ERGONOMICS

Objectives of Ergonomics

▪Greater ease of interaction between user and machine

▪Avoid errors and mistake
▪Greater comfort and satisfaction in us of equipment
▪Reduces stress and Fatigue
▪Greater efficiency and productivity
▪Safer operation
▪Avoid accidents and injuries
•Ergonomics – An applied scientific discipline concerned on how human interact
with tools and equipment they use while performing tasks and other activities.
Derived from Greek words “ergon” meaning work and “nomos” meaning laws. The
word ergonomics coined by British scientist K.F.H Murrell and entered the English
In 1949.
“Ergonomics (or human factors) is the scientific discipline concerned with the
understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a system, and
the profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to design in order to
optimize human well-being and overall system performance.” - The International
Ergonomics Association (2000).
Ergonomics is the study of human abilities and characteristics which affect the
design of equipment, systems, and jobs. The terms ergonomics and human factors
can be used interchangeably.
IMPORTANCE OF ERGONOMICS:
Ergonomics is an important part of research in the product development
process. Its purpose is to increase the safety, comfort and performance of a
product or an environment, such as an office. Ergonomics uses
anthropometrical data to determine the optimum size, shape and form of a
product, and make it easier for people to use.
HUMAN FACTORS
•Human Factors – A human factor is synonymous with ergonomics.
Ergonomics emphasize work physiology and anthropometry. Europe –
industrial work system. Human factors emphasizes experimental psychology
and system engineering. U.S.- military work system.
The study of how people use system or equipment in order to design,
develop, and create technology that is safer, more effective and friendly.
Human Factors is a body of knowledge about human abilities, human
limitations, and other human characteristics that are relevant to design.
Human factors engineering is the application of human factors information to
the design of tools, machines, systems, tasks, jobs, and environments for safe,
comfortable, and effective human use.
HUMAN FACTORS AND ERGONOMICS
Human factors and ergonomics (commonly referred to as human factors) is
the application of psychological and physiological principles to the
engineering and design of products, processes, and systems. The goal of
human factors is to:
1. Reduce human error
2. Increase productivity, and
3. Enhance safety and comfort with a specific focus on the interaction
between the human and the thing of interest.

Ergonomics is the design and engineering of human-machine systems for the

purpose of enhancing human performance
HISTORY OF ERGONOMICS
1857- Ergonomics was first used by Wojciech Jastrzebowski in a Polish
Newspaper in Poland. World War II - the increase in working hours and the
added strain created the conditions for the initiation of interdisciplinary
investigations to improve the quality of human activities. – prompted greater
interest in human - machine interaction as the efficiency of sophisticated
military equipment (i.e., airplanes) could be compromised by bad or
confusing design. Design concepts of fitting the machine to the size of the
soldier and logical/understandable control buttons evolved.
1949 - The term "ergonomics" was then proposed by Prof. Hugh Murrell and
its current official definition is: discipline concerned with the understanding
of the interactions among humans and other elements of a system
HISTORY OF ERGONOMICS
1950 - The name 'Ergonomics' officially accepted in 1950
1957 - The Human Factors Society was formed.
MODERN ERGONOMICS
Modern ergonomics is a branch of science that studies how the body works
and functions and then attempts to fit the workplace environment around the
natural human movements of the body.
Contributes to the design and evaluation of work systems and products.
The ergonomist has an important role to play at the conceptual, detailed
design, prototyping, and evaluation phases of existing products and facilities.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TRADITIONAL AND MODERN ERGONOMICS….
The traditional ergonomics focused on selecting and training a specific
person to adapt the work requirements, while modern ergonomics focuses on
the design of the mechanical equipment, so that the operation of machine
does not exceed beyond the limits of human ability.
ANTHROPOLOGY AND
ANTHROPOMETRY
Anthropology – the study of mankind, was
primarily philosophical and esthetical in
nature until about the middle of the
nineteenth century. The size and proportions
of the human body have always been of
interest to artists, warriors and physicians.
Physical Anthropology – is that scientific
subgroup in which the body, particularly
bones, is measured and compared.
Anthropometry – the measurement of the
human body.
Biomechanics – A new offspring, had
already developed. Engineers have become
highly interested in the application of
anthropometric and biochemical
information.
Measurement Techniques
Body measurement – are usually defined by the
two endpoints of the distance measured.
The Following terms are used in classical
anthropometry:
Height – is a straight-line, point to point vertical
measurement.
Breadth – is a straight-line, point to point
horizontal measurement running across the body or
a segment.
Depth – is a straight-line, point to point horizontal
measurement running fore-aft the body.
Distance – is a straight-line, point to point
measurement between landmarks on the body.
Curvature – is a point to point
measurement following a contour;
this measurement is usually neither
closed nor circular.
Circumference – is a closed
measurement that follows a body
contour; hence this measurement is
not circular.
Reach – is a point to point
measurement following the long of
the arm or leg.
New measurement techniques
Photographs – can record all three
dimensional aspects of the human
body. They allow the recording of
practically infinite numbers of
measurements, which can be taken
from the record at one’s
convenience.
Laser – can be used as a distance
measuring device to determine the
shape of irregular bodies. The body
to be measured is rotated, or the
sending and receiving units of the
laser device rotate around the body.
Variability – Anthropometric data show
considerable variability steming from four Human Components:
sources.
Measurement Variability – differing care is •Human Senses – to sense the operation.
exercised in selecting population samples,
using measurement instruments, storing the •Human Brain – for information
measured data, and applying statistical processing.
treatments which may yield quite variable
information. •Human Effectors – to take actions.
Intraindividual Variability – the size of the
same body segment of a given person changes
from youth to age, depending also on nutrition,
physical exercise, and health. Machine Components:
Interindividual Variability – individuals differ
from each other in arm length, weight, height, •The Process – human – machine system.
and other measurements.
Secular Variations – there is some factual and •Displays – “Direct observation” and
much anecdotal evidence that people “artificial displays”
nowadays are larger; on average; than their
ancestor. Reliable anthropometric information •Controls – to activate and regulate the
on this development is available only for about
the last hundred years. process.
Environment Components:
•Physical Environment – location
and surroundings.
• Social Environment – Co-workers
and colleagues at work.
Physical Ergonomics:
•Physiology – vital processes carried
out by living organism and how their
constituent’s tissues and cells
function.
•Anthropometry – physical
dimensions of the human body.
Cognitive Ergonomics – Capabilities of
the human brain and sensory system
while performing information processing
activities.
Human Cognitive Processes Include:
1.Sensing and Perception
2. Use of memory
3. Response selection and execution
4. Physical Work Environment
5.Visual Environment
6. Lighting levels and workplace design
7. Auditory Environment
8. Intensity and duration noise
Physical Work
Environment:

Visual Environment –
Lighting levels and workplace
design.
Auditory Environment – PHYSICAL ERGONOMICS:
Intensity and duration of
noise. WORK PHYSIOLOGY AND
Climate – Air temperature,
humidity, air movement, and ANTHROPOMETRY
radiation.
Physiology – concerned with the vital
processes of living organisms and how
their constituents tissues cells function.
Anthropometry – Concerned with the
dimensions of the human body, such as
height and reach.
Human Musculoskeletal System
Primary actuator – performing physical
labor and other activities requiring force
and motion.
Joint Types for Body Movements:
1. Ball-and-Socket – shoulder and hips joints
2. Pivot – elbow and knee
3. Hinge – wrist and ankle
Skeletal Muscles – approximately 400 muscles
Skeletal Muscle Contraction:
1. Concentric Muscle Contraction – muscle becomes
shorter when its contracts
2. Eccentric Muscle Contraction – muscle elongates
when it contracts
3. Isometric Muscle Contraction – muscle length stays
the same when it contracts
Metabolism – sum of biochemical reactions that Basal Metabolism – Biochemical Reaction in
occur in the cells of living organisms. Metabolism
•Food Categories
Functions of Metabolism :
1. Provide energy for vital processes and ▪ Carbohydrates
activities including muscle contraction ▪ Protein
2. Assimilate new organic material into the body ▪ Lipids
Anaerobic Glycol sis – Occurs when insufficient
Types of Metabolism: oxygen is available and the reaction produces
1.Basal Metabolism – Energy used only to sustain lactic acid.
vital circulatory and respiratory function Cardiovascular System
2. Activity Metabolism – energy associated with ▪ Arteries – delivers, oxygen, glucose and other
physical activity
nutrients from lungs and digestive tract to
3. Digestive Metabolism – energy used for digestion muscle tissue and organs
▪ Veins – deliver waste products and carbon
Daily Metabolic Rates: TMRd = BMRd + dioxide to lungs, kidney and liver
AMRd + DMRd
▪ Capillaries – small blood vessels between arteries
and veins to exchange waste and nutrients
between blood and tissue.
Respiratory System Standard: The energy expenditures rates are
•Nasal Cavity (nose) – Inhales assumed to be for a person who weighs 72 kg (160
air (oxygen) and exhales lb.).
carbon dioxide. *If a person’s weight differs from 72 kg (160 lb.),
•Lungs – consists of alveoli (air then an adjustment should be made by ER value
containing cells) that provide by the ratio:
for exchange of gasses in the blood -W/72 if weight is given in kg.
circulating through them. -W/160 if weight is given in lb.
Where W= the person’s body weight
*As physical activity becomes more ●Basal Metabolism Rate
strenuous, energy expenditure
increases so as oxygen consumption Hourly Basal Metabolism Rates (BMRh):
and heart rate. •For a 20-year-old male, BMRh/kg = 1.0 kcal/hr
per kg of body weight
Erm = BMRm + AMRm •For a 20-year-old female, BMRh/kg = 0.9 kcal/hr
per kg of body weight

Daily Digestive Metabolism – Energy
associated with activity metabolism is
discussed in the context of work requirements.
The daily of digestive metabolism is estimated
to about 10% of the combined rate of the basal
and activity metabolism. That is DMRd =
0.1(BMRd + AMRd )
Where:
DMRd = daily digestive metabolism rate
BMRd = daily basal metabolism rate
AMRd = daily activity metabolism rate
● Muscle Strength and Endurance
- Static Strength – human subject applies
as a high force as possible against an
immovable object.
- Dynamic Strength – tested under
conditions that involve changes in joint
angles and motion speed.
Factors affecting Strength
• Size
• Gender
• Age
• Maximum strength at age 25-35
• About 80% of peak in mid-fifties
●Physical conditioning – Physical exercise
can increase strength as much as 50%
Muscle Endurance – is defined as the
capability to maintain applied force
overtime.

Anthropometric Design Principles Cognitive

- Design for extreme individual

- Design for adjustability

- Design for average user

Ergonomics
- Design for different sizes for different The Human Sensory
size users
System and Information
Processing
Cognitive Ergonomics – Study of the
capabilities and limitations of the human Perception – Stage of cognition in which
brain and sensory system while performing the human becomes aware of the
activities that have a significant information
processing content. sensation caused by stimuli and intercepts
Human Sensory System – humans receive in the light of his or her experience and
stimuli from sources of energy both external knowledge.
and internal to the body.
Exteroceptors – receptors that sense Consist of two steps:
external stimuli an are associated with five 1.Detection – human becomes aware of the
human senses.
Proprioceptors – sensory receptors that are
stimulus of interest, which may be mixed
excited by stimuli arising within the body. with other stimuli
Receptors – the body sensory organs. 2. Recognition – human interprets the
1. Vision
meaning of stimulus and identifies it in
2. Hearing
3. Touch
the context of previous experience.
4. Smell
5. Taste
Attention Resources – Attention
Memory
means keeping one’s mind on
something. - Three categories of memory in the
model of human information
Types of attention
processing.
1. Selective attention
1. Sensory Memory
2. Focused attention
2. Working Memory ( Short term
3. Divided attention Memory)
4. Sustained attention 3. Long-term Memory
5. Lack of attention, sometimes
caused by boredom
 The Physics of Light
•Iluminance – luminous flux shining per unit
area on surface

Physical •Luminance – amount of light reflected from

a surface

Work Depends on :
•Iluminance – amount of light striking

Environm surface
•Reflectance – depends on color and texture
of surface
ent •Luminous flux – rate at which light energy is
emitted in all directions.
•Luminous intensity – luminous flux emitted
in a given direction
Noise – defined as unwanted
sound
Effects of Noise to human
•Distraction
•Negative emotions such as
annoyance, frustration, anger
and fear.
•Interference with conversation,
thinking and other cognitive
process
•Interference with sleeping
•Temporary hearing loss
•Permanent hearing loss
Climate Control
Four primary variables that define climate:
1. Air Temperature
2. Humidity-usually relative humidity
3. Air Movement
4. Radiation from surroundings objects
including the sun
Heat Stress – Occurs when body absorbs
more heat than it gives off, raising the body
core temperature.
Cold Stress – Drop in core body temperature
below normal due to heat loss from the
combination of low temperature and air
movement.
 Lifting Index ( LI) – term that provides a relative
estimate of the level of physical stress associated
with a particular manual lifting task.
Upper Extremity Musculoskeeltal Disorders
Manual (MSDs)
Also reffered to as:
Material -CTD (Cumulative Trauma Disorder)

-RSI (Repetitive Stress Injury)

Handing -RMI (Repetitive Motion Injury)

-Overuse Syndrome

-Musculoskeletal Injuries
Common MSDs
- Medial Epicondylitis

- Lateral Epicondylitis

- Tendonitis

- Carpal tunnel Syndrome

- Ulnar Nerve Impingement

- Shoulder Tendonitis, Bursitis,

Impingement
- Rotator Cuff Tear

- Thoracic Outlet Syndrome

- DeQuervain’s Tendonitis
LESSON 2
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
There is close interaction between the respiratory system,
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEMwhich absorbs oxygen and dispels carbon dioxide, water,
and heat, and the circulatory system, which provides the
Objectives: means of transport.
To learn the importance and
function of respiratory system. The respiratory system moves air to and from the lungs,
where part of the oxygen contained in the inhaled air is
To learn the blood types,
absorbed into the bloodstream; it also removes carbon
function, and importance of dioxide, water, and heat from the blood into the air to be
blood into the body. exhaled.
To know the importance of the
metabolic system and it's
function.
Learn about the things that
cannot and can be control and
it's origin.
Respiratory Volumes
The volume of air exchanged in the lungs depends on
the requirements associated with the work performed.
When the respiratory muscles are relaxed, there is still
air left in the lungs.
Vital capacity and other respiratory volumes are
usually measured with the help of spirometer.
Total lung volume of highly trained, tall young males
is between 7 and 8 L and their vital capacity up to 6 L.
Women having lung volumes about 10 percent smaller.
Untrained persons have volumes about 60 to 80
percent of their athletic peers.
“Pulmonary ventilation” is the
movement of gas in and out of the
lungs. It is calculated by multiplying
the frequency of breathing by the
expired tidal volume. This is called
the (respiratory expired) “minute
volume. The respiratory system is
able to increase its moved volumes
and absorbed oxygen by large
multiples.
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
The circulatory system carries oxygen
from the lungs to the cells, where
nutritional materials, also by
circulation from the digestive tract, are
metabolized. Metabolic byproducts (,
heat, and water) are dissipated by
circulation.
Water is the largest weight component
of the body; about 60 percent of body
weight in men, about 50 percent in
women. In slim individuals, the
percentage of total water is higher than
in obese persons, since adipose tissue
contains very little water.
Blood
Approximately 10 percent of the total fluid volume consists of blood,
depending on age, gender, and training. Four to 4.5 L of blood in
women and 5 to 6 L in men are normal. The specific heat of blood
is 3.85J (0.92cal) per gram.
Blood Groups
According to the content of certain antigens and antibodies, blood
is classified into four groups: O, A, B, AB. The importance of these
classifications lies primarily in their incompatibility reactions in
blood transfusions. There are other subdivisions, in particular the
one according to the rhesus (Rh) factor. Architecture of the Circulatory System
Functions The circulatory system is nominally divided into
The blood carries dissolved materials, particularly oxygen and nutritive two subsystems: the systemic and pulmonary
materials as well as hormones, enzymes, salts, and vitamins. It circuits, each powered by one half of the heart
removes waste products, particularly dissolved carbon dioxide and (which can be considered a double pump). The left
heat. side of the heart supplies the systemic section,
The red blood cells perform the oxygen transport. Oxygen attaches to which branches from the arteries through the
hemoglobin, an iron-containing protein molecule of the red blood arterioles and capillaries to the metabolizing organ
cell. (e.g., muscle); from there it combines again from
Each molecule of hemoglobin contains four atoms of iron, which venules to veins to the heart’s right side of the
combine loosely and reversibly with four molecules of oxygen. heart.
Hemoglobin molecules can react simultaneously with oxygen and
carbon dioxide.
Each half of the heart has an antechamber
(atrium) and a chamber (ventricle), the
pump proper. The atria receive blood from
the veins, which is then brought into the
ventricles through a valve. In essence the
heart is a hollow muscle which produces,
via contraction and with the aid valves, the
desired blood flow.
The Heart as Pump The ventricle is filled
through the valve-controlled opening from
the atrium. The heart muscle contracts
(systole), and when the internal pressure is
equal to the pressure in the aorta, the aortic
valve opens and the blood is ejected from
the heart into the systemic system.
Continuing contraction of the heart increases
the pressure further, since less volume of
blood can escape from the aorta than the
heart presses into it.
•Part of the excess volume is kept in the aorta and its large branches,
which act as a “windkessel,” an elastic pressure vessel. Then, the
aortic valve closes with the beginning of the relaxation (diastole) of
the heart, while the elastic properties of the aortic walls propel the
stored blood into the arterial tree, where elastic blood vessels smooth
out the waves of blood volume.
•At rest, about the half volume in the ventricle is ejected (stroke
volume), while the other half remains in the heart (residual volume).
Under exercise load, the heart ejects a larger portion of the contained
volume and increases its contraction frequency. When much blood is
required but cannot be supplied, such as during very strenuous
physical work with small muscle groups or during maintained
isometric contractions, the heart rate can become very high.
•At a heart rate of 75 beats/min, the diastole takes less than 0.5 second
and the systole just over 0.3 second; at a heart rate of 150 beats/min,
the periods are close to 0.2 second each hence, an increase in the
heart rate occurs mainly by shortening the duration of diastole.
The events in the right heart are similar to those in
the left, but the pressure in the pulmonary artery
is only about one-fifth of those during systole in
the left heart.
Specialized cardiac cells (the sinoatrial nodes)
serve as “pacemakers,” determining the frequency
of contractions by propagating stimuli to other
cells of the heart muscle. The heart has its own
intrinsic control system, which operates, without
external influences, at (individually) 50 to 70
beats/min. Changes in heart action stem from the
central nervous system.
Myocardial action potentials are recorded in the
electrocardiogram (ECG). The different waves
have been given alphabetic identifiers: the P wave
is associated with the electrical stimulation of the
atrium, while the Q, R, S, and T waves are
associated with ventricular events. The ECG is
mostly employed for clinical diagnoses; however,
with appropriate apparatus it can be used for
continuing and recording the heart rate.
The Pathways of Blood
Since the available blood volume does not vary, the cardiac
output can be affected by two factors: the frequency of
contraction (heart rate) and the pressure generates by each
contraction in the blood. Both determine the so-called
(cardiac) minute volume. The cardiac output of an adult at
rest is around 5L/min. When performing strenuous exercise,
this level might be raised five times to about 25 L/min, while
a well-trained athlete may reach up to 35 L/min.
A healthy heart can pump much more blood through the body
than usually needed. Hence, a circulatory limitation is more
likely to lie in the transporting capability of the vascular
portions of the circulatory system than in the heart itself. The
arterial section of the vascular system (before the
metabolizing organ) has relatively strong elastic walls which
act as a pressure vessel (winkessel), thus transmitting
pressure waves far into the body, though with much loss of
pressure along the way.
At the arterioles of the consumer organ, the blood
pressure is reduced to approximately one-third its value
at the heart’s aorta.
As blood seeps through the consuming organ (e.g., a
muscle) via capillaries, the pressure differential from the
arterial side to the venous side maintains the transport of
blood through the “capillary bed.” Here, the exchanges
of oxygen, nutrients, and metabolic byproducts between
the working tissue and the blood take place. If lack of
oxygen or accumulation of metabolites require high
blood flow, smooth muscles that encircle the fine blood
vessels remain relaxed, thus allow the pathways to
remain open. The large cross-sectional opening reduces
blood flow velocity and blood pressure, allowing
nutrients and oxygen to enter the extracellular space of
the tissue, at the same time permitting the blood to
accept metabolic byproducts from the tissue.
Constriction of the capillary bed by tightening encircling
smooth muscle reduces local blood flow so that the other
organs in more need of blood may be better supplied. Such
compression of the capillary bed can also occur if the striated
muscle itself contracts strongly, at more than about 20 percent
of its maximal capability. If such contraction is maintained,
the muscle hinders or shuts off its own blood supply and
cannot continue the contraction. Thus, “sustained strong static
contraction” is self-limiting. One should not require anybody
to work in sustained contractions, be it in keeping the body in
position or in grasping a handle tightly, but instead permit
frequent changes in muscle tension, best by allowing
movement.
The venous portion of the systemic system has a large cross
section and provides low flow resistance; only about one-tenth
of the total pressure loss occurs here. Valves are built into the
venous system, allowing blood flow only toward the right
ventricle.
Pascal’s law states that static pressure in
column of fluid depends on the height of
that column. However, the hydrostatic
pressure in, for example, the feet of a
standing person is not as large as expected
from physics, because the valves in the veins
of the extremities modify the value of: in a
standing person, the arterial pressure in the
feet may be only about 100 mmHg higher
than in the head. Nevertheless, blood, water,
and other body fluids in the lower
extremities are pooled there, leading to a
well-known increase in volume of the lower
extremities (swollen ankles), particularly
when one stands or sits still.
Regulation of Circulation
In metabolite concentration in a muscle increases, this
local condition directly causes smooth muscles
Thus, circulation at the arterial side, at the organ/consumer level,
encircling blood vessels to relax, allowing more blood
is regulated both by local control and by impulses from the central
flow. At the same time, the central nervous system
nervous system, the latter having overriding power. At the same
(CNS) signals can trigger constriction of other less
time, the heart increases its output by higher heartbeat frequency;
important vessels supplying organs. This leads to quick
also, the blood pressure increases. At the venous side of
redistribution of the blood supply, which favors skeletal
circulation, constriction of veins, combined with the pumping
muscles over the digestive system
action of dynamically working muscles and the forced respiratory
(“muscles-over-digestion” principle). However, even in
movements, facilitate return of blood to the heart. This makes
heavy exercise the systemic blood flow is so controlled
increased cardiac output possible, because the heart cannot pump
that the arterial blood pressure is sufficient for an
more blood than it receives.
adequate blood supply to the brain, heart, and the other
vital organs. To accomplish this, neural
vasoconstrictive commands can override local dilatory
control. For example, the temperature-regulating center
in the hypothalamus can affect vasodilation in the skin
if this is needed to maintain a suitable body
temperature, even if it means a reduction of blood flow
to the working muscles (“skin-over-muscles”
principle).
Heart rate generally follows oxygen consumption
and hence energy production of the dynamically
working muscle in a linear fashion from moderate
to rather heavy work. However, the heart rate at a
given oxygen intake is higher when the work is
performed with the arms than with the legs. This
reflects the use of different muscles and muscle
masses with different lever arms to perform the
work. Smaller muscles doing the same external
work as larger muscles are more strained and
require more oxygen. Also, static (isometric)
muscle contraction increases the heart rate,
apparently because the body tries to bring blood to
the tensed muscles. Work in a hot environment
causes a higher heart rate than at a moderate
temperature. Finally, emotions, nervousness,
apprehension, and fear can affect the heart rate at
rest and during light work.
THE METABOLIC SYSTEM
The human body maintains a balance (homeostasis)
between energy input and output. The input is
determined by the nutrients, from which
chemically stored energy is liberated during the
metabolic process within the body. The output is
mostly heat and work, measured in terms of
physically useful energy, energy transmitted to
outside objects.
Human Metabolism and Work
The term metabolism includes all chemical
processes in the living body. It is used to describe
the overall energy-yielding processes. Work (in
the physical sense) is done by skeletal muscles.
The muscles is able to convert chemical energy
into physical work or energy.
Energy Liberation in the Human Body
Energy transformation in living organisms involves chemical reactions that
either liberate energy, most often as heat or require energy. The first end of
reaction is called exergonic or exothermic. The other kind of reaction
requires energy input; it is called endergonic or endothermic. Generally,
breakage of molecular bonds is exergonic, while formation of bonds is
endergonic.

The Energy Pathways

Energy is supplied to the body as food or drink. Chewing destroys the
structure of the food mechanically, while the saliva starts breaking down
the food chemically. Saliva is 99.5 Percent water (a solvent) and 0.5
percent salt, enzymes and other chemical. One enzyme (lysozyme) destroys
bacteria, thus protecting the mucous membranes from infection and teeth
from decay. Another enzyme (salivary amylase) breaks down starch.
While swallowing, breathing stops and epiglottis close for a second or two
so that a food “bolus” can avoid a windpipe and slide down the esophagus.
Liquids need only about one second, but solid food takes up to 8 seconds to
slide to the stomach.

The stomach generates gentle waves, 2 to 4 per
minute, which mix the food with gastric juice.
The gastric juice starts breaking up the proteins
contained in food or water mixture chemically,
while alcohol is mostly absorbed in the
stomach. Carbohydrate-rich foods leave the
stomach within two hours, while
protein-containing foods are slower; fatty foods
stay up to 6 hours.
Foodstuffs
Our food consists of various mixtures of organic compounds
(foodstuffs), of water, salts, minerals, vitamins and fibrous
materials (mostly cellulose). Energy is derived from
carbohydrates, fats, proteins and alcohol. Carbohydrates range
from small to large molecules, and most are composed of only
three chemical elements: C, O and H. Carbohydrates are digested
by breaking the bonds between monosaccharide so that the
compounds are reduce to simple sugars, such as glucose. In the
blood, the glucose (C6H12O6, a monosaccharide) passes through
the hepatic vein to the liver. From here, glucose is either sent to
the central nervous system. Glucose is the primary source of
energy, which exclusively used by the central nervous system and
which provides the quick energy for muscular actions.
Fat is the other major energy source of the body. Fat is a
triglyceride, a molecule formed by joining a glycerol nucleus to
three fatty acid radicals. Fat is a carrier of vitamins A, D, E and
K. The digestion takes place primarily in the small intestine,
where the glycerol and fatty acids molecules pass through the cell
membrane.
 The third major food component is protein,
which consists of chains of amino acids. Other
protein becomes hemoglobin, the oxygen carry
by the blood, hormones and collagen.
ENERGY STORAGE
Under normal nutritional and exertion
conditions, fat accounts for most of the stored
energy reserves, while glucose and glycogen
are the primary and first-used sources of energy
at the cell level, particularly in the central
nervous system and at muscles. The liver
controls the release of glucose for direct
consumption, or the generation of glycogen and
of fat for energy storage.
In terms of stored energy fat amounts by far too the
most. On the average, about 16 percent of the body
weight is fat I a young man, increasing to 22 percent
by middle age and more if he “is fat”. Young women
average about 22 percent of the body weight on form
of fat, rising to 34 percent (or more) by middle age.
Athletes generally have lower percentages, about 15
percent in men and 20 percent in women.
Much less energy storage is provided by glycogen.
Most of us have about 400 grams of glycogen stored
near the muscles, about 100 grams in the liver, and
some in the bloodstream. With an energy value of
about 4.2 kcal per gram, we have only some 2,200 Cal
as energy available from glycogen.
ENERGY USE
We have an enormous amount of energy stored in our bodies,
most of it in the form of fat while some is easily available in ENERGY RELEASE
form of glycogen, even as glucose. Living cells store “quick-release” energy in the
molecular compound adenosine triphosphate, ATP.
The use of the energy in the human body is achieved by
The ATP supply needs to be replenished constantly.
catabolism, in which organic molecules are broken down,
This is done through creatine phosphate, CP, which
releasing their internal bond energies. This is primarily, and
transfers a phosphate molecule to adenosine diphosphate,
in an overall sense, accomplished in the human body by
ADP.
aerobic metabolism.
While ATP can provide energy an aerobically for a
Another way oxidation occurs is by the breakdown of glucose few second, resynthesize of ATP is necessary for
and glycogen molecules into several fragments, which continuous operation.
become oxidized by each other. In this case, energy yield is
anaerobic, and the processes are called glycolysis and The first few seconds. At the very beginning of muscular
glycogenosis, respectively. effort, breaking the phosphate bond of ATP releases the
Glucose catabolism takes place in steps. The first is anaerobic, “quick energy” for muscular contraction.
a biochemical reaction in which intermediary metabolites
are produced, such as pyruvic acid. The second step is
aerobic, meaning that oxygen is present.
 After minutes and longer. If the physical activity has to
The first 10 seconds. The next source of immediate continue, it must be performed at a level at with oxygen is
energy is creatine phosphate, CP. It transfers a sufficiently available to maintain the energy-conversion
phosphate molecule to the just-created molecule of processes. Hence, the energy generated by a quick burst of
ADP and thus turns it back into ATP. Since one has maximal effort cannot be maintained at this level for extended
three to five times more ADP than ATP, there is periods of time.
enough energy available for a muscle to perform up In enduring work, the energy demanded from the muscles is
to 10 seconds of high activity. so low that the oxygen supply at the cell level allows “aerobic”
After 10 seconds. After about 10 seconds of energy conversion, meaning that sufficient oxygen is available to
ATP-ADP-ATP reactions, energy must be supplied maintain the energy processes.
to sustain the reformatting of ATP. Now, the energy
absorbed from the foodstuffs comes into play:
glucose is broken down, releasing energy for the
recreation of ATP.
Given that only a few seconds have elapsed since the
activity started, there simply has not been enough
time to use oxygen in the energy-conversion process.
Thus, while releasing energy, the breakdown of
glucose is not complete, but other metabolic by
products are generated also, particularly lactic acid.
AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC METABOLISM
BECAUSE ENERGY YIELD IS SO MUCH MORE EFFICIENT UNDER AEROBIC CONDITIONS,
WHERE NO METABOLIC BYPRODUCTS ARE GENERATED, ONE CAN KEEP A FAIRLY
ENERGY EXPENDITURE AS LONG AS ATP IS REPLACED AS FAST AS IT IS USED. A
MORE COMPLEX CONVERSION TAKES PLACE IN THE UTILIZATION OF FATS. THEY ARE
CONVERTED TO INTERMEDIARY METABOLITES AND ENTER THE SO-CALLED KREBS
CYCLE.
STILL, IF VERY HEAVY EXPENDITURE IS REQUIRED OVER LONG PERIODS OF
TIME, SUCH AS IN A MARATHON RUN, THE INTERACTING METABOLIC SYSTEM AND
THE OXYGEN-SUPPLYING CIRCULATORY SYSTEM MIGHT BECOME OVERTAXED.
HOWEVER, IN OUR REGULAR ACTIVITIES THE ENERGY OUTPUT IS REGULATED TO
AGREE WITH THE BODY’S ABILITIES TO DEVELOP ENERGY UNDER A SUFFICIENT
SUPPLY OF OXYGEN. IF NEEDED, ONE SIMPLY TAKES A BREAK. WHILE ONE IS
RESTING, ACCUMULATED METABOLIC BYPRODUCTS ARE RESYNTHESIZED, AND THE
METABOLIC, CIRCULATORY, AND RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS ARE RETURNED TO THEIR
NORMAL STATES.
MOST OF THE SINGLE INTERMEDIATE STEPS IN THE METABOLIC REACTIONS ARE IN
FACT ANAEROBIC, BUT FINALLY, OXYGEN MUST BE PROVIDED. THUS, OVERALL,
SUSTAINED ENERGY USE IS AEROBIC.
ENERGY USE AND BODY WEIGHT
The body tries to maintain a given energy
storage. This means that a person’s body
weight is kept at this level unless the “set
point” is altered by radical changes in
health, in energy expenditures, and in
nutritional habits. As long as the set point is
kept by the body, body weight remains
rather constant. Even if one reduces food
intake, the body tries to extract enough
energy from the food intake to maintain the
old body weight. A continued starvation
diet usually lowers storage, hence the body
weight. Returning to the previous eating
habits after having achieved the desired
lowered body weight allows the body to
retain its previous weight, unless the set
point has been lowered.
The human body maintains a balance (homeostasis)
between energy input and output. The input is
determined by the nutrients, from which chemically Resting Metabolism
stored energy is liberated during the metabolic process The highly controlled conditions under which basal
within the body. The output is mostly heat and work, metabolism is measured are rather difficult to accomplish
measured in terms of physically useful energy, energy for practical applications. Therefore one usually simply
transmitted to outside objects. measures the resting metabolism before the working day,
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS AT WORK with the subject as well at rest as possible. Depending on
the given conditions, resting metabolism is 10 to 15 percent
Basal Metabolism higher than basal metabolism.
A minimal amount of energy is needed to keep the body
functioning, even if no activities are done at all. The
basalmetabolism is measured after fasting for 12 hours,
accompanied by protein intake restriction for at least
two days, with complete physical rest is a neutral
ambient temperature. Under these conditions, the basal
metabolic values depend primarily on age, gender,
height, and weight. Altogether there is little variation,
hence a commonly accepted figure is kcal (4.2kJ) or 4.9
kJ for a person of 70 kg.
Work Metabolism
The increase in metabolism from resting to working is
called work metabolism. This increase above resting level
represent the amount of energy needed to perform the
work.
After the start of physical work, oxygen uptake initially
follows the demand sluggishly. As figure2-7 shows, after
a slow onset, oxygen intake rise rapidly and then slowly
approaches the level at which the oxygen requirement of
the body are met.
This oxygen deficit must be repair at some time, usually
during rest after work. The amount of the deficit depends
on the kind of the work performed and on the person, but
the oxygen debt repaid is approximately twice as large as
the oxygen deficit incurred.
Fatigue
Fatigue is operationally defined as a “reduced
muscular ability to continue an existing effort”.
The phenomenal is best researched for maintained
static (isometric) muscle contraction.
When severe exercise brings about a
continuously growing oxygen deficit and an
increase in lactate content of the blood because of
anaerobic metabolic processes, a balance between
demands and supply cannot be achieved; no
“steady state” exists, and the work requirement
exceed capacity levels- as sketche.The ratio of
“total resting time” to “total working time,” many
short rest periods have more “recovery value” than
a few long rest periods.
Metabolic reactions to reactions to the attempt of doing
work that exceeds one’s capacity even when
interspersed rest periods. (From Kroemer, Kroemer, and
Kroemer-Elbert, 1990, Engineering Physiology: Bases
of Human Factors/ Ergonomic, 2nd Ed.
 Sneezing. The sneeze is a very fast expiration of air. It is
caused by an irritation in the nasal passage. Its purpose is
to clear the cause of irritation.
The sneeze starts when one begins to exhale. The vocal
chords come together to plug the windpipe and a sound
evolves this response is involuntary and difficult to
control.

WHAT YOUR BODY Children sneeze through their noses, which often creates a
mess. Adult usually try to send the sneeze on a detour
through the mouth.
DOES-HOW AND
WHY?
Yawning. Yawning appears to be a reaction to
either the lack of oxygen, or the accumulation
of carbon dioxide, in the lungs or breathing
pathways. This occurs particularly if one is
inactive, such as when sitting and listening to a
boring presentation. The breathing frequency is
reduced, and the “air quality” in lungs and
breathing pathways becomes intolerable. A
deep inhalation, facilitated by opening the
mouth, flushes all the stale air out, taking
carbon dioxide with it and introducing oxygen.
This does not explain why yawning is
“contagious”; perhaps “communal yawning” is
a social sign of belonging.
Shivering. As a muscle contracts
to generate energy to do work,
heat is produced as a side product.
If no work to outside be done, a
muscle contraction generates heat
alone. This occurs in shivering,
where the jaw makes your teeth
chatter, or other parts of the body
are moved by quick muscle
contraction. All of this generates
heat to keep the body warm in a
cold environment.
Muscle Cramps. Cramps usually occur in
response to a contraction signal sent to a
muscle already stretched. This may occur in a
sports event, or while you are sleep or just
waking up.
A cramp may involve edema formation, the
accumulation of fluid inside the muscle but
outside its blood vessels. This generates
pressure, which causes pain. And other
explanation may be an inadequate supply of
oxygen to muscle tissues of persons who
suffer low blood pressure. A third guess is that
local controllers, or in the central nervous
system, run amok.
Rumbling Stomach. Stomach muscles
contract and move gas inside the stomach.
This occurs particularly when there is no
food in the stomach. The gases come from
swallowed air. The bubbles make audible
noises.

Snoring. The uvula is a small soft structure hanging from

the palate above the root of the tongue. This is at the
entrance to the pharynx, which carries air from the nasal
cavity to the larynx, the voice box.
Swelling of ankles. When one sits without
leg motion for a long time, such as in an
airplane, swelling (edema) of the lower legs is
often experienced, particularly of the feet and
ankle regions. This occurs because a serum
like fluid, mostly plasma, seeps from the
capillaries into the interstitial spaces of the
connective tissue, making it expand.

Catching a cold. Contrary to popular belief, a “cold” is not brought

about by chill, wetness, or draft: they do not even predispose to
infection. Any one of about 200 known cold viruses can infect the
upper respiratory tract including nose, sinuses, and throat. The
increased occurrence of “cold” during the colder weather seasons
merely stems from the fact that people spend more time crowded
together indoors, making it easy for viruses to Spread from person to
person.