19322492444e0acadc584908.38747942.TRANING REPORT PDF

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.
Company Profile
Eureka Embedded & Advanced Software Technologies (EEAST) A Training Unit of Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.
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EUREKA ELECTROSOFT SOLUTIONS PVT. LTD (EESPL) ..making IT happen
Augmentation is a dream virtue of every performer we at EESPL envisaged on a theme for providing a new epitome of IT solutions in the embedded Telecom & Software based Product development services. Our edge right from the start was creating a perceptible differentiation among the plethora of communized IT solutions.
EESPL - where progress is a winning habit
Eureka ElectroSoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd. (EESPL) is primarily operating as a registered R & D lab for the development and conception of Advanced Automation related software and hardware solutions. Our expertise includes electronics and software based stand alone solutions as well as combined integrated solutions termed as Electrosoft Solutions. At EESPL over the years we have developed a core competency to maximize the quality & innovation parameter while working on any task. Our proven values have made us as a prime leader in providing customized solutions. It is our stiff endeavor to amplify our clients viewpoints and to carve up their thoughts. This in turn is transformed into factual scenario working models with a collection of prime technological aspects. All this is and much more in the shortest turnaround period.
EESPL the background and essence of operations
The year 2002 witnessed the birth of a visualization which was to impart economy with a pinnacle swiftness of innovation in contemporary Industrial IT Solutions. There came EESPL and a new chapter of imparting excellence in IT techniques came into subsistence. That was the foundation and today the road voyaged by EESPL encompasses years of reliance, accomplishments and above all unlimited bonds. Bonds that speak for themselves, relationships that reflect factual progress. Triumph at EESPL is defined as the never ending smile on our dear customers face. At EESPL we do not impart conception, we create endearing teams.
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Indulging within minds, Imparting technologies
Understanding the pulsation of a customer forms our principal challenge. Assurances that mean results, efforts that capitulate advancement and outcomes that move imaginings form the spirit of our day after day working. Timeliness is of chief value to us and understanding the modern day race for time, we deliver the maximum in minimum and that too with precision. Our approach of operation also constitutes of a dedicated Registered Research and Development lab to make available the final deliverables with thread bare technologies. Our precedence is often devised on the scale of our customers desires. After carefully analyzing on the need based approach we craft a well planned set of operations each fragment is build with an in depth focus on customers requirements.
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Vision & Mission:

Our corporate vision is to provide a fully functional IT platform to all complex tasks thereby inducing a greater sense of effectiveness and to consistently create value for money, by providing solutions which enable our customers to achieve excellence and sustainable competitive edge. Mission target Our mission statement is to provide endearing technologies of future in the present era and for that we are committed to develop innovative and the most valuable solutions to our customers as our motto is Changing Ideas into Reality. Our Core Values: Innovation Flexibility is the key to our offerings, and intrinsic to this flexibility, is the spirit of Innovation that we bring to our products and services - from the very first stage of design to implementation and customer support. Competence At EESPL we always pride ourselves on the vision, skills, expertise and professionalism of our team. Our team members make use of their keen Competence to foresee industry trends and meet demanding customer needs. And the working of their collective minds in a highly supportive environment ensures that our products and services retain a competitive edge at all times. Quality Objectives Quality forms the basis of our work culture. To impart the right and the leading technology, we follow the most rigorous norms. Each of our product stage goes through multi check points. Every possible situation is thought of and a remedial action is built in. The presence of our dedicated Quality
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Analysis team makes sure that the minutest details are met with precision. We fully understand the global quality perspective and we follow in tandem with the same.
QUALITY TESTING Extensive industry exposure, expanded skills and comprehensive experience in executing key projects for reputed global companies enable us to bring world-class technology, true-value professional expertise & immense knowledge of successful project management. Quality Assurance is one of the key focus areas and once a solution is developed, our Software Testing Team steps in to perform the rigorous rituals, required to deliver a robust, flawless product/application. Software testing at Olive is performed at several points in the Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC), as an application is constructed component by component into a functioning system. Our qualified testers carry out intense testing for bugs and flaws and fix the same - all within the strictest time frame. CUSTOMER SUPPORT AND FEEDBACK REVIEW
EESPL at your doorstep
Ensuring total customer satisfaction is EESPLs forte and the company has implemented an effective customer relationship management strategy for increased efficiency and overall success. From project kick-off to customer sign-off, Eureka's dedicated Managers will work in tandem with you and provide round-the-clock updates on project status. They also solve problems, answer queries and give instant feedback. Eureka provides 24x7 online support, proposed (each customer query will be immediately recorded and a ticket number will be issued for future reference).
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After the project delivery, each customer is requested to provide feedback on a number of relevant criteria such as delivery schedule, product quality, issue resolution, communication, risk management, knowledge and professionalism. After obtaining the critical information through relevant questionnaires, we make an in-depth analysis of the valuable data and measure customer satisfaction at all levels. EESPL also encourages peer reviews for enhancing cross-functional co-ordination and strengthening quality initiatives Olive believes in partnerships - partnerships that develop into mutually beneficial symbiotic relationships brandishing the competitive edges of both. With Olive's Internet technology as expertise, you can compete with the world's premium e-business solution providers and develop a technology EESPL not just delivers online presence but specializes in employing its technology to help clients make the most of their online presence. We strategize and impart technical applications, marketing and design skills required maximizing a company's online potential. WHY EESPL Well, its got to be somebody. Why not us? Of course, you are the best judge when it comes to choosing a technology partner and we leave that for you to decide. Our goal is only to provide a clear and detailed insight into your project work and possible expansion plan when the time comes. First and foremost, we never compromise on quality. Any and all work, big or small, is important to us. We believe in delivering high quality products that exceeds clients expectations. Second, our experienced architects help you design a product that is far more powerful and open when it comes to enhancements. Third, we are delivery oriented and believe in delivering no matter what it takes. We provide cost effect solutions at competitive prices to ensure your ROI is high and budget is well under control. With those said, we leave the call on you to decide Why us?
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Eureka Electronics & Embedded Solutions (E3S): Mastering the art of aptness
Electronic product design is the result of integrated proficiency covering both the software and the electronic/hardware design facets. With our proficient Design Centre on the anvil, a panel of devoted experienced engineers works as a team to provide a highly receptive and customized service solutions. Each perspective of customer service is performed with paramount flawlessness thereby inducing a path full of aptness. At E3S order goes hand in hand with the final conclusion. We very well understand the throb of the client and it is our primary intent to form a cohesive plan of action. Understanding on a common platform with the client forms the chief medium of our achievement.
Components of our Project work putting able brains to work

Converting simple ideas to real time products Enhancing the performance aptitude of existing products In depth investigations into offered technologies Testing & Verifications of numerous assignments
The Execution Schedule implementing the knowledge minds

What we require is simply a brief of the requirements, which can be documented or can be the result of an able discussion. The upshot of the same is a firm proposal from our side which is entirely Free of cost.
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Eureka Telecom & Infrastructure Services(ETIS):
Connecting Emotions
Our venture into the turf of Telecom Network Services has been under the aegis of Eureka Telecom Solutions. Our principal focal point in this sphere is to fuse diverse expertise for catering to Telecom Networking, Communication & Infrastructure maintenance needs of globally distributed Enterprises and Telecom Carriers (GSM & CDMA). Our laurels in segment sector include associations with variety of renowned Telecom players such as SPICE, VODAFONE, RELIANCE, ERICSSON, SIEMENS, NOKIA and ZTE. On the offerings are telecom site installation and commissioning, BSC & Transcoder Installation & Commissioning, BSS support and Maintenance, Installation of MSCs, Electrical resourcing and installation. In addition to above utilities, we are also diligently developing hardware and software based automation gear for TELECOM sector.
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Eureka Smart Software Solutions(E3S) :
Placing Thoughts into Implementation

Software Development at E3S forms a perceptible and exceedingly expertised service which gratifies to the requirements of landmark technology projects for software companies and large enterprise clients. The spotlight of this function is to generate a eminent conception with faster time to-market and condensed engineering costs. Working hand in glove with our clientele, their personalized wants for product development projects are met with absolute knack. Another pioneering concept envisaged by E3S is the provision of software architecture analysis to make certain the solution being offered can be capably designed, developed and supported. E3S proficiency extents to various industry facades and technology spectrums. Our association with customers inculcates an innovative wave of product development which in turn creates intelligent solutions that drastically cut down operating costs. All this momentum adds to greater induced efficiency. Some real life technologies covered by us in software development are: Desktop and Web applications, Client/Server based applications, Telecom related software tools development, Biometric based identification and account solutions, RFID based applications, Biomedical Viewers and related software development, Image processing and enhancement tools, GSM/CDMA based bulk SMS alerting systems, Reengineering and Migration etc.
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Eureka Embedded & Advanced Software Trainings(EEAST)
Preparing the Visionaries of Tomorrow Today

Right from origin Eureka Electrosoft Solutions emerged as a futurist leader in industrial, corporate training and engineering project assistance. Covering the grounds of embedded and advanced software technologies it was aptly christened as ElectroSoft Embedded & Advanced Software Technologies (EEAST). EEAST is a name to reckon with for the engineering project guidance workshops and trainings. In trainings the foremost emphasis is laid on covering the gap between the theoretical and real practical aspects of the technology. What is done by mind is seldom forgotten, but, what is done by hand is remembered a lifetime. Based on this principle our Training & Project oriented workshops create a foundation of real time project based culture. All this goes a long way in creating learning by doing methodology wherein the wisdom is mastered perfectly. Since the invent of copious training kits and development boards is completely inhouse, hence there is no dearth of functional training resources. Provision flexible training modules ranging from one month to six months durations, provide a success oriented launcpad. Each module is carefully crafted to nurture the students with practical aspects as well as the theoretical concepts which they have harvested during the general curriculum process. In campus and corporate trainings also form the serviceable phase of EEAST.
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Eureka Human Resources & Turnkey Support Solutions(EHRTSS)
Fostering Proficient Intellect

Todays contemporary industry requires dexterous wits to work on extensive global dares. We fully recognize the types of individuals required for high end IT programmes. Human resources form the base of every organization and we also have a share in putting weight to this base. We provide capable man power in fine execution of complexed IT programmes. Noted professionals from various fields are on our database, hence we have distinguished corporates, like Vodafone and Spice Telecommunications on our client list. Benefits to an operator prompt deployment of resources complete compliant with local work regulations Provision of unrestricted series of skills Existence of skilled consultants with training on precise equipment & software. The alternative also exists wherein the entire project can be executed by us on turn key basis. Examples of turnkey work we provide are Line Of Sight Survey, RF and TR Planning, Pre-Bid and Swap-outs
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Eureka Project Kits and Spares (EPKS)
For an Uninterrupted Performance & Adept Learning

EEAST is today a well trusted partner of thousands of hobbyists, OEMs, Colleges, schools, repair shops and Government Organizations for electronics kits and spares. Our wide range of stock comprises of everything ranging from electronics components to test instruments and extending to educational kits. Principally we deal in Project oriented Hardware kits, Robotic kits, Device Programmers, Development Boards, Software tools, Components etc. These inventive kits are of leading advantage for engineering students from all branches. Their projects can be developed with simplicity using these kits as they are very undemanding to grasp and employ. Component resourcing for the students at their own places with the minimum market cost is also undertaken by us.
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Training Modules
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Introduction
Technology has rapidly grown in past two-three decades. An engineer without practical knowledge and skills cannot survive in this technical era. Theoretical knowledge does matter but it is the practical knowledge that is the difference between the best and the better. Organizations also prefer experienced engineers than fresher ones due to practical knowledge and industrial exposure of the former. So industrial exposure is mandatory for engineers nowadays. The practical training is highly conductive for solid foundation for: 1) Knowledge and personality. creativity. 2) Confidence building 3) Enhancement of
Embedded Systems are present every where around us like from a simple digital wrist watch to the most complex satellite space ships. All entities involving automation are equipped with embedded systems. At the core of every embedded system there is either a microprocessor or a microcontroller or any other programmable intelligent unit that works with the other interfaced units to make a complete working product. So in ongoing cutthroat competition it is mandatory for every engineer to understand and become proficient in this upcoming technology. Embedded systems are computers which are part of special-purpose devices. Due to the limited duties these systems can be highly optimized to the particular needs. Traditionally most of these systems are used for control and process measurement, as a side-effect of higher integration of integrated circuits more complex applications can be solved by embedded systems. To be able to solve these problems, embedded systems are commonly equipped with various kinds of peripherals. Early applications of embedded devices include the guidance computer of the Minuteman I missiles and the Apollo guidance computer. The Minuteman I & II missiles are intercontinental ballistic nuclear warheads, produced by Boeing in the 1960s. Due to the large quantities of ICs used in the guidance system of Minuteman II missiles, prices for ICs fell from 1000$ each to 3$ each. This lead to wide adoption of embedded systems in consumer electronics
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in the 1980s. Nowadays embedded systems can be found in devices from digital watches to traffic-control systems. The broad range of applications with totally different requirements lead to various implementation approaches. The range of hardware used in embedded systems reaches from FPGAs to full blown desktop CPUs which are accompanied by special purpose ICs such as DSPs. On the software side, depending on the needs, everything, from logic fully implemented in hardware, to systems with own operating system and different applications running on it, can be found.
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Module -1
POWER SUPPLY DESCRIPTION:
TRANSFORMER
BRIDGE RECTIFIER
SHUNT CAPACITOR
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
The power supply circuit comprises of four basic parts: The transformer steps down the 220 V a/c. into 12 V a/c. The transformer work on the principle of magnetic induction, where two coils: primary and secondary are wound around an iron core. The two coils are physically insulated from each other in such a way that passing an a/c. current through the primary coil creates a changing voltage in the primary coil and a changing magnetic field in the core. This in turn induces a varying a/c. voltage in the secondary coil. The a/c. voltage is then fed to the bridge rectifier. The rectifier circuit is used in most electronic power supplies is the single-phase bridge rectifier with capacitor filtering, usually followed by a linear voltage regulator. A rectifier circuit is necessary to convert a signal having zero average value into a nonzero average value. A rectifier transforms alternating current into direct
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current by limiting or regulating the direction of flow of current. The output resulting from a rectifier is a pulsating D.C. voltage. This voltage is not appropriate for the components that are going to work through it.
7805
1N4007 12-0-12 V 1000uF
O/P 16 V TRANSFORMER
The ripple of the D.C. voltage is smoothened using a filter capacitor of 1000 microF 25V. The filter capacitor stores electrical charge. If it is large enough the capacitor will store charge as the voltage rises and give up the charge as the voltage falls. This has the effect of smoothing out the waveform and provides steadier voltage output. A filter capacitor is connected at the rectifier output and the d.c voltage is obtained across the capacitor. When this capacitor is used in this project, it should be twice the supply voltage. When the filter is used, the RC charge time of the filter capacitor must be short and the RC discharge time must be long to eliminate ripple action. In other words the capacitor must charge up fast, preferably with no discharge. When the rectifier output voltage is increasing, the capacitor charges to the peak voltage Vm. Just past the positive peak, the rectifier output voltage starts to fall but at this point the capacitor has +Vm voltage across it. Since the source voltage becomes slightly less than Vm, the capacitor will try to send current back through the diode of rectifier. This reverse biases the
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diode. The diode disconnects or separates the source the source form load. The capacitor starts to discharge through load. This prevents the load voltage from falling to zero. The capacitor continues to discharge until source voltage becomes more than capacitor voltage. The diode again starts conducting and the capacitor is again charged to peak value Vm. When capacitor is charging the rectifier supplies the charging through capacitor branch as well as load current, the capacitor sends currents through the load. The rate at which capacitor discharge depends upon time constant RC. The longer the time constant, the steadier is the output voltage. An increase in load current i.e. decrease in resistance makes time constant of discharge path smaller. The ripple increase and d.c output voltage V dc decreases. Maximum capacity cannot exceed a certain limit because the larger the capacitance the greater is the current required to charge the capacitor.
I\P(12V) 1
1N4007
7805
VIN
GND
VOUT
O\P(5V)
+
D1
D2
+ -
GROUND
1000UF
T1
+ -
LED
The voltage regulator regulates the supply if the supply if the line voltage increases or decreases. The series 78xx regulators provide fixed regulated voltages from 5 to 24 volts. An unregulated input voltage is applied at the IC Input pin i.e. pin 1 which is filtered by capacitor. The out terminal of the IC i.e. pin 3 provides a regular output. The third terminal is connected to ground. While the input voltage may vary over some permissible voltage
220 V AC
D3
D4
C1
2 1
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OUTPUT
J2 470 E +

range, and the output voltage remains constant within specified voltage variation limit. The 78xx ICs are positive voltage regulators whereas 79xx ICs are negative voltage regulators. These voltage regulators are integrated circuits designed as fixed voltage regulators for a wide variety of applications. These regulators employ current limiting, thermal shutdown and safe area compensation. With adequate heat sinking they can deliver output currents in excess of 1 A. These regulators have internal thermal overload protection. It uses output transistor safe area compensation and the output voltage offered is in 2% and 4% tolerance.
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MODULE 2: THE MICROCONTROLER:

In our day to day life the role of micro-controllers has been immense. They are used in a variety of applications ranging from home appliances, FAX machines, Video games, Camera, Exercise equipment, Cellular phones musical Instruments to Computers, engine control, aeronautics, security systems and the list goes on.
MICROCONTROLLERS VERSUS MICROPROCESSORS What is the difference between a microprocessor and microcontroller? The microprocessors (such as 8086,80286,68000 etc.) contain no RAM, no ROM and no I/O ports on the chip itself. For this reason they are referred as general- purpose microprocessors. A system designer using general- purpose microprocessor must add external RAM, ROM, I/O ports and timers to make them functional. Although the addition of external RAM, ROM, and I/O ports make the system bulkier and much more expensive, they have the advantage of versatility such that the designer can decide on the amount of RAM, ROM and I/o ports needed to fit the task at hand. This is the not the case with microcontrollers. A microcontroller has a CPU (a microprocessor) in addition to the fixed amount of RAM, ROM, I/O ports, and timer are all embedded together on the chip: therefore, the designer cannot add any external memory, I/O, or timer to it. The fixed amount of on chip RAM, ROM, and number of I/O ports in microcontrollers make them ideal for many applications in which cost and space are critical. In many applications,
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for example a TV remote control, there is no need for the computing power of a 486 or even a 8086 microprocessor. In many applications, the space it takes, the power it consumes, and the price per unit are much more critical considerations than the computing power. These applications most often require some I/O operations to read signals and turn on and off certain bits. It is interesting to know that some microcontrollers manufactures have gone as far as integrating an ADC and other peripherals into the microcontrollers.
EXTERNAL INTERRUPTS
ETC. INTERRUPT CONTROL ON-CHIP ROM for program code ON-CHIP RAM
TIMER 0
TIMER 1
CPU
OSC
BUS CONTROL
4 I/O
PORTS
TXD RXD
SERIAL PORT
MICROCONTROLLER BLOCK DIAGRAM
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MICROCONTROLLERS FOR EMBEDDED SYSTEMS In the literature discussing microprocessors, we often see a term embedded system. Microprocessors and microcontrollers are widely used in embedded system products. An embedded product uses a microprocessor (or microcontroller) to do one task and one task only. A printer is an example of embedded system since the processor inside it performs one task only: namely, get data and print it. Contrasting this with a IBM PC which can be used for a number of applications such as word processor, print server, network server, video game player, or internet terminal. Software for a variety of applications can be loaded and run. Of course the reason a PC can perform myriad tasks is that it has RAM memory and an operating system that loads the application software into RAM and lets the CPU run it. In an embedded system, there is only one application software that is burned into ROM. An PC contains or is connected to various embedded products such as the keyboard, printer, modem, disk controller, sound card, CD-ROM driver, mouse and so on. Each one of these peripherals has a microcontroller inside it that performs only one task. For example, inside every mouse there is a microcontroller to perform the task of finding the mouse position and sending it to the PC. Although microcontrollers are the preferred choice for many embedded systems, there are times that a microcontroller is inadequate for the task. For this reason, in many years the manufacturers for general-purpose microprocessors have targeted their microprocessor for the high end of the embedded market.
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Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd. INTRODUCTION TO 8051

In 1981, Intel Corporation introduced an 8-bit microcontroller called the 8051. This microcontroller had 128 bytes of RAM, 4K bytes of on-chip ROM, two timers, one serial port, and four ports (8-bit) all on a single chip. The 8051 is an 8-bit processor, meaning the CPU can work on only 8- bit pieces to be processed by the CPU. The 8051 has a total of four I/O ports, each 8- bit wide. Although 8051 can have a maximum of 64K bytes of onchip ROM, many manufacturers put only 4K bytes on the chip. The 8051 became widely popular after Intel allowed other manufacturers to make any flavor of the 8051 they please with the condition that they remain code compatible with the 8051. This has led to many versions of the 8051 with different speeds and amount of on-chip ROM marketed by more than half a dozen manufacturers. It is important to know that although there are different flavors of the 8051, they are all compatible with the original 8051 as far as the instructions are concerned. This means that if you write your program for one, it will run on any one of them regardless of the manufacturer. The major 8051 manufacturers are Intel, Atmel, Dallas Semiconductors, Philips Corporation, Infineon.
AT89C51 FROM ATMEL CORPORATION

This popular 8051 chip has on-chip ROM in the form of flash memory. This is ideal for fast development since flash memory can be erased in seconds compared to twenty minutes or more needed for the earlier versions of the 8051. To use the AT89C51 to develop a microcontroller-based system requires a ROM burner that supports flash memory: However, a ROM eraser is not needed. Notice that in flash memory you must erase the entire contents of ROM in order to program it again. The PROM burner does this erasing of
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flash itself and this is why a separate burner is not needed. To eliminate the need for a PROM burner Atmel is working on a version of the AT89C51 that can be programmed by the serial COM port of the PC. FEATURES OF AT89C51 - 4K on-chip ROM - 128 bytes internal RAM (8-bit) - 32 I/O pins - Two 16-bit timers - Six Interrupts - Serial programming facility - 40 pin Dual-in-line Package
PIN DESCRIPTION
The 89C51 have a total of 40 pins that are dedicated for various functions such as I/O, RD, WR, address and interrupts. Out of 40 pins, a total of 32 pins are set aside for the four ports P0, P1, P2, and P3, where each port takes 8 pins. The rest of the pins are designated as Vcc, GND, XTAL1, XTAL, RST, EA, and PSEN. All these pins except PSEN and ALE are used by all members of the 8051 and 8031 families. In other words, they must be connected in order for the system to work, regardless of whether the microcontroller is of the 8051 or the 8031 family. The other two pins, PSEN and ALE are used mainly in 8031 based systems. Vcc Pin 40 provides supply voltage to the chip. The voltage source is +5 V. GND Pin 20 is the ground.
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XTAL1 and XTAL2 The 8051 have an on-chip oscillator but requires external clock to run it. Most often a quartz crystal oscillator is connected to input XTAL1 (pin 19) and XTAL2 (pin 18). The quartz crystal oscillator connected to XTAL1 and XTAL2 also needs two capacitors of 30 pF value. One side of each capacitor is connected to the ground. C2 XTAL2 C1 XTAL1
GND
It must be noted that there are various speeds of the 8051 family. Speed refers to the maximum oscillator frequency connected to the XTAL. For example, a 12 MHz chip must be connected to a crystal with 12 MHz frequency or less. Likewise, a 20 MHz microcontroller requires a crystal frequency of no more than 20 MHz. When the 8051 is connected to a crystal oscillator and is powered up, we can observe the frequency on the XTAL2 pin using oscilloscope. RST Pin 9 is the reset pin. It is an input and is active high (normally low). Upon applying a high pulse to this pin, the microcontroller will reset and terminate all activities. This is often referred to as a power on reset. Activating a power-on reset will cause all values in the registers to be lost. Notice that the value of Program Counter is 0000 upon reset, forcing the CPU to fetch the first code from ROM memory location 0000. This means
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that we must place the first line of source code in ROM location 0000 that is where the CPU wakes up and expects to find the first instruction. In order to RESET input to be effective, it must have a minimum duration of 2 machine cycles. In other words, the high pulse must be high for a minimum of 2 machine cycles before it is allowed to go low. EA All the 8051 family members come with on-chip ROM to store programs. In such cases, the EA pin is connected to the Vcc. For family members such as 8031 and 8032 in which there is no on-chip ROM, code is stored on an external ROM and is fetched by the 8031/32. Therefore for the 8031 the EA pin must be connected to ground to indicate that the code is stored externally. EA, which stands for external access, is pin number 31 in the DIP packages. It is input pin and must be connected to either Vcc or GND. In other words, it cannot be left unconnected. PSEN This is an output pin. PSEN stands for program store enable. It is the read strobe to external program memory. When the microcontroller is executing from external memory, PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle. ALE ALE (Address latch enable) is an output pin and is active high. When connecting a microcontroller to external memory, potr 0 provides both address and data. In other words the microcontroller multiplexes address and data through port 0 to save pins. The ALE pin is used for de-multiplexing the address and data by connecting to the G pin of the 74LS373 chip.
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Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd. I/O port pins and their functions
The four ports P0, P1, P2, and P3 each use 8 pins, making them 8-bit ports. All the ports upon RESET are configured as output, ready to be used as output ports. To use any of these as input port, it must be programmed. Port 0 Port 0 occupies a total of 8 pins (pins 32 to 39). It can be used for input or output. To use the pins of port 0 as both input and output ports, each pin must be connected externally to a 10K-ohm pull-up resistor. This is due to fact that port 0 is an open drain, unlike P1, P2 and P3. With external pull-up resistors connected upon reset, port 0 is configured as output port. In order to make port 0 an input, the port must be programmed by writing 1 to all the bits of it. Port 0 is also designated as AD0-AD7, allowing it to be used for both data and address. When connecting a microcontroller to an external memory, port 0 provides both address and data. The microcontroller multiplexes address and data through port 0 to save pins. ALE indicates if P0 has address or data. When ALE=0, it provides data D0D7, but when ALE=1 it has address A0-A7. Therefore, ALE is used for de-multiplexing address and data with the help of latch 74LS373. Port 1 Port 1 occupies a total of 8 pins (pins 1 to 8). It can be used as input or output. In contrast to port 0, this port does not require pull-up resistors since it has already pull-up resistors internally. Upon reset, port 1 is configures as an output port. Similar to port 0, port 1 can be used as an input port by writing 1 to all its bits.
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Port 2 Port 2 occupies a total of 8 pins (pins 21 to 28). It can be used as input or output. Just like P1, port 2 does not need any pull-up resistors since it has pull-up resistors internally. Upon reset port 2 is configured as output port. To make port 2 input, it must be programmed as such by writing 1s to it. Port 3 Port 3 occupies a total of 8 pins (pins 10 to 17). It can be used as input or output. P3 does not need any pull-up resistors, the same as P1 and P2 did not. Although port 3 is configured as output port upon reset, this is not the way it is most commonly used. Port 3 has an additional function of providing some extremely important signals such as interrupts. Some of the alternate functions of P3 are listed below: P3.0 P3.1 P3.2 P3.3 P3.4 P3.5 P3.6 P3.7 RXD (Serial input) TXD (Serial output) INT0 (External interrupt 0) INT1 (External interrupt 1) T0 (Timer 0 external input) T1 (Timer 1 external input) WR (External memory write strobe) RD (External memory read strobe)
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MODULE -2
LED INTERFACING
Like a normal diode, an LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material impregnated, or doped, with impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carrierselectrons and holesflow into the junction from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of a photon. The wavelength of the light emitted, and therefore its color, depends on the band gap energy of the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes recombine by a non-radiative transition which produces no optical emission, because these are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for an LED have a direct band gap with energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible or near-ultraviolet light. LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide. Advances in materials science have made possible the production of devices with ever-shorter wavelengths, producing light in a variety of colors. LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type layer deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many commercial LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate. Substrates that are transparent to the emitted wavelength, and backed by a reflective layer, increase the LED efficiency. The refractive index of the package material should match the index of the semiconductor, otherwise the produced light gets partially reflected back into the semiconductor, where it may be absorbed and turned into additional heat, thus lowering the efficiency. This type of reflection also occurs at the surface of the package if the LED is coupled to a medium with a different refractive index such as a glass fiber or air. The refractive index of most LED semiconductors is quite high, so in almost all cases the LED is coupled
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into a much lower-index medium. The large index difference makes the reflection quite substantial (per the Fresnel coefficients), and this is usually one of the dominant causes of LED inefficiency. Often more than half of the emitted light is reflected back at the LED-package and package-air interfaces. The reflection is most commonly reduced by using a domeshaped (half-sphere) package with the diode in the center so that the outgoing light rays strike the surface perpendicularly, at which angle the reflection is minimized. An anti-reflection coating may be added as well. The package may be cheap plastic, which may be colored, but this is only for cosmetic reasons or to improve the contrast ratio; the color of the packaging does not substantially affect the color of the light emitted. Other strategies for reducing the impact of the interface reflections include designing the LED to reabsorb and reemit the reflected light (called photon recycling) and manipulating the microscopic structure of the surface to reduce the reflectance, either by introducing random roughness or by creating programmed moth eye surface patterns. Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials, producing the following colors: Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) red and infrared Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP) green Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) high-brightness orange-red, orange, yellow, and green Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) red, orange-red, orange, and yellow Gallium phosphide (GaP) red, yellow and green Gallium nitride (GaN) green, pure green (or emerald green), and blue also white (if it has an AlGaN Quantum Barrier) Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) near ultraviolet, bluish-green and blue Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate blue Silicon (Si) as substrate blue (under development) Sapphire (Al2O3) as substrate blue Zinc selenide (ZnSe) blue Diamond (C) ultraviolet Aluminium nitride (AlN), aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN), aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN) near to far ultraviolet (down to
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210 nm) With this wide variety of colors, arrays of multicolor LEDs can be designed to produce unconventional color patterns.
CIRCUIT Diagram
VCC
D1 LED D2 LED D3 LED D4 LED D5 LED D6 Y? LED CRY STAL D7 LED R1 R D8 LED C? CAP NP 31 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 19 18 9 U?
40
P2.0/A8 P2.1/A9 P2.2/A10 P2.3/A11 P2.4/A12 P2.5/A13 P2.6/A14 P2.7/A15 P3.0/RXD P3.1/TXD P3.2/INTO P3.3/INT1 P3.4/TO P3.5/T1 P3.6/WR P3.7/RD PSEN ALE/PROG 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 29 30
P0.0/AD0 P0.1/AD1 P0.2/AD2 P0.3/AD3 P0.4/AD4 P0.5/AD5 P0.6/AD6 P0.7/AD7 P1.0/T2 P1.1/T2-EX P1.2 P1.3 P1.4 P1.5 P1.6 P1.7 XTAL1 XTAL2 RST EA/VPP
AT89C52
20
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FOUR ON FOUR OFF PATTERN
#include<reg51.h> address of 8051 #include<delay.h> milliseconds delay
// This file contains the Ports and SFR // This file is used to produce seconds and
#define led P1 // 'P1' is given the another name as led, u can use 'led' Or directly 'P1' //for programming
void main() { while (1) { led=0xf0; secdelay(1); led=0x0f; secdelay (1); } }
// main program starts from here
// Repeat forever
// light on lower 4 leds '0'-> ON (11110000) // 1 secdelay // light on upper 4 leds '1'-> OFF (00001111)
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LEDS Programs
ON OFF PATTERN #include<reg51.h> 8051 #include<delay.h> milliseconds delay //This file contains the Ports and SFR address of //This file is used to produce seconds and
#define led P1 // 'P1' is given the another name as 'led' ,u can use 'led' Or directly 'P1' //for programming
void main() { while(1) {
// Infinite Loop for infinite rotation
led=0x00; secdelay(1); led=0xff; secdelay(1); } }
//
light on All 8-leds '0'-> ON
// 1 secdelay // light OFF All 8-leds '1'-> OFF
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LEDS +SWITCHES #include<reg51.h> of 8051 #include<delay.h> miliseconds delay //This file contains the Ports and SFR address //This file is used to produce seconds and
#define led P1 // 'P1' is given the another name as 'led' ,u can use 'led' Or directly 'P1' //for programming
sbit s1=P3^2; sbit s2=P3^3; sbit s3=P3^4;
// define only single bit using sbit syntex
void main() { led=0xff; while(1) { if(s1==0) {
// Infinite Loop for infinite rotation
led=0x00; secdelay(1);
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led=0xff; secdelay(1); } else if(s2==0) { led=0xf0; secdelay(1); led=0x0f; secdelay(1); } else if(s3==0) { led=0xaa; secdelay(1); led=0x55; secdelay(1); } else { led=0xff; } } }
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MODULE -3
DC MOTOR Circuit Diagram
RESET S/W
VCC
2
VCC
U5
SW1 C3
10UF 10K
2 2 2
R1
S1 S2 1 S3 1
1
33PF CRYSTAL
C1 Y1 C2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
VCC P1.0 P1.1 P1.2 P1.3 P1.4 P1.5 P1.6 P1.7 RESET RXD TXD INT0 INT1 T0 T1 WR 8051 RD X2 X1 VSS P0.0 P0.1 P0.2 P0.3 P0.4 P0.5 P0.6 P0.7 EA/VP ALE/P PSEN P2.7 P2.6 P2.5 P2.4 P2.3 P2.2 P2.1 P2.0
40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21
IN2 IN3 IN4 IN5 IN6 IN7 GRD
OUT2 OUT3 OUT4 OUT5 OUT6 OUT7 VCC
R2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 C 1
3 4 5 6 7 8
14 13 12 11 10 9 VCC 3 K1
U1
RESISTOR SIP 10
1 2
IN1
OUT1
16 15
MG2
MOTOR DC
UL2003
5 4 1 2
RELAY SPDT DEVICE
33PF
GROUND
Working Principle: The principle upon which the d.c. motor works is very simple . If a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, mechanical force is experienced on the conductor, the direction of which is given by the Fleming's left hand rule and hence the
Page 37
Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd. conductor moves in the direction of force. The magnitude of the mechanical force experienced on the conductor is given by: F = B Ic Lc newtons
where B is the field strength in teslas , Ic is the current flowing through the conductor in amperes and Lc is the length of the conductor in metres.
When the motor is connected to the d.c. supply mains a direct current passes through the brushes and the commutator to the armature winding ; while it passes through the commutator it is converetd into a.c. so that the group of conductors under successive field poles carry currrent in the opposite direction. Also the direction of the currrent in the individual conductors reverse as they pass away from the influence of one pole to that of the next.
The split phase arrangement of the motor creates two fluxes B1and B2 which induces voltage around them in the rotor and under the influence of these induced voltages current flows in the rotor. The current i1 produced by flux B1 reacts with flux B2 and develops force F1.The quantities are going to be expressed as :
B1=B1max . sin(wt) B2=B2max . sin(wt + ) It may be assumed with negligible error thet the paths in which the rotor current flow has negligible self-inductance and hence the rotor currents are in phase with their respective voltages. i1(db1/dt)=.B1max.cos wt i2(db2/dt)=K. B2 max.cos (wt +X) Since the two forces (f1and f2 ) developed are in opposition .Therefore the net force F acting on the movable element is given as:
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F=F2-F1(B2.i1-i2.b1) F=K B1 max.B2 max sin r) EMF Equation: Back EMF, Eb=Flux *ZNP/60A where Z= total number of armature cunductors N= Speed in r.p.m P= total number of poles A= Total number of parallel paths. V= Eb + IaRa Ia= (V - Eb)/Ra where V = Terminal voltage Ia= Armature current Ra= Armature resistance Eb= back e.m.f. Types of D.C. motor: (i) Permanent magnet motors: It consists of an armature and one or several permanent magnets encircling the armature . Field coils are usually notrequired. However some of these motors do have coils wound on the poles . If they exist , these coils are intended only for recharging the magnets in the event that they loose their strength. (ii) Seperately excited D.C. motors: These motors have field coils
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Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd. similar to those of a shunt wound machine, but the armature and field coils are fed from diferent supply sources and may have different voltage ratings. (iii) Series wound D.C. motor: As the name indicates, the field coils, consisting of few turns of a thick wire are connected in series with the armature. The cross-sectional area of the wire used for the field has to be fairly large to carry the armature current ,but owing to the higher current , the number of turns of wire in them need not be large. (iv) Shunt wound D.C. motor: These motors are so named because they basically operate with field coils connected in parallel with the armature. The field winding consists of a large number of turns of comparatively fine wire so as to provide large resistance. The field current is much less than the armature current, sometimes as low as 5%. (v) Compound wound D.C. motor : A compound wound D.C. motor has both shunt and series field coils. The shunt field is normally stronger of the two. Compound wound motors are of two types:. (a) Cumalative compound wound motor. (b) Differential compound wound motor.
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DC MOTOR PROGRAMS Program for PWM #include<reg51.h> #include<delay.h> sbit dc motor=P0^5; #define ON 1 #define OFF 0 // define the motor using sbit as dc_motor
void PWM(unsigned char Ton) { dc_motor=ON; millisecond ms_delay(Ton); dc_motor=OFF; millisecond ms_delay(100-Ton); } void main() { while(1) { PWM(50); } // switch oFF the Dc motor for (100-Ton) // switch on the Dc motor for Ton
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} ON -OFF DC MOTOR #include<reg51.h> #include<delay.h> /* define the motor using sbit as dc motor */ sbit dc_motor=P0^5; #define ON 1 #define OFF 0
void main() { while(1) { dc_motor=ON; secdelay(3); dc_motor=OFF; secdelay(2); } // switch OFF the Dc motor // switch on the Dc motor
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MODULE -4
RELAY
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC solenoid valve
Figure no 2.15: Electromagnetic Solenoid Valve
The electromagnetic relay consists of a multi-turn coil, wound on an iron core, to form an electromagnet. When the coil is energised, by passing current through it, the core becomes temporarily magnetised. The magnetised core attracts the iron armature. The armature is pivoted which causes it to operate one or more sets of contacts. When the coil is de-energised the armature and contacts are released. The coil can be energised from a low power source such as a transistor while the contacts can switch high powers such as the mains supply. The relay can also be situated remotely from the control source. Relays can generate a very high voltage across the coil when switched off. This can damage other components in the circuit. To prevent this a diode is connected across the coil.
Page 43
As there are always some chances of high voltage spikes back from the switching circuit i.e. heater so an optocoupler/isolator MCT2e is used. It provides and electrical isolation between the microcontroller and the heater. MCT2e is a 6-pin IC with a combination of optical transmitter LED and an optical receiver as phototransistor. Microcontroller is connected to pin no 2 of MCT2e through a 470-ohm resistor. Pin no.1 is given +5V supply and pin no.4 is grounded. To handle the current drawn by the heater a power transistor BC-369 is used as a current driver. Pin no.5 of optocoupler is connected to the base of transistor. It takes all its output to V cc and activates the heater through relay circuit. The electromagnetic relay consists of a multi-turn coil, wound on an iron core, to form an electromagnet. When the coil is energized, by passing current through it, the core becomes temporarily magnetized. The magnetized core attracts the iron armature. The armature is pivoted which causes it to operate one or more sets of contacts. When the coil is de-energised the armature and contacts are released. Relays can generate a very high voltage across the coil when switched off. This can damage other components in the circuit. To prevent this a diode is connected across the coil. Relay has five points. Out of the 2 operating points one is permanently connected to the ground and the other point is connected to the collector side of the power transistor. When Vcc reaches the collector side i.e. signal is given to the operating points the coil gets magnetized and attracts the iron armature. The iron plate moves from normally connected (NC) position to normally open (NO) position. Thus the heater gets the phase signal and is ON. To remove the base leakage voltage when no signal is present a 470-ohm resistance is used.
Page 44
Circuit diagram
RESET S/W
VCC
2
VCC
U5
SW1 C3
10UF 10K
2 2 2
R1
S1 1 S2 1 S3 1
33PF CRYSTAL
C1 Y1 C2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
VCC P1.0 P1.1 P1.2 P1.3 P1.4 P1.5 P1.6 P1.7 RESET RXD TXD INT0 INT1 T0 T1 WR RD X2 X1 VSS P0.0 P0.1 P0.2 P0.3 P0.4 P0.5 P0.6 P0.7 EA/VP ALE/P PSEN P2.7 P2.6 P2.5 P2.4 P2.3 P2.2 P2.1 P2.0
40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21
IN2 IN3 IN4 IN5 IN6 IN7 GRD
OUT2 OUT3 OUT4 OUT5 OUT6 OUT7 VCC
R2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 C 1
3 4 5 6 7 8
14 13 12 11 10 9 VCC 3 K1
U1
RESISTOR SIP 10
1 2
IN1
OUT1
16 15
MG2
MOTOR DC
UL2003
5 4 1 2
8051
RELAY SPDT DEVICE
33PF
GROUND
Page 45

SIMPLE RELAY CONTROL #include<reg51.h> #include<delay.h> sbit dev=P0^6; #define ON 1 #define OFF 0 // define the 220v device using sbit as dev
void main() { while(1) { dev=ON; secdelay(5); dev=OFF; secdelay(3); }
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RELAY CONTROL WITH TIME #include<reg51.h> #include<delay.h> #define seg_port P2 sbit s1=P3^2; sbit s2=P3^3; sbit s3=P3^4; sbit dev=P0^6; #define delay 60 #define ON 1 #define OFF 0 // array is used to store the value of data to be sent on the port to display // any digit on seven segment as below unsigned char seg_array[10]={0xc0,0xf9,0xa4,0xb0,0x99,0x92,0x82,0xf8,0x80,0x90}; void main() { unsigned char maxlen=0; while(1) { seg_port=seg_array[maxlen]; // show '0' on 7 segment // define segment port // define the switches using sbit as s1,s2,s3
while(s3!=0) the statement in this
// while u not pressed switch s3
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{ will execute if(s1==0) { maxlen++; maxlen by one if(maxlen>9) '0' in maxlen maxlen=0; necessary because we can't ) on single 7 segment //Note: The above step is // show 2 digit value (ie. 10,11 etc // if maxlen is > 9 then store // then increment value of // if u press s1 //while loop
ms_delay(223); debouncing } else if(s2==0) { maxlen--; one
//
some
delay
for
key
// if u press s2
// then decrement maxlen by
if(maxlen==255) // if maxlen is equal to 255 then store '9' in maxlen maxlen=9; unsigned char type variable value 255 is stored in it // so thats why the above step is necessary ms_delay(223); // note :if u decrement an
//when its value go below '0' the new
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} secdelay(1); seg_port=seg_array[maxlen]; data vale from array // send corresponding // to segment port } secdelay(1); while(maxlen<10) { seg_port=seg_array[maxlen]; secdelay(2); maxlen++; } dev=ON; secdelay(delay); dev=OFF; }}
Page 49
MODULE -5
STEPPER MOTOR
Motion Control, in electronic terms, means to accurately control the movement of an object based on either speed, distance, load, inertia or a combination of all these factors. There are numerous types of motion control systems, including; Stepper Motor, Linear Step Motor, DC Brush, Brushless, Servo, Brushless Servo and more. A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which converts electrical pulses into discrete mechanical movements. Stepper motor is a form of ac. motor .The shaft or spindle of a stepper motor rotates in discrete step increments when electrical command pulses are applied to it in the proper sequence. The motors rotation has several direct relationships to these applied input pulses. The sequence of the applied pulses is directly related to the direction of motor shafts rotation. The speed of the motor shafts rotation is directly related to the frequency of the input pulses and the length of rotation is directly related to the number of input pulses applied [39]. For every input pulse, the motor shaft turns through a specified number of degrees, called a step. Its working principle is one step rotation for one input pulse. The range of step size may vary from 0.72 degree to 90 degree. In position control application, if the number of input pulses sent to the motor is known, the actual position of the driven job can be obtained. A stepper motor differs from a conventional motor (CM) as under: a. Input to SM is in the form of electric pulses whereas input to a CM is invariably from a constant voltage source. b. A CM has a free running shaft whereas shaft of SM moves through angular steps. c. In control system applications, no feedback loop is required when SM is used but a feedback loop is required when CM is used. d. A SM is a digital electromechanical device whereas a CM is an analog electromechanical device [40].
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3.12.1Open Loop Operation One of the most significant advantages of a stepper motor is its ability to be accurately controlled in an open loop system. Open loop control means no feedback information about position is needed. This type of control eliminates the need for expensive sensing and feedback devices such as optical encoders. Control position is known simply by keeping track of the input step pulses [39]. Every stepper motor has a permanent magnet rotor (shaft) surrounded by a stator. The most common stepper motor has four stator windings that are paired with a center-tapped common. This type of stepper motor is commonly referred to as a four- phase stepper motor. The center tap allows a change of current direction in each of two coils when a winding is grounded, thereby resulting in a polarity change of the stator. Notice that while a conventional motor shaft runs freely, the stepper motor shaft moves in a fixed repeatable increment which allows one to move it to a precise position. This repeatable
Page 51
Fig 3.20: Rotor Alignment
fixed movement is possible as a result of basic magnetic theory where poles of the Same polarity repel and opposite poles attract. The direction of the rotation is dictated by the stator poles. The stator poles are determined by the current sent through the wire coils. As the direction of the current is changed, the polarity is also changed causing the reverse motion of the rotor. The stepper motor used here has a total of 5 leads: 4 leads representing the four stator windings and 1
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common for the center tapped leads. As the sequence of power is applied to each stator winding, the rotor will rotate. There are several widely used sequences where each has a different degree of precision. Table shows the normal 4-step sequence. For clockwise go for step 1 to 4 & for counter clockwise go for step 4 to 1.
Winding A Winding B 1 2 3
Winding C
Winding D
Fig 3.21: Stator Windings Configuration
Step 1 2 3 4
Winding A 0 1 1 1
Winding B 1 0 1 1
Winding C 1 1 0 1
Winding D 1 1 1 0
Table 3.6: Input Sequence to the Windings
3.12.2 Step Angle & Steps per Revolution Movement associated with a single step, depends on the internal construction of the motor, in particular the number of teeth on the stator and the rotor. The step angle is the minimum degree of rotation associated with a single step. Step per revolution is the total number of steps needed to rotate one complete rotation or 360 degrees (e.g., 180 steps * 2 degree = 360) [31].
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Since the stepper motor is not ordinary motor and has four separate coils, which have to be energized one by one in a stepwise fashion. We term them as coil A, B, C and D. At a particular instant the coil A should get supply and then after some delay the coil B should get a supply and then coil C and then coil D and so on the cycle continues. The more the delay is introduced between the energizing of the coils the lesser is the speed of the stepper motor and vice versa.
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Circuit diagram
RESET S/W
VCC
2
VCC
SW1 C3
RESISTOR SIP 10
1 R2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 C 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 2
MOTOR STEPPER
U5 IN1 IN2 IN3 IN4 IN5 IN6 IN7 GRD OUT1 OUT2 OUT3 OUT4 OUT5 OUT6 OUT7 VCC 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 VCC
4 5 6
MG1 1 2 3
10UF 10K
2 2 2
U1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 VCC P1.0 P1.1 P1.2 P1.3 P1.4 P1.5 P1.6 P1.7 RESET RXD TXD INT0 INT1 T0 T1 WR 8051 RD X2 X1 VSS P0.0 P0.1 P0.2 P0.3 P0.4 P0.5 P0.6 P0.7 EA/VP ALE/P PSEN P2.7 P2.6 P2.5 P2.4 P2.3 P2.2 P2.1 P2.0 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21
R1
S1 S2 1 S3 1
1
33PF CRYSTAL
C1 Y1 C2
UL2003
33PF
GROUND
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DIRECTION CONTROL #include<reg51.h> #include<delay.h> sbit m1=P0^0; // define the four windigs of stepper motor using sbit as m1,m2,m3,m4 sbit m2=P0^1; sbit m3=P0^2; sbit m4=P0^3; void mov_clk() { m1=1;m2=0;m3=0;m4=0; moves one step angle in //give high pulse to m1 motor // clockwise ms_delay(200); m1=0;m2=1;m3=0;m4=0; moves two step angle in //give high pulse to m2 motor // clockwise ms_delay(200); m1=0;m2=0;m3=1;m4=0; moves three step angle in //give high pulse to m3 motor // clockwise ms_delay(200); m1=0;m2=0;m3=0;m4=1; moves four step angle in ms_delay(200); } void mov_anticlk() {
//give high pulse to m4 motor // clockwise
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m1=0;m2=0;m3=0;m4=1; moves one step angle in ms_delay(200); m1=0;m2=0;m3=1;m4=0; ms_delay(200); m1=0;m2=1;m3=0;m4=0; ms_delay(200); m1=1;m2=0;m3=0;m4=0; ms_delay(200); } void motor_stop() { m1=0;m2=0;m3=0;m4=0; } void main() { while(1) { mov_clk(); direction motor_stop(); secdelay(2); mov_anticlk(); direction motor_stop(); // motor moves in anticlock wise // motor stops // motor moves in clock wise // motor stops //give high pulse to m4 motor // anti clockwise
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secdelay(2); } }
DIRECTION CONTROL +SWITCHES #include<reg51.h> #include<delay.h> sbit m1=P0^0; //define the four windigs of stepper motor using sbit as m1,m2,m3,m4 sbit m2=P0^1; sbit m3=P0^2; sbit m4=P0^3; sbit s1=P3^2; sbit s2=P3^3; sbit s3=P3^4; void mov_clk() { m1=1;m2=0;m3=0;m4=0; moves one step angle in //give high pulse to m1 motor // clockwise ms_delay(200); m1=0;m2=1;m3=0;m4=0; moves two step angle in //give high pulse to m2 motor // clockwise ms_delay(200); //define the switches using sbit as s1,s2,s3
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m1=0;m2=0;m3=1;m4=0; moves three step angle in ms_delay(200); m1=0;m2=0;m3=0;m4=1; moves four step angle in //give high pulse to m4 motor // clockwise ms_delay(200); } void mov_anticlk() { m1=0;m2=0;m3=0;m4=1; moves one step angle in //give high pulse to m4 motor //anti clockwise //give high pulse to m3 motor //clockwise
ms_delay(200); m1=0;m2=0;m3=1;m4=0; ms_delay(200); m1=0;m2=1;m3=0;m4=0; ms_delay(200); m1=1;m2=0;m3=0;m4=0; ms_delay(200); } void motor_stop() { m1=0;m2=0;m3=0;m4=0; }
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void main() { while(1) { if(s1==0) { mov_clk(); direction } else if(s2==0) { mov_anticlk(); wise direction } else if(s3==0) { mov_clk(); direction secdelay(1); mov_anticlk(); wise direction secdelay(1); } else { motor_stop(); }}} // motor stops // motor moves in anticlock // motor moves in clock wise // motor moves in anticlock // motor moves in clock wise
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MODULE -6
Seven Segment
The seven-segment LED display has four individual digits, each with a decimal point. Each of the seven segments (and the decimal point) in a given digit contains an individual LED. When a suitable voltage is applied to a given segment LED, current flows through and illuminates that segment LED. By choosing which segments to illuminate, any of the nine digits can be shown. For example, as shown in the figure below, a 2 can be displayed by illuminating segments a, b, d, e, and g.
Seven segment displays come in two varieties - common anode (CA) and common cathode (CC). In a CA display, the anodes for the seven segments and the decimal point are joined into a single circuit node. To illuminate a segment in a CA display, the voltage on a cathode must be at a suitably lower voltage (about .7V) than the anode. In a CC display, the cathodes are joined together, and the segments are illuminated by bringing the anode voltage higher than the cathode node (again, by about .7V). The Digilab board uses CA displays.
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The seven LEDs in each digit are labelled a-g. Since the Digilab board uses CA displays, the anodes for each of the four digits are connected in a common node, so that four separate anode circuit nodes exist (one per digit). Similar cathode leads from each digit have also been tied together to form seven common circuit nodes, so that one node exists for each segment type. These four anode and seven cathode circuit nodes are available at the J2 connector pins labelled A1-A4 and CA-CG. With this scheme, any segment of any digit can be driven individually. For example, to illuminate segments b and c in the second digit, the b and c cathode nodes would be brought to a suitable low voltage (by connecting the corresponding circuit node available at the J2 connector to ground), and anode 2 would be brought to a suitable high voltage (by connecting the corresponding circuit node available at the J2 connector to Vdd).
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Circuit diagram
R2
LED1 LED2 LED3
470 E VCC(5V)
U1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 VCC P1.0 P1.1 P1.2 P1.3 P1.4 P1.5 P1.6 P1.7 RESET RXD TXD INT0 INT1 T0 T1 WR RD X2 X1 VSS P0.0 P0.1 P0.2 P0.3 P0.4 P0.5 P0.6 P0.7 EA/VP ALE/P PSEN P2.7 P2.6 P2.5 P2.4 P2.3 P2.2 P2.1 P2.0 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21
5 4 3 2 1 g f vcc a b
RESET S/W
VCC
2
LED4 LED5 LED6 LED7 LED8
VCC
SW1 C3
10UF
R1
10K
S1 S2 1 S3 1
1 C1
2 2 2
8051
33PF CRYSTAL
Y1 C2
e d vcc c h
U2
7-segment
33PF
GROUND
6 7 8 9 10
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UP COUNTER #include<reg51.h> #include<delay.h> #define seg_port P2 //define segment port
// array is used to store the value of data to be sent on the port to display // any digit on seven segment as below unsigned char seg_array[10]={0xc0,0xf9,0xa4,0xb0,0x99,0x92,0x82,0xf8,0x80,0x90}; void main() { unsigned char count; while(1) { for(count=0;count<10;count++) { seg_port=seg_array[count]; array to the port secdelay(1); } } } // put array digit value from
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DOWN COUNTER #include<reg51.h> #include<delay.h> #define seg_port P2 // define segment port
// array is used to store the value of data to be sent on the port to display // any digit on seven segment as below unsigned char seg_array[10]={0xc0,0xf9,0xa4,0xb0,0x99,0x92,0x82,0xf8,0x80,0x90};
void main() { char count; while(1) { for(count=9;count>=0;count--) { seg_port=seg_array[count]; of digit fom array to secdelay(1); } } } // send the corresponding value // port
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UP AND DOWN WITH SWITCH #include<reg51.h> #include<delay.h> #define seg_port P2 sbit s1=P3^2; sbit s2=P3^3; sbit s3=P3^4; // array is used to store the value of data to be sent on the port to display // any digit on seven segment as below unsigned char seg_array[10]={0xc0,0xf9,0xa4,0xb0,0x99,0x92,0x82,0xf8,0x80,0x90}; void main() { char maxlen=0,flag; flag=0; seg_port=seg_array[maxlen]; while(1) { while(s3!=0) statement in this { execute if(s1==0) // if u press s1 // while u not pressed switch s3 the //while loop will // show '0' on 7 segment //define the switches using sbit as s1,s2,s3
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{ maxlen++; if(maxlen>9) maxlen=0; can't show two digit ) on single 7 segment flag=0; ms_delay(223); debouncing } else if(s2==0) { maxlen--; one if(maxlen<0) then store '9' in maxlen maxlen=9; flag=1; ms_delay(223); } secdelay(1); seg_port=seg_array[maxlen]; // send corresponding data vale from array // to segment port // set flag ie flag=1; // if maxlen is equal to 255 // then decrement maxlen by // if u press s2 // reset flag ie flag=0 // some delay for key // then increment value of maxlen by one // if maxlen is > 9 then store '0' in maxlen // Note: The above step is necessary because we // value (ie. 10,11 etc
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} secdelay(1); if(flag==0) then increment value { while(maxlen<10) { seg_port=seg_array[maxlen]; secdelay(2); maxlen++; } maxlen=9;flag=1; } else decrement value { while(maxlen>=0) { seg_port=seg_array[maxlen]; secdelay(2); maxlen--; } maxlen=0;flag=0; }} } // if flag is set(ie flag=1) then // if flag is reset (ie flag=0)
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MODULE 7
LCD
Liquid Crystal Display
3.2.12.1 LCD Display Liquid crystal displays (LCD) are widely used in recent years as compares to LEDs. This is due to the declining prices of LCD, the ability to display numbers, characters and graphics, incorporation of a refreshing controller into the LCD, their by relieving the CPU of the task of refreshing the LCD and also the ease of programming for characters and graphics. HD 44780 based LCDs are most commonly used. LCD pin description The LCD discuss in this section has the most common connector used for the Hitatchi 44780 based LCD is 14 pins in a row and modes of operation and how to program and interface with microcontroller is describes in this section.
16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Gnd Vcc D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 E R/W RS Contrast Vcc Gnd
Fig 3.21 LCD Pin Description Diagram
VCC, VSS, VEE
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The voltage VCC and VSS provided by +5V and ground respectively while VEE is used for controlling LCD contrast. Variable voltage between Ground and Vcc is used to specify the contrast (or "darkness") of the characters on the LCD screen. RS (register select) There are two important registers inside the LCD. The RS pin is used for their selection as follows. If RS=0, the instruction command code register is selected, then allowing to user to send a command such as clear display, cursor at home etc.. If RS=1, the data register is selected, allowing the user to send data to be displayed on the LCD. R/W (read/write) The R/W (read/write) input allowing the user to write information from it. R/W=1, when it read and R/W=0, when it writing. EN (enable) The enable pin is used by the LCD to latch information presented to its data pins. When data is supplied to data pins, a high power, a high-to-low pulse must be applied to this pin in order to for the LCD to latch in the data presented at the data pins. D0-D7 (data lines) The 8-bit data pins, D0-D7, are used to send information to the LCD or read the contents of the LCDs internal registers. To displays the letters and numbers, we send ASCII codes for the letters A-Z, a-z, and numbers 0-9 to these pins while making RS =1. There are also command codes that can be sent to clear the display or force the cursor to the home position or blink the cursor. We also use RS =0 to check the busy flag bit to see if the LCD is ready to receive the information. The busy flag is D7 and can be read when R/W =1 and RS =0, as follows: if R/W =1 and RS =0, when D7 =1(busy flag =1), the LCD is busy taking care of internal operations and will not accept any information. When D7 =0, the LCD is ready to receive new information.
CODES COMMAND TO LCD INSTRUCTION
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(HEX) 1 2 4 6 5 7 8 A C E F 10 14 18 1C 80 C0
38
Register Clear display screen Return home Decrement cursor(shift cursor to left) Increment cursor(shift cursor to right) Shift display right Shift display left Display off, cursor off Display off, cursor on Display on, cursor off Display on, cursor blinking Display on, cursor blinking Shift cursor position to left Shift cursor position to right Shift the entire display to the left Shift the entire display to the right Force cursor to beginning of 1st line Force cursor to beginning of 2nd line
2 line and 5x 7 matrix
LCD pin description
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Pin 1 2 3 4 Symbol VSS VCC VEE RS I/O I Description Ground +5V power supply Power supply to control contrast RS=0 to select command register, RS=1 to select data register.
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
R/W E PB0 PB1 DB2 DB3 DB4 DB5 DB6 DB7
I I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O I/O
R/W=0 for write, R/W=1 for read Enable The 8 bit data bus The 8 bit data bus The 8 bit data bus The 8 bit data bus The 8 bit data bus The 8 bit data bus The 8 bit data bus The 8 bit data bus
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Circuit diagram
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LCD FUNCTION #include<reg51.h> #include<delay.h> #define DATA P1 sbit RS=P3^5; sbit RW=P3^6; sbit E=P3^7; // define DATA and Control Pins of LCD
void lcd_cmd(unsigned char datax) lcd port { ms_delay(20); DATA=datax; RS=0; RW=0; E=1; ms_delay(5); E=0; }
// function to write command at
//clear RS (ie. RS=0) to write command // write operation // send H-L pulse at E pin
void lcd_data (unsigned char datax) port { ms_delay(20); DATA=datax;
// function to write data at lcd
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RS=1; RW=0; E=1; ms_delay (5); E=0; } // set RS=1 to write DATA // write operation // send H-L pulse at E pin
void lcd_init() power on time { lcd_cmd(0x38); ms_delay(3); lcd_cmd (0x38); ms_delay(3); lcd_cmd (0x0c); ms_delay(3); lcd_cmd (0x06); right ms_delay(3); lcd_cmd (0x01); ms_delay(3); lcd_cmd (0x80); command ms_delay(3); }
// function to initialize the LCD at
// 2x16 display select
// display on cursor off command
// automatic cursor movement to
// lcd clear command
// first row first coloumn select
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void lcd_puts(unsigned char *str) { while(*str!='\0') { lcd_data(*str); str++; } }
// function to display string to lcd
void displaypval(unsigned int datax) decimal value to lcd { unsigned int temp,temparr[3]; for(temp=3;temp>0;temp--) { temparr[temp-1]=datax%10; datax=datax/10; } for(temp=0;temp<3;temp++) { lcd_data(temparr[temp]+48); } } void main()
// function to display 3 digit
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{ lcd_init(); while(1) { lcd_cmd(0x80); lcd_puts("Value"); lcd_cmd(0xc0); displaypval(123); }
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HOW TO DISPLAY CHARACTER #include<reg51.h> #include<delay.h> #define DATA P1 Pins of LCD sbit RS=P3^5; sbit RW=P3^6; sbit E=P3^7; void lcd_cmd(unsigned char datax) at lcd port { ms_delay(20); DATA=datax; RS=0; command RW=0; E=1; ms_delay(5); E=0; } void lcd_data (unsigned char datax) port { ms_delay(20); DATA=datax; RS=1; // set RS=1 to write DATA // function to write data at lcd //clear RS (ie. RS=0) to write // write operation // send H-L pulse at E pin // function to write command // define DATA and Control
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RW=0; E=1; ms_delay (5); E=0; } // write operation // send H-L pulse at E pin
void lcd_init() lcd at power on time { lcd_cmd(0x38); ms_delay(3); lcd_cmd (0x38); ms_delay(3); lcd_cmd (0x0c); command ms_delay(3); lcd_cmd (0x06); right ms_delay(3); lcd_cmd (0x01); ms_delay(3); lcd_cmd (0x80); command ms_delay(3); } void main() //
// function to initialize the
display
on
cursor
off
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{ lcd_init(); while(1) { lcd_cmd(0x80); command to lcd lcd_data('H'); lcd_data('E'); lcd_data('L'); lcd_data('L'); lcd_data('O'); } } // send address of 1st row ,1st col (0x80) as a // send data ('H') to lcd // send data ('E') to lcd // send data ('L') to lcd // send data ('L') to lcd // send data ('O') to lcd
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NUMBER DISPLAY #include<reg51.h> #include<delay.h> #define DATA P1 of LCD sbit RS=P3^5; sbit RW=P3^6; sbit E=P3^7; void lcd_cmd(unsigned char datax) lcd port { ms_delay(20); DATA=datax; RS=0; command RW=0; E=1; ms_delay(5); E=0; } //clear RS (ie. RS=0) to write // write operation // send H-L pulse at E pin // function to write command at // define DATA and Control Pins
void lcd_data (unsigned char datax) lcd port { ms_delay(20); DATA=datax;
// function to write data at
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RS=1; RW=0; E=1; ms_delay (5); E=0; } // set RS=1 to write DATA // write operation //send H-L pulse at E pin
void lcd_init() power on time { lcd_cmd(0x38); ms_delay(3); lcd_cmd (0x38); ms_delay(3); lcd_cmd (0x0c); ms_delay(3); lcd_cmd (0x06); right ms_delay(3); lcd_cmd (0x01); ms_delay(3); lcd_cmd (0x80); command ms_delay(3); } void main()
// function to initialize the LCD at
// display on cursor off command
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{ unsigned char start_loc=0x80,count; lcd_init(); while(1) { for(count=0;count<10;count++) { lcd_cmd(start_loc); lcd_data(count+48); convert it to ASCII value secdelay(1); start_loc++; // set start location as 0x80 // add 48 to the count to // wait for one second // increment start location // loop to count from 0 to 9
if(start_loc==0x90) location start_loc=0xc0; (2nd row 1st column)
// if the cursor is at 17th // change the location to 0xc0
if(start_loc==0xd0) location then { lcd_cmd(0x01); start_loc=0x80; (1st row 1st column) } } } }
// if the cursor is at 33rd
//clear lcd and // change the location to 0x80
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A Z DISPLAY #include<reg51.h> #include<delay.h> #define DATA P1 sbit RS=P3^5; sbit RW=P3^6; sbit E=P3^7; // define DATA and Control Pins of LCD
void lcd_cmd(unsigned char datax) lcd port { ms_delay(20); DATA=datax; RS=0; RW=0; E=1; ms_delay(5); E=0; } void lcd_data (unsigned char datax) lcd port { ms_delay(20); DATA=datax; RS=1;
// function to write command at
//clear RS (ie. RS=0) to write command // write operation //send H-L pulse at E pin
// function to write data at
// set RS=1 to write DATA
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RW=0; E=1; ms_delay (5); E=0; } // write operation // send H-L pulse at E pin
void lcd_init() at power on time { lcd_cmd(0x38); ms_delay(3); lcd_cmd (0x38); ms_delay(3); lcd_cmd (0x0c); command ms_delay(3); lcd_cmd (0x06); right ms_delay(3); lcd_cmd (0x01); ms_delay(3); lcd_cmd (0x80); command ms_delay(3); } void main() //
// function to initialize the lcd
display
on
cursor
off
// first row first column select
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{ unsigned char start_loc=0x80,count,ch; lcd_init(); while(1) { ch=65; also write ch='A') // ASCII value of 'A' is 65 (u can
for(count=0;count<26;count++) // loop to count from 0 to 26 as A-Z total 26 character { lcd_cmd(start_loc); lcd_data(ch+count); it to ASCII value secdelay(1); start_loc++; // set start location as 0x80 // add to the count to convert // wait for one second // increment start location
if(start_loc==0x90) location start_loc=0xc0; (2nd row 1st column)
// if the cursior is at 17th // change the location to 0xc0
if(start_loc==0xd0) location then { lcd_cmd(0x01); start_loc=0x80; }}}}
// if the cursor is at 33rd
//clear lcd and
// change the location to 0x80 (1st row 1st column)
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SOLDERING COMPONENTS INTO THE PCB Bend the component leads at right angles with both bends at the same distance apart as the PCB pad holes. Ensure that both component leads and the copper PCB pads are clean and free of oxidization. Insert component leads into holes and bend leads at about 30 degrees from vertical. Using small angle cutters, cut the leads at about 0.1 - 0.2 of an inch (about 2 - 4 mm) above copper pad. Bring tinned soldering iron tip into contact with both the component lead and the PCB pad. This ensures that both surfaces undergo the same temperature rise. Bring resin cored solder in contact with the lead and the copper pad. Feed just enough solder to flow freely over the pad and the lead without a blobbing effect. The final solder joint should be shiny and concave indicating good wetting of both the copper pad and the component lead. If a crack appears at the solder to metal interface then the potential for forming a dry joint exists. If an unsatisfactory joint is formed, suck all the solder off the joint using a solder sucker or solder wick (braid) and start again.
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PRECAUTIONS 1. Mount the components at the approp places before soldering. Follow the circuit discription and components details, leads identification etc. Do not start soldering before making it confirm that all the components are mounted at the right place. 2. 3. 4. Do not use a spread solder on the board, it may cause short circuit. Do not sit under the fan while soldering. Position the board so that gravity tends to keep the solder where you want it. 5. Do not over heat the components at the board. Excess heat may damage the components or board. 6. The board should not vibrate while soldering otherwise you have a dry or a cold joint. 7. Do not put the kit under or over voltage source. Be sire about the voltage either is d.c. or a.c. while operating the gadget. 8. Do spare the bare ends of the components leads otherwise it may short circuit with the other components. To prevent this use sleeves at the component leads or use sleeved wire for connections. 9. Do not use old dark colour solder. It may give dry joint. Be sure that all the joints are clean and well shiny. 10. Do make loose wire connections specially with cell holder, speaker, probes etc. Put knots while connections to the circuit board, otherwise it may get loose.
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OTHER ELECTRONICS COMPONENTS USED
Page 90
RESISTOR
A resistor is an electrical component that limits or regulates the flow of electrical current in an electronic circuit. Resistors can also be used to provide a specific voltage for an active device such as a transistor. All other factors being equal, in a direct-current (DC) circuit, the current through a resistor is inversely proportional to its resistance, and directly proportional to the voltage across it. This is the well-known Ohm's Law. In alternating-current (AC) circuits, this rule also applies as long as the resistor does not contain inductance or capacitance. Resistors can be fabricated in a variety of ways. The most common type in electronic devices and systems is the carbon-composition resistor. Fine granulated carbon (graphite) is mixed with clay and hardened. The resistance depends on the proportion of carbon to clay; the higher this ratio, the lower the resistance. Another type of resistor is made from winding Nichrome or similar wire on an insulating form. This component, called a wirewound resistor, is able to handle higher currents than a carbon-composition resistor of the same physical size. However, because the wire is wound into a coil, the component acts as an inductors as well as exhibiting resistance. This does not affect performance in DC circuits, but can have an adverse effect in AC circuits because inductance renders the device sensitive to changes in output.
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Eureka Embedded & Advanced Software Technology (EEAST)
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RESISTOR COLOUR CODE
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CAPACITOR
A capacitor is a tool consisting of two conductive plates, each of which hosts an opposite charge. These plates are separated by a dielectric or other form of insulator, which helps them maintain an electric charge. There are several types of insulators used in capacitors. Examples include ceramic, polyester, tantalum air, and polystyrene. Other common capacitor insulators include air, paper, and plastic. Each effectively prevents the plates from touching each other. A capacitor is often used to store analogue signals and digital data. Another type of capacitor is used in the telecommunications equipment industry. This type of capacitor is able to adjust the frequency and tuning of telecommunications equipment and is often referred to a variable capacitor. A capacitor is also ideal for storing an electron. A capacitor cannot, however, make electrons.
SYMBOL
SYMBOL OF ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR
A capacitor measures in voltage, which differs on each of the two interior plates. Both plates of the capacitor are charged, but the current flows in opposite directions. A capacitor contains 1.5 volts, which is the same voltage found in a common AA battery. As voltage is used in a capacitor, one of the two plates becomes filled with a steady flow of current. At the same time, the current flows away from the other plate. To understand the flow of voltage in a capacitor, it is helpful to look at naturally occurring examples. Lightning, for example, is similar to a capacitor. The cloud represents one of the plates and the ground represents the other. The lightning is the charging factor moving between the ground and the cloud.
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IMAGE OF ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR
UNPOLARISED CAPACITORS
A non-polarized ("non polar") capacitor is a type of capacitor that has no implicit polarity -- it can be connected either way in a circuit. Ceramic, mica and some electrolytic capacitors are non-polarized. You'll also sometimes hear people call them "bipolar" capacitors.
SYMBOL OF NON POLARITY CAPACITOR
TRANSISTORS
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A Transistor is an semiconductor which is a fundamental component in almost all electronic devices. Transistors are often said to be the most significant invention of the 20th Century. Transistors have many uses including switching, voltage/current regulation, and amplification - all of which are useful in renewable energy applications. A transistor controls a large electrical output signal with changes to a small input signal. This is analogous to the small amount of effort required to open a tap (faucet) to release a large flow of water. Since a large amount of current can be controlled by a small amount of current, a transistor acts as an amplifier. A transistor acts as a switch which can open and close many times per second.
Bipolar Junction Transistors

The most common type of transistor is a bipolar junction transistor. This is made up of three layers of a semi-conductor material in a sandwich. In one configuration the outer two layers have extra electrons, and the middle layer has electrons missing (holes). In the other configuration the two outer layers have the holes and the middle layer has the extra electrons.
SYMBOL OF NPN & PNP TRANSISTOR
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Layers with extra electrons are called N-Type, those with electrons missing called P-Type. Therefore the bipolar junction transistors are more commonly known as PNP transistors and NPN transistors respectively. Bipolar junction transistors are typically made of silicon and so they are very cheap to produce and purchase.
How do Transistors Work
A bipolar junction transistor has three terminals - Base, Collector, and Emitter corresponding to the three semi-conductor layers of the transistor. The weak input current is applied to the inner (base) layer. When there is a small change in the current or voltage at the inner semiconductor layer (base), a rapid and far larger change in current takes place throughout the whole transistor.
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Pictured above is a schematic diagram of the more common NPN transistor. Below is an illustration of the same transistor using water rather than electricity to illustrate the way it functions:
The illustration shows pipe work with three openings B (Base), C (Collector), and E (Emitter). The reservoir of water at C is the supply voltage which is prevented from getting though to E by a plunger. If water is poured into B, it pushes up the plunger letting lots of water flow from C to E. If even more water is poured into B, the plunger moves higher, and the flow of water from C to E increases. Therefore, a small input current of electricity to the Base leads to a large flow of electricity from the Collector to the Emitter.
Transistor Gain
Looking at the water analogy again, if it takes 1 litre of water per minute poured into B to control 100 litres of water per minute flowing from C to E, then the Gain (or amplification factor) is 100. A real transistor with a gain of 100 can control 100mA of current from C to E with an input current of just 1mA to the base (B).
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If the output power (current x voltage) are more than 1 Watt a Power Transistor must be used. These let much more power flow through, and require a larger controlling input current.
LDR
A Light Dependent Resistor (aka LDR, photoconductor, or photocell) is a device which has a resistance which varies according to the amount of light falling on its surface.
A typical light dependent resistor is pictured above together with (on the right hand side) its circuit diagram symbol. Different LDR's have different specifications, however the LDR's we sell in the REUK Shop are fairly standard and have a resistance in total darkness of 1 MOhm, and a resistance of a couple of kOhm in bright light (10-20kOhm @ 10 lux, 2-4kOhm @ 100 lux).
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Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd. Uses for Light Dependent Resistors
Light dependent resistors are a vital component in any electric circuit which is to be turned on and off automatically according to the level of ambient light - for example, solar powered garden lights, and night security lighting. An LDR can even be used in a simple remote control circuit using the backlight of a mobile phone to turn on a device - call the mobile from anywhere in the world, it lights up the LDR, and lighting (or a garden sprinkler) can be turned on remotely!
DIODES
A diode is the simplest sort of semiconductor device. Broadly speaking, a semiconductor is a material with a varying ability to conduct electrical current. Most semiconductors are made of a poor conductor that has had impurities (atoms of another material) added to it. The process of adding impurities is called doping.
SYMBOL OF DIODE
Circuit Symbol
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IMAGE OF DIODES In the case of LEDs, the conductor material is typically aluminum-galliumarsenide (AlGaAs). In pure aluminum-gallium-arsenide, all of the atoms bond perfectly to their neighbors, leaving no free electrons (negatively-charged particles) to conduct electric current. In doped material, additional atoms change the balance, either adding free electrons or creating holes where electrons can go. Either of these additions make the material more conductive. A semiconductor with extra electrons is called N-type material, since it has extra negatively-charged particles. In N-type material, free electrons move from a negatively-charged area to a positively charged area. A semiconductor with extra holes is called P-type material, since it effectively has extra positively-charged particles. Electrons can jump from hole to hole, moving from a negatively-charged area to a positively-charged area. As a result, the holes themselves appear to move from a positively-charged area to a negatively-charged area. A diode comprises a section of N-type material bonded to a section of P-type material, with electrodes on each end. This arrangement conducts electricity in only one direction. When no voltage is applied to the diode, electrons from the Ntype material fill holes from the P-type material along the junction between the layers, forming a depletion zone. In a depletion zone, the semiconductor material
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is returned to its original insulating state -- all of the holes are filled, so there are no free electrons or empty spaces for electrons, and charge can't flow.
At the junction, free electrons from the N-type material fill holes from the P-type material. This creates an insulating layer in the middle of the diode called the depletion zone.
To get rid of the depletion zone, you have to get electrons moving from the N-type area to the P-type area and holes moving in the reverse direction. To do this, you connect the N-type side of the diode to the negative end of a circuit and the P-type side to the positive end. The free electrons in the N-type material are repelled by the negative electrode and drawn to the positive electrode. The holes in the P-type material move the other way. When the voltage difference between the electrodes is high enough, the electrons in the depletion zone are boosted out of their holes and begin moving freely again. The depletion zone disappears, and charge moves across the diode.
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When the negative end of the circuit is hooked up to the N-type layer and the positive end is hooked up to P-type layer, electrons and holes start moving and the depletion zone disappears.
If you try to run current the other way, with the P-type side connected to the negative end of the circuit and the N-type side connected to the positive end, current will not flow. The negative electrons in the N-type material are attracted to the positive electrode. The positive holes in the P-type material are attracted to the negative electrode. No current flows across the junction because the holes and the electrons are each moving in the wrong direction. The depletion zone increases. (See How Semiconductors Work for more information on the entire process.)
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When the positive end of the circuit is hooked up to the N-type layer and the negative end is hooked up to the P-type layer, free electrons collect on one end of the diode and holes collect on the other. The depletion zone gets bigger.
DIODES CHARACTERISTICS
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LED
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits visible light when an electric current passes through it. The light is not particularly bright, but in most LEDs it is monochromatic, occurring at a single wavelength. The output from an LED can range from red (at a wavelength of approximately 700 nanometers) to blue-violet (about 400 nanometers). Some LEDs emit infrared (IR) energy (830 nanometers or longer); such a device is known as an infrared-emitting diode (IRED). An LED or IRED consists of two elements of processed material called P-type semiconductors and N-type semiconductors. These two elements are placed in direct contact, forming a region called the P-N junction. In this respect, the LED or IRED resembles most other diode types, but there are important differences. The LED or IRED has a transparent package, allowing visible or IR energy to pass through. Also, the LED or IRED has a large PN-junction area whose shape is tailored to the application.
SYMBOL OF LED
Circuit Symbol
Benefits of LEDs
Low power requirement: Most types can be operated with battery power supplies. High efficiency: Most of the power supplied to an LED or IRED is converted into radiation in the desired form, with minimal heat production. Long life: When properly installed, an LED or IRED can function for decades.
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Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd. Typical Applications

Indicator lights: These can be two-state (i.e., on/off), bar-graph, or alphabetic-numeric readouts. LCD panel backlighting: Specialized white LEDs are used in flat-panel computer displays. Fiber optic data transmission: Ease of modulation allows wide communications bandwidth with minimal noise, resulting in high speed and accuracy. Remote control: Most home-entertainment "remotes" use IREDs to transmit data to the main unit. optoisolator: Stages in an electronic system can be connected together without unwanted interaction.
IMAGE OF DIFFERENT LEDS
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Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd. Project Modules Detailed Cost

Modules Power Supply
Transformer 1A Transformer 500 mA Power Cord Diodes LM7805 Capacitor 1000 uF led Resistance 470 ohm 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 8 1 3 1 1 1 100 50 20 8 13 8 1 0.25 7 70 9 6 0.25 4 9 3 0 8 0.25 0 9 0 17 0.25 6 0 49 55 150 4 25
Component
Quantity Cost
MCU Module
40 Pin Base MCU Crystal 11.0592 Capacitor 22uF Resistance 10 Kohm Capacitor 33 pf SIP Push Button
LED Job
leds Resisance 470 ohm
Switches
Push Button
Seven Segment Job

Seven Segment Resistance 470 ohm Base 28 Pin
DC Motor, Stepper Motor,Relay

ULN 2003 DC Motor Stepper Motor Base 16 Pin Relay 1 1 1 1 1
Page 107

lamp Holder lamp 1 1 1 10 0 0 150 0
LCD
LCD 16 Pin Connector
Page 108

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Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Indulging within minds, Imparting technologies

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Vision & Mission:

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

EESPL at your doorstep

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Components of our Project work putting able brains to work

The Execution Schedule implementing the knowledge minds

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Eureka Telecom & Infrastructure Services(ETIS):

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Eureka Smart Software Solutions(E3S) :

Placing Thoughts into Implementation

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Eureka Embedded & Advanced Software Trainings(EEAST)

Preparing the Visionaries of Tomorrow Today

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Eureka Human Resources & Turnkey Support Solutions(EHRTSS)

Fostering Proficient Intellect

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Eureka Project Kits and Spares (EPKS)

For an Uninterrupted Performance & Adept Learning

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

POWER SUPPLY DESCRIPTION:

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

MODULE 2: THE MICROCONTROLER:

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

MICROCONTROLLER BLOCK DIAGRAM

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd. INTRODUCTION TO 8051

AT89C51 FROM ATMEL CORPORATION

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

#include<reg51.h> address of 8051 #include<delay.h> milliseconds delay

void main() { while (1) { led=0xf0; secdelay(1); led=0x0f; secdelay (1); } }

// main program starts from here

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

void main() { while(1) {

// main program starts from here

// Infinite Loop for infinite rotation

led=0x00; secdelay(1); led=0xff; secdelay(1); } }

light on All 8-leds '0'-> ON

// 1 secdelay // light OFF All 8-leds '1'-> OFF

Eureka Electrosoft Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

sbit s1=P3^2; sbit s2=P3^3; sbit s3=P3^4;

// define only single bit using sbit syntex