Introduction to Forensic Chemistry

Forensic - this refers to a relationship to a court of justice and legal proceeding.

Chemistry – this refers to branch of science that deals with the identification of the substances
of which matter is composed.
Forensic Chemistry – this refers to the branch of chemistry that deals with the application of
chemical principles in the solution of problems that arise in connection with the administration of
justice.
Roles of Forensic Chemistry
a. Speedy Investigation
b. Solution of Crimes
Chemical Findings are used in:
a. Convicting the guilty
b. Clearing the innocent
Scope of Forensic Chemistry
a. Chemical side of investigation
b. Analysis of material leading to legal proceeding
c. Not only purely chemical question but aspect of Forensic Science
Stages in the Practice of Forensic Chemistry
1. Collection or Reception of the specimen to be examined – in the collection of
specimen the following guiding principle must be observed in the practice of Forensic
Chemistry:
a. Sufficiency of the specimen – Police is usually inclined to be niggardly (not
generous) in taking samples. This mistake should be avoided.
b. Standard for comparison – If the evidence in question is found in the presence of
foreign substance, a sample of the foreign substance must be submitted for analysis.
c. Maintenance of Individuality – Each evidence must be collected and preserved as a
separate sample. There must be no mixing or intermingling of unknown to known.
d. Labeling and Sealing – Evidence will have no value in court in spite of the good
report of the expert if the specimen cannot be identified and possibility of tampering
excluded.
2. Actual Examination of Specimen – the first step in the examination of an article is to
scrutinize it carefully and write down the laboratory notebook a complete description of
its external appearance including the manner in which it is secured and particulars of the
sealing.
a. Scrutinize, document complete description of external appearance, manner of
collection and secured:
b. Take photographs if possible
 c. Weigh, measure, record.

3. Communication of Results – the results of the examination conducted will be

communicated to the requesting party in the form of a written report which must include
an enumeration of the articles received for examination with detailed description of the
packing, sealing and labeling date of receipt and from whom receive the purpose of the
examination, the findings and conclusion. The findings should include a brief but
sufficient record of all significant facts noted during the examination.

4. Court Appearances – the written report of the chemist is usually supplemented at a later
date by oral evidence if the case is brought to court or fiscal’s office. In court appearance
the witness must be composed and as much as possible avoid being irritated by
upbraiding of the opposite counsel.

SIX GOLDEN RULES

1. Go Slowly – Good work cannot be buried, therefore take all the time necessary to make
the case complete, no matter how urgent it may appear or how pressing others may be of
the results; it is generally possible to adjourn a case if the work cannot be finished in
time.
2. Be thorough – Make a careful and minute examination of everything and do not be
satisfied with a qualitative analysis if a quantitative one be possible; it always pays to do
too much rather than to little and it is difficult to foresee what will or will not be requires
in court.
3. Take notes- Keep a full, neat and clear record of everything seen and done.
4. Consult others – Many cases will lead the expert into paths with which he is not
familiar, and when this happens he should consult others who are most likely to know.
5. Use imagination – it enables and deduction to be made from slender and incomplete
premise is very useful.
6. Avoid complicated theories – the simplest explanation is usually the right one.
Factors Contributing to the loss of Physical Evidence.
a. Lack of precautions preventing tampering of specimen
b. Failure in preservation
c. Failure in transport of specimen
d. Failure in identifying the specimen
e. Improper packaging of specimen
Types of Examination used in Forensic Chemistry
a. Qualitative Examination
b. Quantitative Examination
Methods of Analysis in Forensic Chemistry
 a. Wet Method – Requires much time and effort
b. High Precision Method – this refers to the utilization of UV and IR Spectrophometry.
Techniques Used in Forensic Chemistry
1. Microscopy – this refers to the technical field of using microscope to view samples and
object that cannot be seen with the unaided eye (objects that are not within the resolution
range of the normal eye).
2. Photography – (Preservation of evidence) this refers to the study concerning the
duplication of images through the action of light, upon sensitized materials (photographic
paper or film) with the aid of mechanical device (camera) and its accessories and the
chemical processes (film developing and printing) involved therein.
3. Invisible Rays – this refers to the use of invisible spectrum of light such as UV, IR, X-
ray and etc. for the identification and evaluation of pieces of evidence.
4. Chromatography – this refers to biophysical techniques that enables the separation,
identification and purification of the component of a mixture for qualitative and
quantitative analysis.
5. Electrophoresis – this refers to laboratory technique used to separate DNA, RNA or
protein molecules based on their size and electrical charge. An electric current is use to
move molecules to be separated through a gel. Pores in the gel work like a sieve,
allowing smaller molecules to move faster than larger molecules.
6. Spectrography – this refers to the technique of using spectrograph, an optical device for
breaking the light down into a spectrum and recording the results photographically.
7. Neutron Activation Analysis – this refers to a nuclear process used for determining the
concentrations of elements in a vast amount of materials. NAA relies on excitation by
neutrons so that the treated sample emits gamma – rays. It allows the precise
identification and quantification of the elements above all of the trace element in the
sample.
8. XRD (X-ray Diffraction) – this refers to a rapid analytical technique primarily used for
phase identification of a crystalline material and can provide information on unit cell
dimensions. The analyzed material is finely ground, homogenized and average bulk
composition is determined.
9. DNA Typing (DNA Profiling) – this refers to a laboratory procedure that detects normal
variation in a sample of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA typing is most often used
to establish identity, parentage, family relationship and appropriate matches for
transplantation of organs and tissues.
10. Forensic Entomology – this refers to the study of investigation/anthropods in criminal
investigation. Right from the early stages insects are attracted to the decomposing body
and may lay eggs in it. By studying the insect population and the developing larval
stages, forensic scientist can estimate the postmortem index, any change in position of the
corpse as well as the cause of death.
11. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) – this refers to an analytical technique that
measures the concentration of element. Atomic absorption is so sensitive that it can
 measure down to parts per billion of a gram in a sample. The technique make use of
wavelengths of light specially absorbed by an element.

Equipment used in the Forensic Examination

1. HPLC (High Powered Liquid Chromatography) – this scientific equipment is used for
the qualitative and quantitative determination of volatile or non-volatile compound based
on the chromatographic separation of its components.
2. Ultra-Violet Spectrophotometer - it is used for the qualitative and quantitative analysis
of organic compounds.
3. EMIT (Enzyme Multiple Immuno Assay Technique) – it is used for screening of
abused urine samples.
4. SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) – this scientific equipment is used for the
physical identification of various questioned specimens. It is a software-controlled digital
scanning electron microscope used to produce sticking images over a wide range of
magnification (3x3,000,000x) ori rough or covered surface of minute specimen such as
hair, fibers, paint particles, drugs metals, etc.
5. FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy) – Used for the identification of pure
organic substances. It identifies organic substances particularly abused drugs and
explosive ingredients based on their characteristic functional groups. In layman’s term,
the resulting fingerprints of the substance.

Characteristic of Tools and Techniques used in Forensic Chemistry

a. Sensitivity – talks about the action
b. Specificity – talks about its individuality
c. Rapidity – talks about the reaction of time
Principle Used in Forensic Chemistry
a. Law of Individuality – every object, natural or man-made has an individuality which is
not duplicated in any other object
b. Law of Progressive Change - everything changes with the passage of time
c. Principle of Comparison – only “likes” can be compared
d. Principle of Analysis – analysis of two or more sets to understand any difference.
e. Law of Probability - all identification, definite or indefinite are made consciously or
unconsciously on the basis of probability
Crime Scene Vocabulary
1. Crime Scene – any physical location in which a crime has occurred or is suspected of
having occurred.
Type of Crime Scene
1. Primary Crime Scene – the original of the crime or accident
 2. Secondary Crime Scene – an alternated location such as where the additional
evidence may be found.
A. Suspect – person thought to be capable of committing a crime.
B. Accomplice – second person associated with committing a crime.
C. Alibi - statement of where a suspect was at the time of a crime
D. Evidence – is a means, sanction by law of ascertaining in a judicial
proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact.
Kinds of Evidence
A. Testimonial Evidence – would be any witnessed accounts of an incident or crime
B. Physical Evidence – any material items that would be present on the crime scene or the
victims. Presented in a crime investigation to prove or disprove the facts of the issue. Eg,
DNA, Body Itself, Weapon used. Pieces of carpet, blood and ther body fluids, Fingerprint
or casts of footprints or tire print and etc.
C. Trace Evidence – refers evidence that is found at a crime scene in a small but
measurable amounts.
Forms of Scientific Evidence
1. Real or Autoptic Evidence – Evidence which is addressed to the senses of the court.
2. Testimonial Evidence – Comes from people eg. Testimony of an expert witness in court
3. Experimental Evidence - an expert witness may be required to perform certain
experiment to prove a certain matter of fact.
4. Documentary Evidence - any written evidence presented by an expert witness in court.
Basic Forms of Evidence

1. Direct Evidence – that which the senses perceive. Any fact to which a witness testifies
based on what he saw, heard, smelled, touched or tasted.
2. Circumstantial Evidence – a kind of evidence which seeks to establish a conclusion by
inferences from proved facts. An evidence which establishes a fact or circumstances from
which the court may infer another fact at issue.
3. Hearsay Evidence - a statement made by a witness on the authority of another and not
from his own personal knowledge or observation. Hearsay evidence is inadmissible
except with certain well – defined exceptions. Some of the common exceptions to the
rules of exclusion generally applicable to hearsay evidence are declaration against
interest, dying declaration, res gestae, public records and statement made at a prior time.
Witness
-One who testifies in court and has personal knowledge or experience of something. A
person other that the suspect who is requested to give information concerning an incident or
person. He may be a victim, a complainant, an accuser. A source of information, and an
observer of an occurrence. A witness in court may be an ordinary or expert witness.
Type of Witness
1. Ordinary Witness – it refers to one who states facts and may not express his opinions or
conclusion. The rules of court require that the person must have the following
qualification:
a. He must have the organ and power to perceive;
b. The perception gathered by his organ of sense can be imparted to others;
c. He does not fall in any of the exception provided for by the law.
2. Expert Witness – this refers to one who possesses a special skill, be it in art, trade or
science or one who has special skill, be it in art, trade or science or one who has special
knowledge in matters not generally known to men or ordinary education and experience.
He is a person skilled in some art, trade or science to the extent that he possesses
information not within the common knowledge of man.