Determining the three-dimensional geometry of a dike swarm and

its impact on later rift geometry using seismic reflection data

Thomas B. Phillips*, Craig Magee, Christopher A.-L. Jackson, and Rebecca E. Bell
Basins Research Group (BRG), Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College, Prince Consort Road, London
SW7 2BP, UK

ABSTRACT dikes that are imaged because the swarm has

Dike swarm emplacement accommodates extension during rifting and large igneous prov- been rotated post-emplacement and now dips
ince (LIP) formation, with ancient dike swarms serving to localize strain during later tectonic at ~50° (Fig. 1). These data present a unique
events. Deciphering three-dimensional (3-D) dike swarm geometry is critical to accurately and exciting opportunity to examine dike swarm
calculating magma volumes and magma-assisted crustal extension, allowing syn-emplace- geometry with depth and assess quantitatively
ment mantle and tectonic processes to be interrogated. It is also important for quantifying how the dike swarm influenced the development
the influence of ancient dike swarms on post-emplacement faulting. However, the essentially of a younger overlying normal fault array.
2-D nature of Earth’s surface, combined with the difficulties in imaging subvertical dikes in
seismic reflection data and the relatively low resolution of geophysical data in areas of active GEOLOGICAL SETTING
diking, means our understanding of dike swarm geometry at depth is limited. We examine The east-trending Farsund Basin is located
an ~25-km-wide, >100-km-long, west-southwest–trending dike swarm imaged, due to post- offshore southern Norway (Fig. 1A). The basin
emplacement rotation to shallower dips, in high-quality 2-D and 3-D seismic reflection data defines a south-dipping half-graben; the south-
offshore southern Norway. Tuned reflection packages correspond to thin (<75 m thick), closely ern margin is delineated by the Carboniferous–
spaced dikes. These data provide a unique opportunity to image and map an ancient dike Permian Fjerritslev fault system (Figs. 1B and
swarm at variable structural levels. Crosscutting relationships indicate emplacement occurred 1C; e.g., Mogensen and Jensen, 1994). Reacti-
in the Late Carboniferous–Early Permian, and was linked to the formation of the ca. 300 Ma vation of this fault during Late Jurassic–Early
Skagerrak-centered LIP. Dike swarm width increases with depth, suggesting that magma vol- Cretaceous extension flexed its hanging wall
ume and crustal extension calculations based on surface exposures are dependent on the level (Fig. 1C; Mogensen and Jensen, 1994). Nearby
of erosion. During the Mesozoic, rift-related faults localized above and exploited mechanical wells (Fig. 1A) penetrate down to lower-middle
anisotropies within the dike swarm. We demonstrate that seismic reflection data are a powerful Permian strata, which likely overlie Carbonif-
tool in understanding dike swarm geometry and the control of dikes on subsequent faulting. erous–Permian strata. We interpret the deepest
horizon that can confidently be mapped within
INTRODUCTION not know whether dike swarm geometry var- our seismic data as the ca. 290–270 Ma Saa-
Dike swarm emplacement facilitates magma ies with depth, or how, if at all, dike swarms lian-Altmark unconformity (Figs. 1B and 2A)
transport over significant vertical and lateral dis- influence the development of younger tectonic (Glennie, 1997).
tances (e.g., Ernst and Buchan, 1997; Torsvik et structures. Geophysical and geodetic data (e.g.,
al., 2008) and accommodates extension, particu- interferometric synthetic aperture radar) captur- DATA SET AND METHODOLOGY
larly during large igneous province (LIP) forma- ing transient diking events can provide insight Our main data set is a pre-stack time-
tion and magma-rich continental break up (e.g., into the 3-D geometry of individual dikes (e.g., migrated, 2-D seismic reflection data set consist-
Kendall et al., 2005; Keir et al., 2006). Further- Wright et al., 2006; White et al., 2011), although ing of <5-km-spaced, north-trending seismic sec-
more, following emplacement and solidifica- we typically rely on extrapolating surface or tions with a total line length of 2158 km. We also
tion, dike swarms form mechanical anisotropies near-surface observations to depth to infer use several other time-migrated 2-D data sets,
within the crust, serving to localize strain during 3-D dike swarm structure (e.g., Kavanagh and and a time-migrated, ~500 km2 3-D data set in
later tectonic events (e.g., Dineva et al., 2007). Sparks, 2011). the west of the study area (Fig. DR1 in the GSA
Dike swarms thus influence the syn-emplace- Reflection seismology provides one of the Data Repository1). The 2-D data image to at least
ment and post-emplacement tectonic evolution only data sets that can constrain both the down- 7 s two-way time (TWT; ~15 km), and the 3-D
of many regions, leading numerous studies to dip and along-strike geometry of dikes, as well volume to 4 s TWT (~7 km). Seismic horizon age
(1) use their plan-view geometry and distribu- as that of overlying structures, over large areas is constrained by boreholes, the deepest of which
tion to calculate melt volumes and extension (e.g., Malehmir and Bellefleur, 2010; Wall et terminates in basement below Permian strata
associated with rifting and LIP emplacement, al., 2010). While previous seismic-based stud- (well 11/5-1; Fig. 1A); no boreholes penetrate
and thus infer mantle and tectonic processes ies have imaged or contain evidence of one or the interpreted dike swarm. To reveal the kine-
(e.g., Halls, 1982); and (2) further understand several dikes, which may or may not be part of a matics of normal faults that appear correlated
rift evolution through correlating their location dike swarm (e.g., Zaleski et al., 1997; Malehmir to the dike swarm, we performed quantitative
and geometry to that of later formed structures and Bellefleur, 2010; Wall et al., 2010), we pres-
(e.g., Dineva et al., 2007). However, because ent the first seismic data set that images and con-
the two-dimensional (2-D) nature of the Earth’s strains the geometry of a dike swarm. We iden- GSA Data Repository item 2018026, Appendix
1 

surface only allows us to effectively investigate
horizontal slices through dike swarms, we do
*E-mail: tbphil13@gmail.com
tify a 100-km-long, 25-km-wide, and 3-km-high
section of a complete dike swarm in 2-D and 3-D
seismic reflection data offshore southern Nor-
way that consists of numerous closely spaced
DR1 (throw-length analyses), details and locations
of seismic reflection data used in this study, and
uninterpreted seismic sections, is available online at
http://www.geosociety.org/datarepository/2018/ or on
request from editing@geosociety.org.

GEOLOGY, February 2018; v. 46; no. 2; p. 119–122  |  GSA Data Repository item 2018026  | https://doi.org/10.1130/G39672.1 |  Published online 8 December 2017
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 A NOR 0.25 25 km High8˚Econfidence B Stratigraphy Tectonics or acquisition) artifacts; (2) do not resemble

Two-way time (s)

Neogene Quat.
interpretation reflections overlying in the cover, or adjacent
2.0 N Low confidence inclined reflections (Fig. 2), suggesting that they

Cenozoic
DK 58˚00
200 km 7˚E are not seismic multiples; (3) crosscut south-

Palaeogene
dipping (~10°–20°S) reflections associated with

Late Cretaceous
3.75
58˚00

inversion
Carboniferous–Permian strata, implying that
Agder Base
Cenozoic they do not represent sedimentary layers (Fig.

U. Cret.
Horst UC

Top Lower
2A); and (4) only rarely offset the Carbonifer-

Early Cretaceous extension

Varnes Graben
Cretaceous
ous–Permian stratigraphic reflections, indicating

L. Cret

Late Jurassic-
Fig. 2C
that most do not represent fault-plane reflections

Mesozoic
Base (Fig. 2). As a result, we favor the interpretation

Jurassic
Fig. 2A Jurassic
UC that the majority of the inclined reflections rep-
resent dikes, and refer to the overall package

Thermal subsidence Fjerritslev Fault

as the Farsund Dike Swarm. Because the dike

Triassic
Fig. 2B
Well 11/5-1
Farsund
Fig. 1C
Top
Zechstein swarm crosscuts probable Carboniferous–Perm-
Basin 57˚30 Base

Carb.-Permian Volcanism
ian (younger than 320 Ma) strata and is truncated

Permian
Zechstein
Saalian UC
(Top dike
by the 290–270 Ma Saalian-Altmark unconfor-

Palaeozoic
Fjerritslev Fault

formation
Variscan Orogeny
57˚30 swarm)

mity (Fig. 2A), we infer an emplacement age of

Carboniferous
system
7˚E
Base Carb.
-Permian ca. 320–270 Ma.
8˚E
Having established that the inclined reflec-
CN Cenozoic Upper
Cretaceous
tions likely represent dikes, we compare our
1
Lower observations of dike swarm geometry across an
Dike upper Cretaceous
tip limit extensive depth range (~1–4 km) to field- and
modeling-based studies reliant on 2-D plan-
Two-way-Traveltime (TWT) (s)

Jurassic
2
view exposures (Kavanagh and Sparks, 2011;
See Fig. 2D
for analysis
Bunger et al., 2013). The vertical resolution
Triassic
(i.e., λ/4, where λ is the seismic wavelength)
Bedding-related
of the seismic data dictates the maximum (i.e.,
3 reflectivity
Rotliegend Group. vertical) thickness of individual dikes for which
(Upper Permian)
both margins can be fully resolved, whereas the
Saalian
Unconformity
Fjerritslev
Fault System
thinnest detectable dikes will typically have a
Representative
4 dike reflections vertical thickness of λ/30 (Slatt, 2006); these
Soft
A.I

Carboniferous-Permian parameters can be calculated from the seismic

5 km Hard
frequency (~20 Hz) and velocity of the interval
Figure 1. A: Two-way traveltime structure map of the base Zechstein (Upper Permian) surface
of interest. Because we have no well data to
showing the extent of the Farsund Dike Swarm. Areas of high and low confidence interpreta- constrain the seismic velocity of the dike rocks
tion are shown in dark gray and light gray, respectively, based upon the clarity of the steeply and do not know the ratio of igneous to sedimen-
inclined reflections. B: Stratigraphic column detailing mapped horizons and regional tecton- tary material, we use a range of seismic veloci-
ics. UC—unconformity; Carb.—Carboniferous. C: Interpreted regional seismic section. Some ties from 6 km/s (i.e., purely igneous material;
dikes are highlighted in green, although the majority are uninterpreted. Seismic data are
shown using the Society of Exploration Geophysicists reverse polarity convention. See the Smallwood and Maresh, 2002) to 3 km/s (i.e.,
Data Repository (see footnote 1) for uninterpreted section. negligible igneous material) to conduct our
depth conversion. These velocities imply that
the dike dip is between 35° and 50°. We calcu-
analyses, in the form of throw-depth plots (see density of inclined reflections changes across the late vertical resolutions of 37.5–75 m and detec-
the Data Repository). width of the zone, from ~10 reflection peaks/km tion limits of 5–10 m for sediments and dikes,
in the center, to ~6 peaks/km at the margins (Fig. respectively. The Farsund Dike Swarm is com-
DIKE SWARM SEISMIC CHARACTER 2A). The upper tips of many of the reflections at posed of tuned reflection packages, indicating
We observe a series of inclined (apparent dips the margins terminate at stratigraphically lower multiple, relatively thin (<75 m), closely spaced
of ~35°–50°N), north-dipping, high-amplitude levels than those in the center (Figs. 1B and 2A); dikes. We cannot determine whether each pack-
reflections along the northern margin of the Far- the width of the reflection package thus increases age represents interference between reflections
sund Basin within an ~25-km-wide by ~100-km- with depth, from ~12 km at the Saalian-Altmark arising from the margins of one or several dikes;
long, west-southwest–trending zone (Figs. 1 and unconformity down to ~20 km where image as a result, we cannot assess detailed dike spac-
2). Inclined reflections in the swarm center are quality deteriorates. ing or thickness. However, the lateral distance
truncated by the overlying Saalian-Altmark and The inclined reflections may represent a between inclined reflections, perhaps a proxy
base Zechstein unconformities (Fig. 2). These number of different features, including geophys- for dike spacing, appears to increase toward the
reflections are confidently interpreted between ical processing–related artifacts, tilted sedimen- margins, where the majority of dikes terminate
~0.8 and 2.5 s TWT (~1–4 km), below which tary strata, fault-plane reflections, or dikes. We at deeper stratigraphic levels than those in the
image quality deteriorates, although they appear dismiss the first three hypotheses because the swarm center (Fig. 2A). This inverse relation-
to continue to greater depths (Figs. 1C and 2). inclined reflections (1) are imaged within several ship is inconsistent with analytical model pre-
To the west and south, the inclined reflections 2-D and 3-D seismic surveys, which have differ- dictions, which suggest that spacing increases
are deeper (>2.5 s TWT) and relatively poorly ent acquisition and processing parameters (see with dike height (cf. Bunger et al., 2013); how-
imaged (Fig. 1C); mapping of the reflections fur- Table DR1 in the Data Repository), implying ever, it is plausible that dike swarm emplace-
ther east is not possible due to a lack of data. The that they are not geophysical (e.g., processing ment was relatively protracted, with younger

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 A
0.8 N
Erosional truncation See D) for Cenozoic
S
of dikes fault analysis
1 km
Bedding-related Upper tip
Lower
reflectivity Cretaceous
line
1.0

Jurassic
1.2 Isolated dike Dike swarm
Two-way-traveltime (s)

reflection

Carboniferous-Permian
1.4 Figure 2. A: Interpreted
seismic section showing
dike swarm seismic char-
1.6
Triassic acter, and stratigraphic

Sa
(A Ba
and fault relationships. B,

ali
co se C: Seismic sections show-

an
1.8 us Z

U
Base Carboniferous- tic ec
ing dike seismic character

nc
Permian Ba hst

on
se ein
within interpreted swarm.

for
m
Dike-related en

mi
t) D: Throw-length profiles

ty
2.0 reflections
Sub-horizontal
Rotliegend Group
for the faults highlighted
seismic multiple
(Upper Permian) in Figures 1C and 2A.
2.2 Top dike swarm See Figure 1A for figure
locations. See the Data
BN S
CN S
D
Throw (ms) Throw (ms)
Jurassic 10 20 30 40 50 60
750
10 20 30 40 50 60
Repository (see foot-
Lower Cretaceous Faults Jurassic Lower Base Cenozoic Base Cenozoic

Cretaceous
Unconformity Unconformity
note 1) for uninterpreted
800 850
Reactivated
Reactivated sections.
segment
segment
900 950
Triassic
Top Jurassic

TWT (ms)
Top Jurassic
1000 1050
Dike-related
Top Triassic Top Triassic
reflections 1100 1150

1200 1250
Throw
maxima
100 ms
100ms

1350
1300 Top Dike
Carboniferous–Permian 1 km Dike-related reflections 1 km Top Dike
Swarm
Swarm

dikes preferentially intruded into the center of proximal part to a >1000-km-long, western arm of maximum throw suggests that these faults
the swarm, thereby reducing spacing. of a trilete radial dike swarm laterally injected nucleated at or just above the top of the dike
The observation that dike height varies from the ScLIP (Fig. 3). swarm (Fig. 2D). Large negative throw gradi-
across the swarm (Fig. 2) further indicates that ents present around the top Jurassic horizon
dikes exposed in plan view at the Earth’s sur- DIKE-FAULT INTERACTIONS possibly indicate erosion at this time, being
face may not represent true dike swarm width, Several north-dipping Mesozoic faults over- overlain by a low-throw segment that is indica-
and could significantly influence magma vol- lie and link downward with the Farsund Dike tive of fault reactivation (Fig. 2D; e.g., Cart-
ume and associated extension calculations. For Swarm (Figs. 1B and 2). Kinematic analysis wright et al., 1998). The faults likely initiated
example, assuming a 1:1 dike to host rock ratio, (see the Data Repository) identifying the site in the Triassic in response to margin flexure;
a swarm length of 50 km, and a dike height of
3 km, dike swarm volumes calculated from the
measured widths at the Saalian-Altmark uncon- Dikes 300–292 Ma Oslo Graben
formity (i.e., 12 km) and a deeper level (e.g.,
Volcanics
20 km) would be 900 km3 and 1500 km3, respec-
tively, with associated extension measurements NORWAY Skagerrak
of 6 and 10 km, respectively. Graben
296 Ma
Magnetic data
Study area SWEDEN
constrained
TECTONO-MAGMATIC CONTEXT AND Skagerrak Centered
Farsund
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FARSUND 297 Ma
Dike Swarm
LIP center
DIKE SWARM Southern Scania
The west-southwest–trending, Late Carbon- 302–292 Ma dike swarm

iferous–Early Permian (emplaced between 320 DENMARK

and 270 Ma) Farsund Dike Swarm is contem-
poraneous with a 300–280 Ma phase of dike 300, 287 Ma
Midland Valley
emplacement and volcanic activity across central Dike Suite Clausen et al 299 Ma
and northern Europe (see Torsvik et al., 2008, Outcrop (2016)
constrained
and references therein). Paleogeographic recon- 302–297 Ma
structions indicate that onshore dikes intruded UK
during this magmatic event are distributed radi- 250 km GERMANY
ally about the Skagerrak-centered LIP (ScLIP;
Fig. 3) (Torsvik et al., 2008). We suggest that the Figure 3. Location of the Farsund Dike Swarm in relation to the regional Skagerrak-centered
Farsund Dike Swarm links to the Midland Valley large igneous province (ScLIP). Dikes and volcanic outlines follow Heeremans et al. (2004).
Dyke Suite in the United Kingdom, forming a Ages are from Torsvik et al. (2008, and references therein).

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 reactivation occurred due to slip on and associ-
ated hanging-wall flexure of the Fjerritslev fault
during Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous exten-
sion (Fig. 4; Mogensen and Jensen, 1994). This
flexure rotated the Farsund dike swarm, allowing
it to be imaged in seismic data (Fig. 4). Overall,
weaknesses within the dike swarm (e.g., dike
contacts) localized rift-related strain and were
exploited by these later formed faults.
N Dike tip line
Erosion surface Zechstein salt
Fjerritslev Fault
Dike swarm System
emplacement
10 km Permian
Faults exploiting dikes
Lower Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic Late Jurassic-
E. Cret.
activity
Dike swarm
rotation and Fault nucleation Early
imaging point
Cretaceous
Figure 4. Schematic evolution of the Farsund
Dike Swarm. Dike emplacement occurs during
the Carboniferous–Permian, before Early Cre-
taceous (E. Cret.) fault activity to the south
causes rotation of the hanging wall, allowing
imaging of the dike swarm and associated
flexural faulting.
CONCLUSIONS
We present images of one of the first dike
swarms to be imaged in seismic reflection data.
The swarm trends west-southwest, is 25 km
wide, and is constrained to at least ~3 km depth.
Seismic-stratigraphic and geometric constraints
link the swarm to the ca. 300 Ma ScLIP, and
show that it forms, along with the Midland Val-
ley Dyke Suite, part of an ~1000-km-long sys-
tem across the North Sea. Post-emplacement
regional faulting rotated the swarm to ~50° dip,
allowing its imaging on seismic reflection data.
By imaging the dike swarm in cross section,
we highlight a variable dike swarm width with
depth. This observation is not possible based on
plan-view sections at the Earth’s surface alone
and shows how calculations of crustal extension
and magma volumes may be dependent on the
level of erosion of the dike swarm. We show that
normal faults later exploited internal mechani-
cal anisotropies between individual dikes. Our
imaging of a dike swarm at depth offers new
insights into their geometry and implications for
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their role in continental extension, in addition
to showcasing how dike swarms can influence
tectonic events after their emplacement.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Petroleum Geo-Services (PGS) for allowing
us to show the seismic data in this study, and Sch-
lumberger Ltd. for providing academic licenses for
the Petrel software. This contribution forms part of
the MultiRift Project funded by the Research Council
of Norway PETROMAKS program (project 215591)
and Statoil. We thank S. Holford, A. Malehmir, an
S anonymous reviewer, and editor D. Brown for their
constructive comments, along with members of the
Basins Research Group.
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Manuscript received 30 August 2017
Revised manuscript received 1 November 2017
Manuscript accepted 2 November 2017
Printed in USA