Jones 1

Ryan Jones

Dr. Owen Elmore

ENGL 3070 – American Literature I

31 January 2022

Drugs, Lies, and Abuse: Psychosis & Addiction Theory Applied to Poe’s “The Fall of the House

of Usher”

What would it be like to bear internal, first-hand witness to the collapse of a mind on the

brink? According to the late Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality, the human

psyche “[contains] more than one aspect, being composed of three systems that are neither parts

of the brain nor anything physical” (McLeod 1). Each of these systems operates within either the

conscious or unconscious mind, all of them working in tandem to make up an individual’s

psyche. If this theory is applied to Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Fall of the House of Usher” I believe

that, in reality, all three main characters are actually the manifestations of Roderick Usher’s

schizophrenic mind as he battles an addiction to opioid abuse, and ultimately loses.

Under Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis, the most primitive of the psyche’s three systems

is the id. This part of the mind operates unconsciously, and desires nothing more than instant

gratification regardless of consequence. It is also responsible for instinctual emotions such as

sexual arousal and anger. “The id engages in primary process thinking … which has no

comprehension of objective reality, and is selfish and wishful in nature” (McLeod 1). The most

likely character to represent the concept of id in Poe’s “Fall of the House of Usher” is Madeline.

This is evidenced by the fact that Madeline is the most animalistic, and therefore, the most

primitive of the trio of major characters, never even speaking to the unnamed narrator. Her most
 Jones 2

notable actions were her presumed death and her final act of anger toward her brother, otherwise

existing mostly as a background phantasm in the tale.

The next core system that must be discussed and identified is the ego, which I believe is

embodied by Roderick Usher. The ego is “the only part of the conscious personality. It’s what

the person is aware of when they think about themselves” (McLeod 1). Generally, the ego

operates under the principles of reality rather than those of pleasure. This also the portion of the

psyche that is responsible for devising a plan (usually rooted in reality) to obtain the pleasure the

id seeks. Crucially, it must be noted that “The ego has no concept of right or wrong; something is

good simply if it achieves its end of satisfying without causing harm to itself or the id” (McLeod

1). Usher represents the ego because he is self-aware. This is demonstrated in his letter to the

narrator, in which he expresses that he is suffering from whatever ailment he is currently

experiencing and is hopeful that the unnamed narrator’s company can see him through his plight.

This leaves the unnamed narrator to play the role of superego. Like the id, the superego is

also part of the unconscious mind, though its function is inherently juxtaposed. Rather than the

unapologetic pursuit of pleasure, the superego “is the voice of the conscience (doing what is

right) and the source of self-criticism … The superego's function is to control the id's impulses,

especially those which society forbids, such as sex and aggression” (McLeod 1). The narrator

operating as the superego is supported by the initial reason for his summons: attempting to guide

Usher through his mysterious condition, thus paralleling the way in which superego guides the

ego through difficult moral decisions. Further, the narrator assisting Roderick in Madeline’s

entombment plays into the idea of the superego trying to keep the id in check. Furthermore, the

narrator and Madeline have no direct interactions apart from her premature entombment, which

is consistent with the id and superego functioning independently of one another in the
 Jones 3

unconscious mind. They are mediated by the ego and never interact directly or of their own

accord.

The final noteworthy player in this situation is the Usher house itself. As is established in

the narrative, the Usher family is notorious for their home, the structure being viewed as an

extension of the family in the eyes of the townsfolk due to the Usher clan’s infamously

dwindling numbers. The atmosphere outside the home is dark, gloomy, and oppressive, which

coincides with Roderick’s illness. Though visibly aged, the foreboding building is described as

mostly sturdy, save for some rotten bricks and a tiny, inconspicuous crack that runs from the roof

to base. I believe the Usher house is a physical representation of Roderick’s mind. The

deteriorating portions represent Roderick’s likely schizophrenia, and the crack represents the

prior hypothesized drug addiction.

Schizophrenia itself is a relatively new disease, which was allegedly “first described in

1896 by Dr. Emil Kraepelin. He first used the term ‘dementia praecox’ or premature dementia”

(LWS UK 1). The original publication date of “The Fall of the House of Usher” is 1839.

Therefore, it is a rational assumption that if Roderick was indeed a schizophrenic, the condition

would long have gone undiagnosed. More specifically, I believe the socially elite Roderick did

see a doctor for schizophrenic symptoms and was prescribed what I presume was laudanum. This

is further evidenced by LiveScience, who argue that “In the 1700s and 1800s in Europe and

North America, the laudanum tincture became a go-to treatment for all sorts of conditions …

ranging from cough, to epilepsy, to insomnia, to hysteria” (Pappas 1). In fact, laudanum was

believed to be a key player in the opioid epidemic that occurred in the late 1800s and eerily

mirrors modern society.

With these pieces established, the events of “The Fall of the House of Usher” can be
 Jones 4

interpreted from a new perspective. Prior to the tale’s beginning, likely from adolescence,

Roderick has suffered from schizophrenia. This is supported by the narrator commenting that he

hadn’t seen his friend since boyhood. The narrator also suggests that during their childhood

friendship, the atmosphere around the house was much more friendly and inviting. This, to me,

suggests that as a child, Roderick’s condition was either manageable or had not yet manifested.

Upon its manifestation, Roderick sought a doctor who prescribed him laudanum, which was

framed by medical science at the time as the cure-all elixir of the era.

At first, the drugs are effective at helping Roderick. The hallucinations stop, and thus, he

loses touch with the narrator—the physical representation of his superego, and for a time, all is

well. However, due to the highly addictive nature of opioids, it is only a matter of time until

Usher is abusing the drugs instead of medicating. Slowly, he starts to spiral downward into

addiction as he constantly gives into his id, which manifests itself as Madeline, signaling that by

now, the drugs are ineffective as far as medicinal purposes. This also plays into Madeline’s

unknown illness. The id of a drug addict could philosophically be interpreted as “sick.” It has

been rewired to prioritize the addict’s next dose above all else, sometimes forgoing even basic

survival necessities. Roderick’s condition is also consistent with opioid withdrawal, which can

cause symptoms such as nausea and sensitivity to noise.

Eager to put Usher back on the right path, the superego manifests in the form of the

narrator. The narrator does his best to comfort Roderick and get him on the path to overcoming

his addiction. A few days into battling his demons, the overconfident Roderick attempts to

dispose of the drugs. This the reason for Madeline’s “first death”—her premature burial acting as

an expression of Roderick’s incorrect belief that he and his superego have successfully contained

his id’s desires. Sadly, addiction is a powerful vice.

 Jones 5

Roderick willfully ignores Madeline’s escape attempts over the next few days,

symbolizing his waning willpower toward not using again. Finally, one dark and stormy night,

Usher’s resolve crumbles as is represented by Madeline’s successful escape. He gives in, takes

too large a dose, and succumbs to his villainous habit, dropping dead on the spot. Horrified at the

death of its host, Roderick’s superego has an out-of-body experience in which it bears witness to

the mind collapsing in on itself.

All the elements necessary to make the ‘death of the schizophrenic opioid addict’

hypothesis a viable one are present in the narrative. If this hypothesis is to be believed, then the

story actually takes place from Usher’s perspective alone. The fact that schizophrenia is

prominently associated with the physical manifestation of hallucinations lends this theory even

more plausibility. Granted, this theory is not perfect and does require some speculation and

assumption. I would argue it is still a more realistic explanation than one spiritually linked twin

accidentally entombing the other alive, only to result in both their simultaneous deaths and

leaving a neutral third party to witness the entire event as well as the disappearance of all

evidence as the scene is crushed under the weight of their ancestral house at the height of a blood

moon, though.
 Jones 6

Works Cited

LWS (UK). “Schizophrenia: A Brief History.” Living With Schizophrenia, 1 July 2021,

livingwithschizophreniauk.org/information-sheets/schizophrenia-a-brief-history.

Mcleod, Saul. “Id, Ego and Superego.” Id, Ego, and Superego | Simply Psychology, 5

Feb. 2017, www.simplypsychology.org/psyche.html.

Pappas, Stephanie. “Opioid Crisis Has Frightening Parallels to Drug Epidemic of Late

1800s.” Livescience.Com, 29 Sept. 2017, www.livescience.com/60559-opioid-crisis-echoes-

epidemic-of-1800s.html.

Poe, Edgar Allan. “The Fall of the House of Usher.” PoeStories.Com,

poestories.com/read/houseofusher. Accessed 31 Jan. 2022.