valdez_christopher

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS WITH SOFTWARE APPLICATION

Statistical Methods
1. Introduction

Statistics

- Common meaning- factual information involving numbers

- Precise meaning- quantities which have been derived from sample data
- Common meaning – academic subject which involves reasoning about statistical
quantities

3 Main areas of Statistics

1. Descriptive statistics- comprises on methods concerned with collecting, summarizing, and
describing a set of data as to yield meaningful information (based on data)

2. Inferential statistics- comprises on methods concerned with analysis of subset of data leading
to predictions or inferences or broad generalization about the entire set of data (prediction)

3. Probability- the study of chance events governed by rules

How can statistical analysis help?

- It allows one to make sense of data
- It allows one to evaluate uncertainty and make valid inferences

Basic statistical concepts

- Reliability and validity
- Bias and precision
- Data richness
- Populations and samples
- Parameters and estimates
- Random selection
- Robustness

Introduction to Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis- is a science concerned with the organization and interpretation of data
according to well-defined, systematic, and mathematical procedures and rules
General Uses of statistics
- Aids in decision making
- Summarizes data for public use

Slovin’s formula

n = sample size

N= population size

e = desired margin of error

Definitions:

Parameter- numerical characteristic of the population

Statistic- numerical characteristic of the sample

Variable/Data- A characteristic or information of interest that is observable or measurable from

every individual or object under consideration.

Types of Data
1. Qualitative or Categorical (non-numeric)- measures a quality or characteristics.

2. Quantitative or Scale (numeric)- measures a numerical quantity or amount. It answer the

question “how much” or “how many”.

Types of Quantitative Data

1. Discrete data- assumes only a finite or countable number of values. Ex. Class size, number of
siblings

2. Continuous data- assumes infinitely many values corresponding to the points on a line
interval or whose set of values is uncountable. Ex. Income, height, weight
Measurement Scales
1. Nominal Scale- used with variables that are qualitative in nature. The data collected are
simply labels, categories or nameless without any implicit or explicit ordering of the categories or
explicit ordering of the labels. It is the lowest level of measurement. Ex. Sex, gender, hair color

2. Ordinal scale- has a relative low level of property of magnitude, but it does not have the
property of equal intervals between the adjacent units. This is concerned with the ranking or order of
the objects measured. The level of measurement is higher than nominal. Ex. Faculty rank, military, rank

3. Interval scale- has its property of magnitude and equal interval between two adjacent units,
but it does not have an absolute zero point, that is the number zero is arbitrarily assigned and does not
mean the absence of the characteristic under consideration. The level of measurement is higher than
the ordinal. Ex. Temperature in Celsius, military time

4. Ratio scale- is the highest level of measurement scale. It has all the properties of an interval
scale, that is, it has magnitude and equal intervals plus the absolute zero point. Furthermore, the
number zero indicates the absence of the characteristic under consideration. Ex. Reaction time, number
of visits to a doctor, rates
Dependent variable- sometimes called criterion variables (presume cause)

Independent variable- sometimes called predictor variables or a variable that can be controlled or
manipulated (presume effect)

Ex. “Study on the effect of Psychological stress on blood pressure”

Independent variable- amount Psychological stress an individual feeling

Dependent variable- the individual’s blood pressure

Primary Data- information gathered directly from an original source or based on the direct or firsthand
experience

Secondary Data- information which is previously gathered by previous individual

Methods of Collecting Data

1. Interview Method- person-to-person exchange between the interviewee and the interviewer.
Consistent and more precise

2 types

Direct Method- The researcher personally interviews the respondent

Indirect Method- The researcher uses telephone or any device to interview the
respondents.

2. Questionnaire Method

- Multiple choice

- Dichotomous- yes or no, agree or disagree, true or false (close ended)

- Open-ended- free verse

3. Registration Method- gathering information or data is enforced by the law. Ex. NSO, DepEd, CHED

4. Observation Method- the investigator observes the behavior of the subject and their outcomes.

5. Experiment Method- gathering data when the objective is to determine the cause and effect
relationship of a phenomenon under controlled conditions.
Sampling Techniques
1. Probability sampling techniques- all individuals in the defined population have an equal chance of
being selected as sample, process is called randomization

a. Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

- Lottery Sampling- group of sample selected from population

- use of table of random numbers- from tables or scientific calculator

b. Stratified Sampling- selecting sample in such a way that identified sub-groups or strata in the
population are presented in the sample in the same proportion that they exist in the population.

c. Cluster Sampling- area sampling, applied on geographical basis. Ex. Districts, blocks,
municipality

d. Systematic Sampling- with a random start is a method of selecting a sample by taking every
kth unit from an ordered population, the first unit being selected at random. Here k is called the sampling
interval and 1/k the sampling fraction
 e. Multi-Stage Sampling- uses several stages or phases in getting the sample. The population is
first divided into a number of first-stage or primary units, from which a sample is drawn. Within the
sampled first-stage units, a sample of second-stage or secondary units is drawn.

2. Non Random Sampling- not all have equal chances

a. Purposive Sampling- based on the criteria or a certain characteristics lay down by the
researcher. People who satisfy the criteria are interviewed.

b. Quota Sampling- relatively quick and inexpensive method to operate. Each interviewer is
given definite instruction about the section of the public he is to question, but the final choice of the
actual person is left to his own convenience or preference.

c. Convenience Sampling - done where in a researcher may get his sample at his own
convenience

d. Accidental or Incidental Sampling- process of getting a subject of study that is only available
during the period

e. Snowball Sampling- when a group of people recommends potential participants for a study

Methods of Presenting Data

1. Textual Method- Presents data in narrative form to describe the data collected

2. Tabular Method- Presents data in condensed form by arranging them systematically in rows and
columns. A statistical table that can be constructed to present a data collected is the Frequency
Distribution Table (FDT)
3.Graphical Method- qualities of a good graph.
- Accuracy
- Simplicity
- Clarity
- Appearance- neat, dignified

Common Types of Graphs

1. Line graph

2. Bar chart/ Column chart

A. column chart

B. horizontal bar chart

C. pie graph

D. pictogram

E. histogram

F. scatterplot

3. Pie chart

4. Pictograph

5. Scatter graph