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Ecological restoration of a severely degraded coastal acid sulfate soil: A case

study of the East Trinity wetland, Queensland

Article  in  Ecological Management & Restoration · May 2017

DOI: 10.1111/emr.12264

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doi: 10.1111/emr.12264 FEATURE

Ecological restoration of a severely

degraded coastal acid sulfate soil: A
case study of the East Trinity
wetland, Queensland
By Hanabeth Luke, Michelle A. Martens, Ellen M. Moon, Doug Smith, Nicholas J. Ward and
Richard T. Bush

A severely degraded acid sulfate

soil wetland near Cairns,
Queensland, has been returned
to a functional estuarine habitat
using a cost-effective, low-
technology method based on the
reintroduction of tidal water.
Gradual increases in tidal inun-
dation, combined with targeted
liming of the tidal stream,
restored conditions that pro-
moted chemical and microbial
processes leading to the rapid
recolonisation of mangrove com-
munities and other estuarine
flora and fauna. Protocols and Figure 1. Aerial view of the Firewood Creek oxbow lake area of East Trinity, taken in 2015. Fol-
understanding developed at East lowing a period of active management (using lime-assisted tidal exchange), the ongoing remedi-
Trinity can be readily applied to ation of the Firewood Creek ecosystem is now the result of passively managed tidal inundation.
other coastal acid sulfate soil Mangrove communities have recolonised large areas of the formerly acidic landscape and con-
sites. tinue to advance into recently remediated areas (centre right of picture). The proximity of the site
to both Trinity Inlet and the city of Cairns is evident. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlineli-
Key words: coastal wetland, habitat brary.com]
restoration, mangrove, remediation, tidal
Dutton Park, Qld 4102, Australia. Emails:
exchange, acid sulfate soil.
michelle.martens@dsiti.qld.gov.au & doug.
Introduction
smith@dsiti.qld.gov.au); and Richard Bush, rior to 1970, East Trinity was a
Hanabeth Luke is an Associate Lecturer and Ellen
Moon and Nicholas Ward are both Research
Associates, at Southern Cross GeoScience, Southern
while Director of Southern Cross GeoScience at
the time of the study, is now Global Innovation
PTrinity
740 ha tidal wetland draining into
Inlet opposite the city of
Cross University (PO Box 157, Lismore, NSW 2480, Chair at the International Centre for Balanced Cairns in north Queensland, Aus-
Australia. Emails: hanabeth.luke@scu.edu.au, Land Use, Newcastle Institute for Energy and tralia (Figs 1 and 2). A number of
ellen.moon@scu.edu.au & nicholas.ward@scu.edu.au); Resources (University of Newcastle, University mangrove and samphire communi-
Michelle Martens is a Land Resources Officer Drive, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia. Email: ties dominated the wetland (Fig. 3).
and Doug Smith is a Senior Land Resources richard.bush@newcastle.edu.au). This study forms East Trinity is part of the land tradi-
Officer, at the Department of Science, Information part of a multidisciplinary, multi-organisation tionally occupied by the Mandingal-
Technology and Innovation, Queensland Govern- research and management programme of a coastal bay Yidinji people. It is contiguous
ment (EcoSciences Precinct, 41 Boggo Road, acid sulfate soil wetland, spanning three decades. with important estuarine habitats

ª 2017 Ecological Society of Australia and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 18 NO 2 MAY 2017 103

Ecological
Society of
Australia
FEATURE
Figure 2. Location of the East Trinity site. (Source: Powell & Martens 2005) [Colour figure can
be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
Figure 3. Mangrove associations prior to bunding using a 1952 aerial photograph of the East
Trinity site prior to development for sugarcane. The dark areas adjacent to creeks are mangroves;
the pale areas are supra tidal samphire flats (salt marsh). (Source: Adapted from Werren 1995)
[Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
(Box 1) that are adjacent to the
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, and
a World Heritage listed wet tropical
rainforest. Two major streams, Hills
104 ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 18 NO 2 MAY 2017
Trinity soils are rich in the iron mineral
pyrite. This is a legacy from a time,
around 6,000 years ago, when sea
levels were ~ 2–3 m higher than they
are today (Lewis et al. 2013; and
references therein) and modern day
coastal plains were submerged, and
pyrite-rich sediments gradually accu-
mulated.
Pyrite-rich sediments are stable as
long as they remain waterlogged.
However, upon a lowering of the
water table, through natural or
anthropogenic means, these soils
react with oxygen in the air and form
‘actual’ acid sulfate soils (Box 2), and
this is precisely what occurred at East
Trinity. The drop in soil pH, from cir-
cumneutral to highly acidic, led to the
release of acid and heavy metals into
the environment, severely impacting
aquatic flora and fauna.
Recognition of the Problem
In the early 1970s, for the purpose of
sugar cane production, a 7-km-long
bund wall with flood gates intercept-
ing two major creeks was constructed
on the site, excluding tidal influence
and preventing tidal movement up
to 3 km inland from the shoreline.
The underlying pyrite-rich soils oxi-
dised to form actual acid sulfate soils,
creating a severely acidified and
degraded landscape (Fig. 4). One
anecdotal account tells of ‘truckloads’
of dead fish trapped behind the newly
constructed tide gates on Hills Creek
following a Christmas Eve downpour.
The site no longer functioned as
coastal marine habitat and breeding
zone for aquatic biota; however, the
full implications of the construction
of the bund wall, exclusion of the
tidal influence and acidification of
the landscape (Box 2) were not fully
recognised until the late 1990s.
Up to 3,000 tonnes of sulfuric acid
was estimated to have been dis-
charged annually from Firewood
Creek over three decades, with the
Creek and Firewood Creek, flow
receiving waters in Trinity Inlet hav-
into Trinity Inlet.
ing been regularly impacted with
Like many of the low lying coastal
toxic metals (Hicks et al. 1999). A
floodplains of eastern Australia, East
ª 2017 Ecological Society of Australia and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
 FEATURE

Box 1. Ecological value of the site

Prior to drainage, the 740 ha East Trinity site was a tidal wetland site comprised of seven distinct mangrove communities,
expansive (supratidal) samphire flats, chenier (sand) ridges and an area of coastal lowland forest above the former tidal limit
(Fig. 3). The mangroves and salt marshes in tidal wetlands have high ecological value for both marine and terrestrial species.
Tidal wetlands act as a buffer between land and sea protecting the latter from excess sediment deposition. They act as a
nursery and habitat for commercially important fish, crab, prawn and oyster species (Manson et al. 2005). Fringing reefs can
have double the amount of fish when associated with healthy mangrove systems (Mumby 2006). Coastal waters are the
nurseries that support about 90% of the global fish catch (Wolanski et al. 2004). Mangroves sequester up to 25.5 million
tonnes of carbon per year and provide more than 10% of essential organic carbon to the global oceans (Dittmar et al. 2006).

Box 2. Coastal acid sulfate soils explained

While they are still forming along most tidal wetlands today, the main body of coastal acid sulfate soils was deposited in the
period between 7,000 and 5,000 years ago, as sea levels rose and fell. They form when microbes derive energy from organic
matter in waterlogged, anoxic coastal sediments and utilise soluble sulfate ions in sea water to produce hydrogen sulfide
(rotten egg gas, H2S) as a waste product. The H2S reacts with soluble iron, first precipitating amorphous FeS (iron
monosulfide), which reacts to the more stable FeS2 (iron disulfide or pyrite; e.g. Dent 1986). While stable below the watertable,
affected sediments remain ‘potential’ acid sulfate soils, the problems occur when disturbance and artificial drainage exposes
the pyrite to air, producing sulfuric acid and creating conditions for the release of toxic metals and gases. This is referred to as
an ‘actual’ acid sulfate soil, which may occur for a variety of reasons, including prolonged drought, and modification of land for
agriculture, aquaculture, mining, roads, housing, marinas and other developments.
The consequences of soil acidification and the release of acid and potentially harmful metals into ground and surface waters
are wide ranging, encompassing the natural and built environment, and human health (Powell & Martens 2005; Sullivan et al.
2012). Acidification of coastal wetlands frequently results in the partial or total collapse of the aquatic ecosystem. In their
undisturbed state, acid sulfate soils sometimes contain 15–25% carbon as organic matter and may represent a major global
sink of organic carbon (Wollast 1991). However, disturbed acid sulfate soils are a significant emitter of greenhouse gasses due
to the accelerated decomposition of organic matter. Hicks et al. (1999) estimated the annual release of carbon dioxide from
drained soils at East Trinity to be as high as 33 tonnes per hectare from organic matter decomposition and soil carbonate. A
further 8 tonnes is released when escaping acid is neutralised by sea water bicarbonate, equating to 150 tonnes carbon dioxide
equivalent (CO2-e) per hectare per year (CSIRO 2012).
The Atlas of Australian Acid Sulfate Soils’ 2006 estimate there to be 74,000 km2 of potential acid sulfate soils above the low
tide level (CSIRO 2012). In an undisturbed state, this broad area of tidal wetlands can have enormous ecological value and
provide protection from storms and tsunamis. A conservative estimate of disturbed, ‘actual’ acid sulfate soils in Australia is
7,400 km2, with the potential to have produced 230,000 tonnes of sulfuric acid to date (CSIRO 2012). In Queensland, more
than 25% of potential coastal acid sulfate soils are in the Great Barrier Reef catchments, which, if not properly managed,
present a substantial threat to water quality for the reef, estuarine and other associated ecosystems.

number of recorded fish kills associ-
ated with this acid release were docu-
mented by the sugarcane company,
CSR, and later by Department of
Primary Industries (DPI) Officers
including Russell and McDougall
(2003). A timeline detailing activities
at the East Trinity site from the
1970s onwards is presented as
Appendix S1. All mangrove and sam-
phire species died except for one
small White-flowered Black Mangrove
(Lumnitzera racemose) and Grey
Mangrove (Avicennia marina) com-
munity. White Paperbark (Melaleuca
leucadendra), Blue Paperbark (Mela-
leuca dealbata) and Broad-leaved
Paperbark (Melaleuca quinquen-
ervia), which can tolerate soil acidity
as low as pH 2.5, subsequently colo-
nised the former mangrove areas.
Figure 5 shows a conceptual model of
the acidification processes occurring.
Funding for the remediation of the
East Trinity site was progressed after
the environmental hazards of the site
were presented at a public forum in
Cairns, instigated by the East Trinity
Ratepayers’ Association and organised
by the Queensland Government.
Investigations by the Commonwealth
Scientific and Industrial Research
Organisation (CSIRO), Queensland
Department of Primary Industries
(DPI)-Fisheries and Department of
Natural Resources (DNR) were pre-
sented, with the associated report
(Fitzpatrick et al. 1999) concluding
that:

ª 2017 Ecological Society of Australia and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 18 NO 2 MAY 2017 105
FEATURE
Figure 4. The East Trinity site circa 1980 (Source: Powell & Martens 2005). Note the bund wall
zig zagging from top to bottom. To the right is the mangrove fringe of Trinity Inlet. To the left is the
iron stained and in many areas bare, acidified soil of the East Trinity site. [Colour figure can be
viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
. . .the site cannot be left in its
present state. It is imperative
that the scientific assessments of
remediation options are tightly
coupled with other, non-scienti-
fic considerations so that neither
becomes the sole basis for select-
ing the ultimate management
strategy.
Proposing a Solution
The Queensland Government pur-
chased the East Trinity property in
2000, aiming to remediate the site
and maintain the green tropical back-
drop to Cairns, with State Govern-
ment scientists invited to propose a
solution. A summary of typical acid
sulfate soil management strategies is
presented in Box 3.
Assessment of the cost of conven-
tional agricultural lime treatment of
the affected 2 m of topsoil at East Trin-
ity was estimated to be in the order of
$60–80M and also required the clear-
ing of vegetation from the site. There
was, however, no guarantee that this
was sufficient lime to neutralise all
the acidity present (Smith et al.
106 ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 18 NO 2 MAY 2017
2003). An alternative strategy, to only
treat the acidity that entered the water-
courses, was estimated to cost $55–
70M and take at least 25 years. The
high cost and long time frame for the
conventional lime-treatment remedia-
tion strategy led to alternatives being
considered.
A cost-effective strategy to remediate
the actual acid sulfate soils at East Trin-
ity was devised, called lime-assisted
tidal exchange (LATE). The controlled
reintroduction of daily tidal exchange
was complimented by the addition of
appropriate quantities of lime to the
ingoing and outgoing tidal stream
(QDNR 2000; Queensland Government
2000). A trial period, funded by the
Queensland Government, demon-
strated the effectiveness of LATE.
Given the uncertainties associated
with the reintroduction of tidal
exchange, a comprehensive site
assessment was carried out, as well
as the identification of practical
methodologies for water quality mon-
itoring, water treatment and tide con-
trol, prior to commencement of LATE
(Fig. 6 summarises the implementa-
tion steps undertaken at East Trinity).
ª 2017 Ecological Society of Australia and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
What was previously known about
actual acid sulfate soil chemistry indi-
cated that the remediation process
would take many decades, or that it
may not occur to any significant
extent. It was therefore important that
research was carried out concurrent
with the remediation programme to
seek to understand the fundamental
chemistry associated with daily tidal
flushing. A research programme was
established through the CRC for Con-
tamination Assessment and Remedia-
tion of the Environment (CRC CARE),
involving a number of partners from
the Queensland Government and the
university sector (Box 4).
Implementation of LATE
The implementation of the remedia-
tion strategy required the modification
of existing flap gate structures to those
which could control the volume of
incoming water in order to reach a tar-
geted daily inundation level. Informed
by tidal modelling, it was decided not
to allow full tidal re-entry to the site,
with LATE commencing with a 0.5 m
AHD (Australian Height Datum, where
0 m is mean sea level) upper inunda-
tion level. The most concentrated area
of acidity occurred below this level,
and a study of tidal patterns showed
that most high tides would reach this
level and hence keep the soils wet.
This also avoided saline encroachment
into neighbouring banana and sugar
cane land, which would become more
likely with higher levels of inundation.
Land above the 0.5 m level would be
wet on fewer tides and would be sub-
ject to drying and wetting cycles that
would continue to produce soil acidity
and increase the amount of acidity
required to be treated.
Wa t er t re at me n t an d s it e
m on ito r in g
Water quality monitoring stations,
designed to withstand acidic condi-
tions, were installed at East Trinity,
providing a reliable and extensive
record of water quality.
 FEATURE

Figure 5. A conceptual model showing oxidation of the East Trinity sediments following drainage (Adapted from Ward et al. 2013). [Colour figure
can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

Box 3. Acid sulfate soil management

The preferred management strategy for acid sulfate soils is to avoid disturbance. A thorough site investigation is an essential
component of any risk assessment (Dear et al. 2014). In situations where disturbance may be unavoidable, minimising
disturbance is recommended. The use of site-appropriate risk-based management strategies such as neutralisation of acidity
through addition of alkalinity; hydraulic separation; and/or strategic reburial of potential acid sulfate soils below permanent
standing water are commonly used management strategies (Dear et al. 2014). Higher risk management strategies include
stockpiling or strategic reburial of soils with existing acidity; large-scale dewatering or drainage; and vertical mixing (Dear et al.
2014). Above-ground capping, offshore disposal and hastened oxidation are generally regarded as unacceptable management
strategies.
Johnston et al. (2003) provide guidelines for improving the environmental performance of coastal floodplains that have an
extensive network of constructed drains, floodgates and altered water courses as a legacy of historic farming practices. An
assessment of key features of the altered landscape is essential to inform the use of three strategies: (i) modifying floodgates to
enable controlled tidal exchange of drain water; (ii) installing water retention structures to reduce seepage of acidic ground
water, control unwanted saline water entry and raise the water table to keep acid sulfate soils wet and prevent further oxidation;
and (iii) redesign drains to remove surface water without intercepting ground water.

To apply lime to the waters of Hills
Creek, an automated liming machine
able to handle one tonne bulk bags of
hydrated lime was constructed in col-
laboration with a commercial organisa-
tion. The initial period of LATE was
guided by a schedule of optimal treat-
ment times based on predicted tide data
analysis and surveillance of water
quality monitoring data. During the first
years of treatment, as well as augment-
ing incoming water with hydrated lime,
treatment of outgoing water (pH as low
2.5 in the upper catchment) was also
required to ensure exiting water was
above pH 6. Treatment of incoming
water only occurred when the retreat-
ing water quality stabilised above pH
6. Extensive site monitoring continued,
including strategic sediment, ground
water and surface water sampling. Peri-
odic surveys of vegetation and aquatic
biota have documented important
responses to LATE. Additionally, pho-
tographs taken at fixed locations across
the site provide a graphic portrayal of
vegetation change.

ª 2017 Ecological Society of Australia and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 18 NO 2 MAY 2017 107
FEATURE

kick-started a process of recovery that

SITE ASSESSMENT involved feedbacks and interactions
between biological, hydrological and
Soil and geochemical processes. Figure 7 sum-
Climate Hydrology Topography Vegetation
stratigraphy
marises the key features of the East
Trinity site before and after LATE.
Soil and water quality
The acidic and metal-laden water that
MODELLING flowed from the site prior to remedia-
tion reflected a characteristic by-pro-
Groundwater Terrain Tide
duct of drained acid sulfate soils. Soil
pH prior to remediation was between
2.5 and 4.0, whereas in 2016, it was
between 6.0 and 7.0. Jarosite, quanti-
PLANNING fied as retained acidity, is another by-
product of the oxidation of pyrite (ex-
Inundation level Treatment strategy Monitoring strategy Approvals pressed a yellow soil mottle) and was
observed in all soil profiles prior to
LATE. A substantial decrease in jaro-
site in the treated areas, along with a
substantial increase in sulfide levels,
ENGINEERING demonstrates that jarosite has broken
Water treatment Monitoring sites and down, with pyrite reforming in a
Tide control Offsite impacts reductive dissolution process (Smith
equipment equipment
et al. 2016). The changes in soils
brought about by LATE were dramatic
and unprecedented.
Previous, theoretical understanding
IMPLEMENTATION of coastal acid sulfate soil chemistry
Water treatment Equipment cleaning Data collection and Maintenance and assumed that the LATE remediation
regime and calibration storage fabrication capability process may be very slow or achieve
little success (Johnston et al. 2011).
The geochemical research associated
with the project has therefore
MONITORING brought about a scientific paradigm
shift in the understanding of coastal
Water quality Soil properties Ecosystem changes
acid sulfate soil chemistry with
respect to tidal exchange. The
research demonstrates that changes
Figure 6. Sequence of steps required for the application of LATE. (Source: Luke 2016) [Colour
figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
brought about by LATE at East Trinity
revolve around the interaction of soil
biota and soil chemistry, alongside
As remediation progressed, it was – soil and water quality parameters the impact of tidal hydrology on the
recognised that an increase in tidal showed minimal acidity production very dynamic transformation of iron
exchange was required in Firewood and export over an extended species across the tidal gradient (John-
Creek and George Creek, with the period. This allowed lime addition to ston et al. 2011). Tidal water augmen-
resulting increase in tidal exchange be discontinued. Tidal inundation ted with hydrated lime was able to
greatly enhancing mangrove re-coloni- alone is now used to maintain the kick-start microbial and chemical pro-
sation. In October 2016, after more system. cesses in the sediments, prompting
than a decade of LATE – including the increased natural generation of
the construction of additional flood- alkalinity. The geochemistry of the
What was Achieved by LATE
gates to improve tidal exchange remediation process is discussed fur-
(July 2009) and incremental increases Research has shown that the imple- ther in Appendix S2.
in the maximum level of tidal exchange mentation of the remediation strategy

108 ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 18 NO 2 MAY 2017 ª 2017 Ecological Society of Australia and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
 FEATURE

Box 4. Research at East Trinity

There have been two major research programmes conducted at East Trinity. The first, conducted in the early 2000s, was the
Coastal Acid Sulfate Soil Program (CASSP) project, funded by the Natural Heritage Trust administered by the federal
Government through Environment Australia. The second, ‘A national demonstration site for innovative acid sulfate soil
management’, was conducted between 2007 and 2015 and funded by Cooperative Research Centre for Contamination
Assessment and Remediation of the Environment (CRC CARE) and the Queensland Government. The participation of various
research organisations in these projects is summarised below:

CASSP CRC CARE

Queensland State Government Queensland State Government
CSIRO Land and Water Southern Cross University
James Cook University

A number of other universities have been involved in research at East Trinity through student projects. These include
University of Queensland and University of Melbourne (Australia), Kiel University and Hoexter University (Germany), Universit
e
de la Nouvelle-Cal
edonie (New Caledonia), European University of Madrid (Spain) and the Hungarian Szent Istv an University
(Hungary).

In addition to raising the pH of the

East Trinity site
Landscape East trinity site following soils and surface waters, an integral
following drainage and
features lime assisted tidal exchange part of the LATE remediation strategy
disturbance of acid
is the immobilisation of metals within
sulfate soils
the confines of the East Trinity site,
rather than allowing them to exit to
Prominent Trinity Inlet. Figure 8 demonstrates
Oxidation geochemical Reduction the availability of dissolved aluminium
process in waters at the East Trinity site dur-
ing the remediation process. Similar
Highly acidic Maintained at normal
pH levels estuarine conditions trends were identified in regard to dis-
(pH 2–4) (pH 6–8) solved zinc, manganese and iron (un-
published data). These trends are
Heavy metal reflective of the change from acidic
leached and mobilised Bound-up and sequestered
mobility to circumneutral pH values of the East
Trinity surface waters.
Acidic, levels frequently Much improved, maintained Fl ora
Water quality within ANZECC guidelines
exceeding ANZECC guidelines
Prior to drainage, East Trinity was a
Re-establishment of functioning tidal wetland environ-
Establilshment of invasive Ecosystem mangrove and salt-marsh
species health ment with sand ridges and some
communities
coastal lowland rainforest (Newton
et al. 2014) (Box 1). While there
Bottom-dwelling Communities re-establishing were mangrove associations across
Die-off, low survival
species most the site (Fig. 3), substantial
parts of the East Trinity site sup-
Nurseries acidified, health Fisheries
Healthy nurseries, high ported saltmarsh and mudflats – that
impacts biodiversity
is samphire species (claypan/sam-
phire units) – with some areas to
Figure 7. Infographic identifying the key features of the disturbed (left) and remediated (right) the north of Hills Creek mapped as
East Trinity landscape. (Source: Luke 2016) [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.- ‘Landward Associations’ and Land-
com] ward Avicennia (Werren 1995).

ª 2017 Ecological Society of Australia and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 18 NO 2 MAY 2017 109
FEATURE

'LVVROYHG DOXPLQLXP DW WZR ORFDWLRQV DORQJ )LUHZRRG &UHHN either mangroves or low melaleuca
 woodlands, increasing their net area.
 %XQGZDOO Melaleuca shrublands and low wood-
8SSHU)LUHZRRG&UHHN lands expanded into the former grass-
 lands (12 ha), which have
 experienced the most notable reduc-
'LVVROYHG$OPJ/

 tion in vegetation, particularly those

dominated by exotic species (down

by 54 ha) or Blady Grass (Imperata
 cylindrica), (down by 31 ha). Areas
 of the native grass Tall Reed (Phrag-
mites karka) have increased in size,

sometimes in association with Man-
 grove Fern (17 ha). Larger areas of
 more mature melaleuca low woodland
and open woodlands are maturing
from shrublands of the same species
<HDU
mapped in 2008 (4 ha) (Newton et al.
Figure 8. Attenuation of dissolved aluminium along Firewood Creek and over time (new data). 2014). The mosaic of forest types
mapped in the north-east of the site
Vegetation surveys were carried out shrub beneath the dead trunks of remains unaffected by the remedia-
in 2002, 2006, 2008 and 2014. the former melaleuca forest (Stanton tion. This area contains of concern
Following drainage, samphire com- 2006). By 2009, colonising halophytic regional ecosystems 7.2.8* and
munities were heavily degraded and forblands, ferns and mangrove shrub- 7.3.25* and a small area of Endangered
all but one of the mangrove communi- lands had increased by 50 ha or 6% regional ecosystem 7.3.6*. Small
ties, containing White-flowered Black of the site, at the expense of exotic patches of regional ecosystem 7.2.8*
Mangrove (Lumnitzera racemosa) grassland communities and melaleuca are found in four other small areas.
and Grey Mangrove (Avicennia mar- forests where mangroves had origi- The Endangered regional ecosystem
ina), disappeared. Melaleuca spp. nally occurred. A range of woodland, 7.3.12* occurs along Hills Creek.
colonised many areas that were previ- open forest, grassland and vineland The recovering communities at
ously mangrove dominated, even communities was in the process of East Trinity are very dynamic and
where the soil pH was below pH 3. structural and floristic adaptation to complex, with changes in manage-
The lowland forest in the elevated the changing soil conditions. Having ment regime undoubtedly influencing
north-eastern section of the property colonised the site during the dry, the direction and speed of the recov-
remained largely unaffected (Newton acidic period, these communities ery. Under the current tidal exchange
et al. 2014). Shortly after the com- transitioned to reflect the increasingly regime (consistently wetting to 0.5 m
mencement of LATE, areas of mela- wet and saline conditions. Changes to AHD), it is unlikely that the property
leuca dieback, attributed to the the structure and composition of the will be covered in halophytic and
increased salinity and unfavourable natural mangrove communities within mangrove communities to the extent
soil conditions, advanced rapidly the site were evident, likely caused it once was. The last 12 years of map-
(Stanton & Stanton 2002). by variations to the tidal regime and ping also shows that under current
At the commencement of tidal inun- increased fluctuations in salt water management strategies, the remnant
dation in the Hills Creek system, and (3D Environmental 2009). regional ecosystems will be main-
subsequently in Firewood Creek By 2014, the most notable growth tained, and some recovering vegeta-
(2006), large areas of the colonising had occurred in mangrove fernlands tion may eventually resemble those
Melaleuca spp. communities died in and mangrove communities contain- that existed before clearing and in
response to the increased salinity, with ing Grey Mangrove, Milky Mangrove more elevated areas grassland and
Mangrove Fern (Acrostichum aureum) (Exocoecaria agallocha), and Oriental nonestuarine woodland communities
forming dense ground cover on the Mangrove (Brugiera gymnorhyza). may persist due to the only partial
margins and rapidly colonising bare Black Mangrove expanded into former reinstatement of tidal inundation
areas. Early succession to mangrove halophytic forblands, mixed forbland– (Newton et al. 2014). Continued
communities continued under Mela- grassland–fernland communities and monitoring and mapping of the East
leuca spp. that died before 2002, with areas of melaleuca dieback, while Man- Trinity property would document
Grey Mangrove often a prominent grove Fern continued to transition to the nature of these future changes.

110 ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 18 NO 2 MAY 2017 ª 2017 Ecological Society of Australia and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
 FEATURE

Fa un a period, where the addition of sites, however, and all fish were small
hydrated lime had ceased (Russell & with the community dominated by
Fish and crustaceans McDougall 2003; Russell et al. 2011). three trophic groups: pelagic plankti-
The regular fish kills that occurred vores, bentho-pelagic invertebrate
A number of fish kills from 1972
prior to the management regime aba- feeders and phyto-detritus feeders, all
onwards were later attributed to the
ted, and overall, the implementation estuarine species. Both species rich-
poor quality water being flushed from
of the rehabilitation programme ness and catch per unit effort results
the East Trinity site after rain events
yielded positive benefits for the local from the sites downstream of the Hills
and particularly at the onset of the wet
fisheries, as there had been sufficient and Firewood Creek floodgates were
season. (Garrett 1978; Russell 1980;
net improvement in the health of the comparable or even better than results
Russell & McDougall 2003). Various
system to allow rapid recolonisation found for the reference site during this
mechanisms have been identified as
by a relatively large number of estuar- study, suggesting that the fish commu-
causal agents for the impairment and
ine fish. The Penaeid Prawn (Fen- nity of the two impacted creeks has
death of aquatic biota in the waterways
neropenaeus merguiensis) was responded well to the remediation pro-
of disturbed actual acid sulfate soil land-
found to be a major component of the gramme (Sheaves & Abrantes 2016).
scapes. While injury may occur from
cast net catches after management in Comparisons between the 2003–
exposure to low pH alone, there are
the lower sections of both Firewood 2005 and the 2015 studies found that
often biotoxic concentrations of heavy
and Hills Creeks but its relative abun- differences among sites were main-
metals, with soluble aluminium identi-
dance decreased upstream of the tidal tained over time, indicating that the fish
fied as a primary cause of injury and
gates on the bund wall. Well-estab- community composition of affected
mortality in fish (Cook et al. 2000). Oxi-
lished stocks of predominantly juve- creeks as reported by Russell et al.
dation and hydrolysis reactions pro-
nile, male Mud Crab (Scylla serrata) (2011) had reached a stable state
duce iron and aluminium floc that can
were resident upstream of the tidal (Sheaves & Abrantes 2016). Twelve
smother benthic communities (Cook
gates, indicating suitable habitats with Blue Swimmer Crabs (Portunus pelagi-
et al. 2000). Simpson and Pedini
acceptable water and sediment quality cus), a species not recorded in the
(1985) also note that iron deposits can
and adequate availability of food. Mud 2003–2005 study, were caught in Hills
coat the gills of aquatic fauna, impairing
crab was used as a bio-indicator for Creek downstream of the floodgates
gas exchange. They also found that iron
the presence of heavy metals and met- and in See Lee Creek. One species of
hydroxides can coat the benthic algae,
alloids in a biologically available form, prawn, Banana Prawn (Fennerope-
making them inedible for higher
as they are a bottom-feeding scavenger naeus merguiensis), was caught, with
trophic organisms. Further, these
that consumes a variety of plant and Mud crabs recorded at all sites. Catches
chemical oxidation reactions can
animal material (Russell & McDougall were slightly lower than those reported
deoxygenate the water in a matter of
2003). Russell et al. (2011) predicted by Russell et al. (2011) (86 vs. average
minutes, effectively suffocating fish
that the changes in mangrove, fish 112 crabs.month-1), with differences
(Sammut et al.1995).
and crustacean communities would likely occurring due to the much shorter
A 2002 biota study recorded only
be likely to continue for several years sampling period of the 2015 survey.
three freshwater or euryhaline fish
before stabilisation occurs. Overall, results suggest that the
species within the East Trinity site
A September 2015 study conducted aquatic community recovered well
(upstream of the bund wall). At this
by Sheaves and Abrantes (2016) sam- after the implementation of the LATE
time, the pH of Firewood Creek and
pled fish and crustaceans in Hills, Fire- programme and as Russell et al.
Magazine Creek was pH<4 with
wood and See Lee Creeks (the last (2011) conclude, support healthy pop-
increased total dissolved iron (up to
representing a non-acidified reference ulations of fish and crustaceans, with
168 mg/L) and aluminium concentra-
site, flowing into Trinity Inlet to the no significant differences in fish species
tions up to 70 mg/L for most of the
south of East Trinity). This repeated diversity found between the impacted
year (Russell & Helmke 2002). The
the cast net and crab pot sampling, Hills and Firewood Creeks and the
study was repeated in 2003–2005,
but did not sample water quality nor nearby See Lee Creek reference site.
monitoring the aquatic biota across
analyse crab tissue. Although they were
the ‘active’ phase of LATE (during
unable to use gill nets due to a total gill
the regular addition of hydrated lime), Birds
net closure for the whole of Trinity
finding a progressive increase in fish
Inlet, a single sampling event caught Although no baseline data exist to
species richness, diversity and abun-
1516 fish from 22 species in 154 cast allow a comparison between birds at
dance in Firewood Creek between
nets, giving a mean catch per unit effort the time of highest site degradation
2001 and 2005, while both species
(CPUE) of 9.8 individuals.net-1. There and today, a wide diversity of birdlife
richness and diversity were relatively
was considerable variation between has been observed at East Trinity, with
stable in Hills Creek over the same

ª 2017 Ecological Society of Australia and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 18 NO 2 MAY 2017 111
FEATURE
Figure 9. (a) Recovery of area subject to consistent LATE, (b) recovery of the remaining actual acid sulfate soil area, between 0.5 m and 1 m AHD,
and (c) recovery of freshwater remediation zone. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
136 species recorded since rehabilita-
tion began, including Brahminy Kite
(Haliastur indus), Osprey (Pandion
haliaetus), spoonbills (Plataleinae),
storks (Ciconiidae), cormorants (Pha-
lacrocoracidae), Australian Pelican
(Pelecanus conspicillatus), stilts
(Himantopus spp.), egrets (Ardea
spp.), lapwings (Vanellus spp.), lorri-
keets (Trichoglossus spp.), parrots
(Psittacidae), cuckoos (Cacomantis
spp.), honeyeaters (Lichenostomus
spp.), doves (Columbidae spp.), her-
ons (Butorides spp.), finches (Neoch-
mia spp.), cockatoos (Cacatua spp.)
and frogmouth (Podargus papuensis)
among many others (Smith & Venables
2014). Reports suggest that the expan-
sion of mangrove and other higher ele-
vation wetlands associated with the
rehabilitation is likely to have benefited
a number of bird species, including
some internationally important shore-
bird species listed in agreements with
China (CAMBA), Japan (JAMBA) and
the Republic of Korea (ROKAMBA).
Recently, a new wader roosting site
has emerged on the northern boundary
of the East Trinity area in an area con-
taining the shallow tidal lake known
as Lake George, which may have regio-
nal significance (Smith & Venables
2014).
Fr e s h w a te r tr e a tm e n t s i t e
An area referred to as the ‘peat swamp’
on the eastern margin of the site, near
112 ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT & RESTORATION VOL 18 NO 2 MAY 2017
Hills Creek, was subject to a freshwa-
ter treatment strategy. The daily tidal
exchange process was found to be
having little effect on the acidity of
peat swamp soils, likely due to its loca-
tion at the interface of tidal and fresh-
water, and/or distance from the
hydrated lime-treatment point.
Water from Hills Creek was
diverted into the upper part of the
swamp through a pipe and drain sys-
tem, and a containment bund was con-
structed across the lower boundary of
the swamp. A slide gate in the bund
slowly releases water to Hills Creek,
maintaining flow through the swamp.
While not responding as rapidly as
LATE-treated soils, the peat swamp
soils responded well to permanent
freshwater inundation in regard to soil
pH and vegetation. While the peat
swamp soils align with the LATE-trea-
ted soils with respect to the dissolu-
tion of jarosite and the accumulation
of sulfur, chemical analysis indicated
that sediments still contained (acid
volatile sulfide) compounds which
will oxidise rapidly if allowed to dry.
Ecological Values Restored
– Using the Recovery Wheel
Figure 9 shows the level of recovery of
three zones on the site using the recov-
ery wheel tool from the International
Standards for Ecological Restoration
(McDonald et al. 2016). The East
ª 2017 Ecological Society of Australia and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
Trinity site has been segmented into
the zone subject to consistent LATE
(Fig. 9a), the zone with remaining
actual acid sulfate soils, above 0.5 m
AHD (Fig. 9b), and the freshwater
remediation zone (Fig. 9c), with sepa-
rate recovery wheels for each. The
tables that relate to the recovery
wheels can be found in Appendix S3.
Note that areas of the East Trinity
site which have not been subjected
to LATE (above 0.5 m AHD) are very
diverse in nature, including former
samphire areas and chenier ridges, as
well as remaining areas of actual acid
sulfate soils (0.5 to 1 m AHD). For
the purpose of the ecological restora-
tion assessment, we have considered
only the treated and untreated actual
acid sulfate soil zones. These latter
zones are still acidic and will periodi-
cally release acidic water to the sur-
rounding environment; however, the
daily tidal regime is able to neutralise
this acidity so that after a period of
LATE, drainage water is no longer
impacted.
Ongoing Management
The East Trinity site now has suffi-
ciently high ecological function to
transition from the active remediation
phase (where lime was applied) to
passive management. Ongoing man-
agement will ensure that regular tidal
inundation to 0.5 m AHD will remain

in place to prevent the return of the
site to an acidic state resulting from
the re-oxidation of sulfidic species.
Existing levels of inundation will
not impair neighbouring agricultural
lands. Real-time water monitoring will
detect any deviation from the desired
state and trigger further targeted inter-
ventions. Further research into geo-
chemical pathways that operate over
the longer term is required to verify
predictions of future system stability.
The remediation at East Trinity has
ultimately resulted in the restoration
of functioning indigenous ecosystems
at the site, several of which have
threatened status, including the salt
marsh and adjacent World Heritage
Great Barrier Reef receiving ecosys-
tems. The East Trinity site is an Indige-
nous Protected Area (IPA) and is
being used as an eco-tourism/educa-
tion destination by the Mandingalbay
Yidinji Aboriginal Corporation who
are conducting tours of East Trinity
and adjacent IPA land to the east, with
plans for expansion. Another commu-
nity group has sought to promote the
establishment of a Wetland Park on
the site as an eco-tourism/eco-educa-
tion destination. Local tourist business
interests also support this concept as
a short day destination alternative to
the many distant offerings available
near Cairns.
The institutional support offered by
the Queensland Government to date
has enabled the extent of the suc-
cesses achieved by the LATE remedia-
tion strategy, and the site remains in
its restored state under ongoing con-
servation management.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowl-
edge the many scientists and land
managers who have contributed to
the wealth of knowledge on coastal
acid sulfate soils that has emerged
from the East Trinity site, including
Queensland Department of Science,
Information Technology and Innova-
tion, Southern Cross GeoScience
(Southern Cross University), CRC
ª 2017 Ecological Society of Australia and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
CARE and CSIRO. We thank the two
anonymous reviewers for their assis-
tance in improving this manuscript.
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Supporting Information
Additional Supporting Information
may be found in the online version
of this article:
Appendix S1. Timeline of activities
at East Trinity
Appendix S2. Detailed science of the
East Trinity soil remediation process
Appendix S3. Evaluation of ecosys-
tem recovery