 the reduction division
 diploid mother cell produces 2 haploid cells.
1). Prophase I
i. Leptotene
ii. Zygotene
iii. Pachytene
iv. Diplotene
v. Diakinesis
2). Metaphase I
Meiosis Cell Division
3). Anaphase I
What is Meiosis?
4). Telophase I
 Meiosis is a special type
of cell division necessary
for sexual reproduction
Prophase I
in eukaryotes
 Meiosis begins with one  During prophase I, DNA is
diploid cell containing two exchanged between homologous
copies of each chromosome chromosomes in a process called
 produces four haploid cells homologous recombination.
containing one copy of each This often results in the chromosomal
chromosome crossover.
 The paired and replicated chromosomes
Where and when it occurs?
are called bivalents or tetrads.
 Meiosis occurs in eukaryotic life cycles  The process of pairing the homologous
involving sexual reproduction chromosomes is called synopsis.
 It always occurs in reproductive cells (meiocyte)  At this stage, non-sister chromatids may
 In lower plant meiosis occurs after fertilization cross-over at points called chiasmata
in zygote (plural; singular chiasma).
 In higher plant it occurs before fertilization in
i. Leptotene
the time of gamete creation.
 The first stage of prophase I
 In males, meiosis begins after hitting puberty
 Also known as Leptonema from
and continue throughout one’s lifetime. It occurs
Greek words meaning "thin threads"
in the testes.
 During this stage, chromatin
 In females, the process starts approximately at begin to condense into long
the 12th week of fetal development, until one hits strands within the nucleus
puberty, it does not resume.  However the two sister chromatids
are still so tightly bound that they
 It occurs in the ovaries. are indistinguishable from one another
ii. Zygotene
 Also known as zygonema, from Greek words
meaning "paired threads”
 Zygotene, occurs as the chromosomes
approximately line up with each other into
homologous chromosomes.
 The combined homologous chromosomes are
said to be bivalent
iii. Pachytene
 In pachynema, the homologous chromosomes
become much more closely associated. This
process is known as synapses.
 The synapsed homologous pair of chromosomes
is called a tetrad
because it consists of four chromatids
 It can't be observed until the next stage, but the
synapsed chromosomes may undergo crossing
over
 The chromosomes continue to condense
iv. Diplotene
 During the diplotene stage,
also known as diplonema,
from Greek words meaning
"two threads,"
 the homologous chromosomes
separate from one another a little
 The chromosomes themselves uncoil
a bit, allowing some transcription
of DNA
Crossing over
 During prophase I of meiosis,
a part of chromatid of one
chromosome goes over to a
chromatid of the other chromosome
and vice versa. This interchange of
the parts of the chromatids of a pair
of homologous chromosomes is
known as crossing over
 crossing over is a process by which two
chromosomes of a homologous pair exchange
equal segments with each other
 Crossing over occurs in the first division of
meiosis
Importance of Crossing Over
 Crossing over takes place between the nonsister
chromatids of homologous chromosomes
 Crossing over is one of the most important
events in meiosis because it allows variation in
the produced offspring
a. Produces new individuals having new
combinations of traits.
b. Helped in establishing the concept of
linear arrangement of genes.
c. Helps in the mapping of
chromosomes.
d. Selection of useful recombination.
v. Diakinesis
 Chromosomes condense further during this
stage, from Greek words meaning "moving
through."
 This is the first point in meiosis where the four
parts of the tetrads are actually visible.
 In this stage, the homologous chromosomes
separate further, and the chiasmata terminalize,
making chiasmata clearly visible.
  In anaphase I the sister chromatids remain
attached at their centromeres and move together
toward the poles.

Different Stages of Meiotic Prophase I

Telophase I
 The homologous chromosome pairs reach the
poles of the cell.
 The homologous chromosome pairs complete
their migration to the two poles
 A nuclear envelope reforms around each
chromosome set, the spindle disappears, and
cytokinesis follows.

Metaphase I
 Metaphase 1 is the second
phase of Meiosis
 The tetrads from prophase I
line up in the middle of the
dividing cell randomly
 Spindle fibers attach to the
tetrads from both ends of the cell
Anaphase I
 Anaphase I begins when the two chromosomes
of each bivalent separate and start moving
toward opposite poles of the cell.
 Metaphase II
 The chromosomes become
arranged on the metaphase plate.
 Centromeres are arranged
in a line called equatorial
plate of invisible spindle
apparatus.
 previously occurring
nuclear membrane is
not present.
Anaphase II
Phases of Meiosis II  The centromeres separate
and the sister chromatids
Meiosis II: mitotic division of 2 haploid cells to produce now individual chromosomes
4 haploid daughter cells. move toward the opposite poles
 1.Prophase -2 of the cell.
 The separated chromatids are now
 2.Metaphase -2 called chromosomes in their own right
 3.Anaphase 2 Telophase II

 4.Telophase-2  Nuclear envelope forms around

each set of chromosomes
 Nucleolus appears in
Prophase II each nucleus
 Chromosomes lengthen and
 Meiosis II begins without any further replication Become indistinct
of the chromosomes. In prophase II, the nuclear
envelope breaks down and the spindle apparatus Figure of Meiosis
forms
 While chromosome duplication took place prior
to meiosis I, no new chromosome replication
occurs before meiosis II
 The centrioles duplicate. This occurs by
separation of the two members of the pair, and
then the formation of a daughter centriole
perpendicular to each original centriole. The
two pairs of centrioles separate into two
centrosomes
 The nuclear envelope breaks down, and the
spindle apparatus forms