Dragon

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Contents
Articles
Dragon European dragon Chinese dragon Wyvern List of dragons in mythology and folklore Dragons in Greek mythology Saint George and the Dragon A Book of Dragons Nga Japanese dragon China Legendary creature 1 8 18 30 32 38 39 48 49 59 65 84

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Dragon

Dragon
A dragon is a legendary creature, typically with serpentine or otherwise reptilian traits, that feature in the myths of many cultures. There are two distinct cultural traditions of dragons: the European dragon, derived from European folk traditions and ultimately related to Greek and Middle Eastern mythologies, and the Chinese dragon, with counterparts in Japan, Korea and other East Asian countries. The two traditions may have evolved separately, but have influenced each to a certain extent, particularly with the cross-cultural contact of recent centuries. The English word "dragon" derives from Greek (drkn), "dragon, serpent of huge size, water-snake", which probably comes from the verb (draken) "to see clearly".[1] In the New Testament, the Devil takes the form of a red dragon with seven heads and ten horns, in his battle against Archangel Michael.

The "Ljubljana Dragon" in Ljubljana, Slovenia

Carved imperial dragons at Nine Dragon Wall, Beijing

Overview
Dragons are usually shown in modern times with a body like a huge lizard, or a snake with two pairs of lizard-type legs, and able to emit fire from their mouths. The European dragon has bat-type wings growing from its back. A dragon-like creature with no front legs is known as a wyvern. Following discovery of how pterosaurs walked on the ground, some dragons have been portrayed without front legs and using the wings as front legs pterosaur-fashion when on the ground.
An illustration of a Eastern dragon. Although dragons occur in many legends around the world, different cultures have varying stories about monsters that have been grouped together under the dragon label. Some dragons are said to breathe fire or to be poisonous, such as in the Old English poem Beowulf.[2] They are commonly portrayed as serpentine or reptilian, hatching from eggs and possessing typically scaly or feathered bodies. They are sometimes portrayed as having especially large eyes or watching treasure very diligently, a feature that is the origin of the word dragon (Greek draken meaning "to see clearly").[3] Some myths portray them with a row of dorsal spines. European dragons are more often winged, while Chinese dragons resemble large snakes. Dragons can have a variable number of legs: none, two, four, or more when it comes to early European literature.

Dragons are often held to have major spiritual significance in various religions and cultures around the world. In many Asian cultures dragons were, and in some cultures still are, revered as representative of the primal forces of

Dragon nature, religion and the universe. They are associated with wisdomoften said to be wiser than humansand longevity. They are commonly said to possess some form of magic or other supernatural power, and are often associated with wells, rain, and rivers. In some cultures, they are also said to be capable of human speech. In some traditions dragons are said to have taught humans to talk. The term dragoon, for infantry that moved around on horseback yet still fought as foot soldiers, is derived from their early firearm, the "dragon", a wide-bore musket that spat flame when it fired, and was thus named for the mythical creature.

Origin and etymology

Origin and etymology
The word dragon entered the English language in the early 13th century from Old French dragon, which in turn comes from Latin draconem (nominative draco) meaning "huge serpent, dragon," from the Greek word , drakon (genitive drakontos, ) "serpent, giant seafish", which is believed to have come from an earlier stem drak-, a stem of derkesthai, "to see clearly," from Proto-Indo-European derk- "to see" or "the one with the (deadly) glance." The Greek and Latin term referred to any great serpent, not necessarily mythological, and this usage was also current in English up to the 18th century.

Dragon head on a roof of a temple in Taiwan

The association of the serpent with a monstrous opponent overcome by a heroic deity has its roots in the mythology of the Ancient Near East, including Canaanite (Hebrew, Ugaritic), Hittite and Mesopotamian. The Chaoskampf motif entered Greek mythology and ultimately Christian mythology, although the serpent motif may already be part of prehistoric Indo-European mythology as well, based on comparative evidence of Indic and Germanic material. It has been speculated that accounts of spitting cobras may be the origin of the myths of fire-breathing dragons.[4]

Oriental dragon
The earliest depiction of the oriental dragon was the Chinese dragon (traditional:;simplified:), with examples dating back to the 16th century BC.[5] Archaeologist Zhu Chong-Fa believes that the Chinese word for dragon is an onomatopoeia of the sound thunder makes.[6] The Chinese name for dragon is pronounced "lng" in Mandarin Chinese[5] or "lhng" in the Cantonese.[7] Sometime after the 9th century AD, Japan adopted the Chinese dragon through the spread of Buddhism.[5] Although the indigenous name for a dragon in Japanese is tatsu (), a few of the Japanese words for dragon stem from the Chinese word for dragon, namely, "ry" () or "ry" () (traditional:;simplified:).[5] The Vietnamese word for dragon is "rng" (hn t:) and the Korean word for dragon is "ryong" (hangul:) (hanja:).

Animals that may have inspired dragons

Dinosaur and mammalian fossils were occasionally mistaken for the bones of dragons and other mythological creature; for example, a discovery in 300 BC in Wucheng, Sichuan, China, was labeled as such by Chang Qu.[8] Adrienne Mayor has written on the subject of fossils as the inspiration for myths in her book The First Fossil Hunters, and in an entry in the Encyclopedia of Geology she wrote: "Fossil remains generated a variety of geomyths speculating on the creatures' identity and cause of their destruction. Many ancient cultures, from China and India to Greece, America, and Australia, told tales of dragons, monsters, and giant heroes to account for fossils of animals they had never seen alive."[9] In Australia, stories of such creatures may have referred to the land crocodiles,

Dragon Quinkana sp., a terrestrial crocodile which grew to 5 to possibly 7 metres long, or the 4 tonne monitor lizard Varanus priscus (formerly Megalania prisca) a giant carnivorous goanna that might have grown to 7 metres, and weighed up to 1,940 kilograms, or rainbow serpents (possibly Wonambi naracoortensis) that were part of the extinct megafauna of Australia.[10] Today the Komodo monitor lizard Varanus komodoensis is known in English as the Komodo dragon. The King James Bible uses the words "serpent", "dragon" and "Devil" in a fairly interchangeable manner. In the book An Instinct for Dragons[11] anthropologist David E. Jones suggests a hypothesis that humans just like monkeys have inherited instinctive reactions to snakes, large cats and birds of prey. Dragons have features that are combinations of these three. An instinctive fear for these three would explain why dragons with similar features occur in stories from independent cultures on all continents. Other authors have suggested that especially under the influence of drugs or in dreams, this instinct may give rise to fantasies about dragons, snakes, spiders, etc., which would explain why these symbols are popular in drug culture. The traditional mainstream explanation to the folklore dragons does however not rely on human instinct, but on the assumption that fossil remains of dinosaurs gave rise to similar speculations all over the world.

By region
Greek mythology
In Ancient Greece the first mention of a "dragon" is derived from the Iliad where Agamemnon is described as having a blue dragon motif on his sword belt and a three-headed dragon emblem on his breast plate.[12] However, the Greek word used ( drkn, genitive drkontos) could also mean "snake". drkn is a form of the aorist participle active of Greek drkomai = "I see", derken = "to see", and originally likely meant "that which sees", or "that which flashes or gleams" (perhaps referring to reflective scales). This is the origin of the word "dragon". (See also Hesiod's Theogony, 322.) In 217 A.D., Flavius Philostratus (Greek: )[13] discussed dragons (, drkn) in India in The Life of Apollonius of Tyana (II,17 and III,68). The Loeb Classical Library translation (by F.C. Conybeare) mentions (III,7) that In most respects the tusks resemble the largest swines, but they are slighter in build and twisted, and have a point as unabraded as sharks teeth. According to a collection of books by Claudius Aelianus (Greek: )[14] called On Animals, Ethiopia was inhabited by a species of dragon that hunted elephants. It could grow to a length of 180 feet and had a lifespan rivaling that of the most enduring of animals.[15]

European
European dragons exist in folklore and mythology among the overlapping cultures of Europe. Despite having wings, the dragon is generally depicted as having an underground lair or cave, making it an ancient creature of the earth element. European dragons are usually depicted as malevolent though there are exceptions (such as Y Ddraig Goch, the Red Dragon of Wales).

Dragon effigy, the Graoully, in Metz, France

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Chinese
Chinese dragons (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: lng) can take on human form and are usually seen as benevolent. Dragons are particularly popular in China and the five-clawed dragon was a symbol of the Chinese emperors, with the mythical bird fenghuang the symbol of the Chinese empress. Dragon costumes manipulated by several people are a common sight at Chinese festivals.

Japanese

Japanese dragon myths amalgamate native legends with imported stories about dragons from China, Korea and India. Like these other Asian dragons, most Japanese ones are water deities associated with rainfall and bodies of water, and are typically depicted as large, wingless, serpentine creatures with clawed feet. Gould writes (1896:248),[16] the Japanese dragon is "invariably figured as possessing three claws".

Dragon sculpture on top of Longshan Temple, Taipei, Taiwan.

India
In the early Vedic religion, Vritra (Sanskrit: (Devangar) or Vtra (IAST)) "the enveloper", was an Asura and also a "naga" (serpent) (Sanskrit: )[17] or possibly dragon-like creature, the personification of drought and enemy of Indra. Vritra was also known in the Vedas as Ahi ("snake") (Sanskrit: ),[18] and he is said to have had three heads. The Life of Apollonius of Tyana by Flavius Philostratus:[19] contains a long detailed description of India heavily infested with dragons, but this does not correspond with modern Indian belief, and likely not with Indian belief as it was in his time, whether Apollonius invented this story, or whether he believed someone else who told him it.

Persian
Ai Dahka is the source of the modern Persian word azhdah or ezhdeh ( Middle Persian azdahg) meaning "dragon", often used of a dragon depicted upon a banner of war. The Persians believed that the baby of a dragon will be the same color as the mother's eyes. In Middle Persian he is called Dahg or Bvar-Asp, the latter meaning "[he who has] 10,000 horses." Several other dragons and dragon-like creatures, all of them malevolent, are mentioned in Zoroastrian scripture. (See Zahhk).

Jewish
In Jewish religious texts, the first mention of a dragon-like creature is in the Biblical works of Job (26:13), and Isaiah (27:1) where it is called Nachash Bare'ach, or a "Pole Serpent".[20] This is identified in the Midrash Rabba to Genesis 1:21 as Leviathan from the word Taninim (" )and God created the great sea-monsters."[21] In modern Hebrew the word Taninim is used for Crocodiles but this is a 20th century usage unconnected with the original Biblical meaning. In Jewish astronomy this is also identified with the North Pole, the star Thuban which, around 4,500 years ago, was the star in the Draco constellation's "tail".[20] However this can also have been either the celestial pole or the ecliptic pole. The ancient observers noted that Draco was at the top of the celestial pole, giving the appearance that stars were "hanging" from it, and in Hebrew it is referred to as Teli, from talah ( )to hang.[22] Hebrew writers from Arabic-speaking locations identified the Teli as Al Jaz'har, which is a Persian word for a "knot" or a "node" because of the intersection of the inclination of the orbit of a planet from the elliptic that forms two such nodes. In modern astronomy these are called the ascending node and the descending node, but in medieval astronomy they were

Dragon referred to as "dragon's head" and "dragon's tail".[23] Rahab, as described in Psalms 89:910 and Isaiah 51:910, also has "dragon-like" characteristics. The Merthyr Synagogue features a dragon on the front gable.[24]

Modern depictions
In the early 20th century sculpture of the Norwegian artist Gustav Vigeland, inspired by Medieval art, dragons are a frequent themeas symbols of sin but also as a nature force, fighting against man. There are numerous examples of dragons in modern media, especially the fantasy genre. In the 1937 fantasy novel The Hobbit by J.R.R. Tolkien, the major antagonist is a dragon named Smaug. Other dragons appearing in Tolkien's works include Glaurung, the "father of dragons" created by Morgoth, along with Ancalagon the Black and Scatha. Also, in Tolkien's Farmer Giles of Ham, a dragon named Chrysophylax Dives is encountered.

Toy dragons, on sale in a California gift shop, 2005

The popular role playing game system Dungeons & Dragons (D&D) makes heavy use of dragons, and has served as inspiration for many other games' dragons. In D&D, dragons are typically associated with an element, which makes itself apparent in the dragon's color and the type of its breath weapon. Though dragons usually serve as adversaries, they can be both good and evil, with their alignment being determined by their color. For example, a Red Dragon is evil and associated with fire. Dragons in D&D grow throughout their lives, both physically and mentally, and are capable of attaining weights in excess of a million pounds. Dragons also appear frequently in the Harry Potter novels by J. K. Rowling, and are described in the Harry Potter-related book, Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them by the same author. Dragonriders of Pern is an extensive science fiction series of novels and short stories created and primarily written by Anne McCaffrey. Since 2004, McCaffrey's son, Todd McCaffrey, has also published Pern novels, both in collaboration with Anne and on his own. The Pernese use intelligent firebreathing creatures called dragons, who have a telepathic bond with their riders, formed by mental impressions which the dragons receive when they hatch from their eggs. Some modern pseudo-biological accounts of dragons give them the generic name Draco, although the generic name Draco is used in real-world biology for a genus of small gliding agamid lizard. An infectious disease called Dracunculiasis, caused by infection with the Guinea worm which grows up to 3 feet (0.91m) long before emerging from its host, also derives its name from dragons (literally "infestation with little dragons"), based on the burning pain experienced by sufferers.

Creationists' assertions
Some creationists believe that dragons of mythology were actually dinosaurs, and that they died out with other creatures around the end of the ice age.[25] [26]

Cartography
There is a widespread belief that earlier cartographers used the Latin phrase hic sunt dracones, i.e., "the dragons are here", or "here be dragons", to denote dangerous or unexplored territories, in imitation of the infrequent medieval practice of putting sea serpents and other mythological creatures in blank areas of maps. However the only known use of this phrase is in the Latin form "HC SVNT DRACONES" on the Lenox Globe (ca. 150307).[27]

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References
[1] (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 04. 0057:entry=dra/ kwn2), Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus project [2] [The Norton Anthology of English Literature, Vol. 1 by MH Abrams (1999), 6th Ed. [3] Wiktionary.org (http:/ / en. wiktionary. org/ wiki/ dragon) [4] Cohen, Daniel (1989). The encyclopedia of monsters. Michael O'Mara Books, Limited. p.231. ISBN9780948397943. [5] A to Z Photodirectory of Japanese Buddhist Statuary (http:/ / www. onmarkproductions. com/ html/ dragon. shtml). Retrieved June 5, 2011 [6] People's Daily On-line (2001), Chinese Dragon Originates From Primitive Agriculture: Archaeologist. Retrieved June 5, 2011. [7] Caihua Guan. English-Cantonese Dictionary: Cantonese in Yale Romanization. [8] "Dinosaurs And Cave People" (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ science/ articles/ 2005/ 04/ 14/ 1334145. htm). Abc.net.au. 2005-04-14. . Retrieved 2010-02-11. [9] Adrienne Mayor in Encyclopedia of Geology, ed. Richard Selley, Robin Cocks, and Ian Palmer. Elsevier:2004 [10] Mackness, B.S. 2009. Reconstructing Palorchestes (Marsupialia: Palorchestidae) from Giant Kangaroo to Marsupial Tapir. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales 130: 2136. [11] David E. Jones (2000). An Instinct for Dragons (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=P1uBUZupE9gC& lpg=PP1& pg=PP1#v=onepage& q=& f=false). New York: Routledge. ISBN0-415-92721-8. . [12] p.79, Drury, Nevill, The Dictionary of the Esoteric (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=k-tVr09oq3IC& pg=PA79& lpg=PA79& dq=earliest+ mention+ of+ dragon& source=web& ots=fxq_n3SLTa& sig=zKfmIXx1BT3nQAZq3I0vkx9akhM& hl=en), books.google.com [13] . . Retrieved June 5, 2011, from http:/ / hellinon. net/ NeesSelides/ Limnos. htm [14] . . Retrieved June 5, 2011, from http:/ / www. etwinning. gr/ projects/ elia/ muthoi. htm [15] Theoi.com (http:/ / www. theoi. com/ Thaumasios/ DrakonesAithiopikoi. html) [16] Gould, Charles. 1896. Mythical Monsters" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=YKEAAAAAMAAJ& dq=mythical+ monsters& pgis=1). W. H. Allen & Co. [17] naga . Retrieved June 5, 2011, from http:/ / dict. hinkhoj. com/ shabdkosh. php?word=naga [18] . Retrieved June 5, 2011, from http:/ / dict. hinkhoj. com/ meaning-of-%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF-in-english. html [19] Flavius Philostratus, The Life of Apollonius of Tyana, translated by F. C. Conybeare, volume I, book III. chapters VI, VII, VIII, 1921, pp. 243247. [20] p. 233, Kaplan [21] p.51, Freedman [22] p. 1670, Jastrow ref to Genesis 38:14, Y.Sot.I 16d (bot.) [23] p. 235, Kaplan [24] Kadish, Sharman (2006) Jewish Heritage in England: an architectural guide. Swindon: English Heritage ISBN 190562428X; p. 203 [25] Unlocking the secrets of creation by Dennis R. Peterson [26] The Genesis Flood by John C. Whitcomb Jr. [27] Erin C. Blake (1999). "Where Be "Here be Dragons"?" (http:/ / www. maphist. nl/ extra/ herebedragons. html). MapHist Discussion Group. Maphist.nl. . Retrieved February 10, 2006.

Sources
Drury, Nevill, The Dictionary of the Esoteric, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 2003 ISBN 8120819896 Freedman, Rabbi Dr. H. (translation), Simon M., editor, Midrash Rabbah: Genesis, Volume one, The Soncino Press, London, 1983 Littleton, C. Scott. Mythology: The Illustrated Anthology of World Myth and Storytelling. Thunder Bay Press (CA). ISBN1571458271. Rosanna M. Giammanco Frongia; Giorgi, Rosa; Giammanco Frongia, Rosanna M.; Zuffi, Stefano (2005). Angels and demons in art. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum. ISBN0892368306.

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Further reading
Knight, Peter. "Sacred Dorset On the Path of the Dragon", 1998. Manning-Sanders, Ruth (1977). A Book of Dragons. London: Methuen. ISBN0416581102. Mayor, Adrienne (2000). The First Fossil Hunters: Paleontology in Greek and Roman Times. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN0-691-08977-9. Shuker, Karl (1995). Dragons: a natural history. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN0684814439.

External links
Chinese Dragons in the news (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6171963.stm), BBC The Evolution of the Dragon (http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/22038), by G. Elliot Smith, 1919, from Project Gutenberg From Many Imaginations, One Fearsome Creature, [[New York Times (http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage. html?res=9501E3D7133DF93AA15757C0A9659C8B63&sec=health&spon=&pagewanted=2)], April 29, 2003]

European dragon

European dragon
European dragon
(Wyrm, Worm)

The Ljubljana Dragon, protector of Ljubljana, capital of Slovenia Creature Grouping Sub grouping Similar creatures Legendary creature Dragon Other dragons Data Mythology Region Habitat Germanic, etc. Europe Lairs, caves

European dragons are legendary creatures in folklore and mythology among the overlapping cultures of Europe. In European folklore, a dragon is a serpentine legendary creature. The Latin word draco, as in constellation Draco, comes directly from Greek , (drkn, gazer). The word for dragon in Germanic mythology and its descendants is worm (Old English: wyrm, Old High German: wurm, Old Norse: ormr), meaning snake or serpent. In Old English wyrm means "serpent", draca means "dragon". Finnish lohikrme directly translated means "salmon-snake", but the word lohi- was originally louhi- meaning crags or rocks, a "mountain snake". The word lohiin lohikrme is also thought to derive from the ancient Norse word lgi, meaning 'fire' as in the Finnish mythology, there is also mentions of "tulikrme" meaning firesnake, or fireserpent. Though a winged creature, the dragon is generally to be found in its underground lair, a cave that identifies it as an ancient creature of earth. Likely, the dragons of European and Mid Eastern mythology stem from the cult of snakes found in religions throughout the world. In Western folklore, dragons are usually portrayed as evil, with the exceptions mainly in Welsh folklore and modern fiction. In the modern period the dragon is typically depicted as a huge fire-breathing, scaly and horned dinosaur-like creature, with leathery wings, with four legs and a long muscular tail. It is sometimes shown with feathered wings, crests, fiery manes, ivory spikes running down its spine and various exotic colorations. Many modern stories represent dragons as extremely intelligent creatures who can talk, associated with (and sometimes in control of) powerful magic. Dragons have also been shown as guardians and friends of humans, with evil dragons simply misunderstood by humans. In stories a dragon's blood often has magical properties: for example in the opera Siegfried it let Siegfried understand the language of the Forest Bird. The typical dragon protects a cavern or castle filled with gold and treasure and is often associated with a great hero who tries to slay it, but dragons can be written into a story in as many ways as a human character, including as wise beings whom heroes can approach for help and advice; in some such cases they resemble Asian rather than European dragons.

European dragon

Roman dragons
Roman dragons evolved from serpentine Greek ones, combined with the dragons of the Near East, in the mix that characterized the hybrid Greek/Eastern Hellenistic culture. From Babylon, the mu-uu was a classic representation of a Near Eastern dragon. John's Book of The Dacian Draco. RevelationGreek literature, not Romandescribes Satan as "a great dragon, flaming red, with seven heads and ten horns". Much of John's literary inspiration is late Hebrew and Greek, but John's dragon is more likely to have come originally through the Near East.[1] Perhaps the distinctions between dragons of western origin and Chinese dragons are arbitrary, since the later Roman dragon was certainly of Iranian origin: in the Roman Empire, where each military cohort had a particular identifying signum, (military standard), after the Parthian and Dacian Wars of Trajan in the east, the Dacian Draco military standard entered the Legion with the Cohors Sarmatarum and Cohors Dacorum (Sarmatian and Dacian cohorts)a large dragon fixed to the end of a lance, with large gaping jaws of silver and with the rest of the body formed of colored silk. With the jaws facing into the wind, the silken body inflated and rippled, resembling a windsock.[2] This signum is described in the surviving epitome of Vegetius De Re Militari 379 CE"The first sign of the entire legion is the eagle, which the eagle-bearer carries. In addition, dragons are carried into battle by each cohort, by the 'dragoneers'"[3] and in Ammianus Marcellinus, xvi. 10, 7.[4] Parthia lies athwart the Silk Road, the cultural thread between East and West[5] , allowing for possible connections between this Romanized Parthian dragon and distant Chinese origins. Several vague incarnations of evil in the Old Testament were given the translation draco in Jerome's Vulgate, to undergo changes in meaning and become broad embodiments of evil.[6]

Dragons in Germanic mythology

The most famous dragons in Norse and Germanic mythology are: Nhggr who gnawed at the roots of Yggdrasil itself. Jrmungandr, midgrdsormen (Swedish and Danish), Midgardsormen (Norwegian), the giant sea serpent which surrounds Migar the world of mortal men; Fafnir, who was killed by Sigurd. Fafnir had turned into a dragon because of his greed. Lindworms are monstrous serpents of Germanic myth and lore, often interchangeable with dragons. The landvttur dragon whom King Harald's servant met in Vopnafjrur according to Heimskringla. The dragon is now depicted on the Icelandic Coat of Arms. Of these, J.R.R. Tolkien wrote: And dragons, real dragons, essential both to the machinery and the ideas of a poem or tale, are actually rare. In northern literature there are only two that are significant. If we omit from consideration the vast and vague Encircler of the World, Migarsormr, the doom of the great gods and no matter for heroes, we have but the dragon of the Vlsungs, Ffnir, and Beowulf's bane.[7] Many European stories of dragons have them guarding a treasure hoard. Both Fafnir and Beowulf's dragon guarded earthen mounds full of ancient treasure. The treasure was cursed and brought ill to those who later possessed it. English "dragon" derives (via Middle English, Old French, and Latin) from Greek dracon, "serpent, dragon"; the Greek word derives from Indo-European *derk-, "to see", and may originally have meant something like "monster with the evil eye." Notwithstanding their folkloric associations, there is no etymological connection between dragons and the ghoulish figures known as draugar in Old Norse, who haunt rich burial mounds. The emblem books popular from late medieval times through the 17th century often represent the dragon as an emblem of greed. The prevalence of dragons in European heraldry demonstrates that there is more to the dragon than

European dragon greed. The poem Beowulf describes a draca (= dragon) also as wyrm (= worm, or serpent) and its movements by the Anglo-Saxon verb bugan = "to bend", and says that it has a venomous bite; all of these indicate a snake-like form and movement rather than with a lizard-like or dinosaur-like body as in later belief (though the dragon of Beowulf does show several features that would later become popularized with dragons; namely, it breathes fire, lives underground, and collects treasure).

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Dragons in Celtic and Anglo-Saxon mythology

The dragon encountered by Beowulf; In Great Britain, to this day, a rampant red dragon (clutching a mace) is the heraldic symbol of the County of Somerset. The county once formed part of the early-medieval Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex in western England, which too bore a dragon or wyvern (a two-legged as opposed to a four-legged dragon) as a symbol. The Wessex beast is usually colored gold in illustrations. Now, however, the dragon is more commonly associated with Wales, The Welsh flag, showing a red dragon passant as its national flag features a red dragon (Y Ddraig Goch). This may originate in Arthurian Legend where Myrddin, employed by Gwrtheyrn, had a vision of the red dragon[8] (representing the Britons) and the white dragon (representing the invading Saxons) fighting beneath Dinas Emrys. This particular legend also features in the Mabinogion in the story of Lludd and Llefelys.[9] The legendary house of Pendragon and Celtic Britain in general have become associated with the Welsh dragon standard after the fact. According to the writer on heraldry Arthur Charles Fox-Davies, the red dragon of Wales originated with the standard of the 7th century king Cadwaladr, and was used as a supporter by the Tudor dynasty (who were of Welsh origin).[10] Queen Elizabeth, however, preferring gold, changed the royal mantle and the dragon supporter from red to gold, and some Welsh scholars still hold that the dragon of Wales is properly ruddy gold rather than gules.[10] There may be some doubt of the Welsh origin of the dragon supporter of the Royal arms, but it certainly was used by King Henry III.[10] It has also been speculated that the red dragon of Wales may have even earlier origins in the Sarmatian-influenced Draco standards carried by Late Roman cavalry, who would have been the primary defence against the Saxons. The Welsh flag is parti per fess Argent and Vert; a dragon Gules passant. Welsh rugby teams include the Newport Gwent Dragons and the Cardiff City Blue Dragons. The Merthyr Synagogue in Merthyr Tydfil, Wales, features a dragon on the front gable.[11]

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Dragons in Slavic mythology

Dragons of Slavic mythology hold mixed temperaments towards humans. For example, dragons (, , , ()) in Bulgarian mythology are either male or female, each gender having a different view of mankind. The female dragon and male dragon, often seen as sister and brother, represent different forces of agriculture. The female dragon represents harsh weather and is the destroyer of crops, the hater of mankind, and is locked in a never ending battle with her brother. The male dragon protects the humans' crops from destruction and is generally loving to humanity. Fire and water play major roles in Bulgarian dragon lore; the female has water characteristics, whilst the male is usually a fiery creature. In Bulgarian legend, dragons are three headed, winged beings with snake's bodies. In Bulgarian, Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian and Serbian lore, a dragon, or "" (Bulgarian: ), zmey (Russian: ), smok (Belarusian: ), zmiy (Ukrainian: ), zmaj (Serbian: ) is generally an evil, four-legged beast with few if any redeeming Zmey Gorynych, by Victor Vasnetsov qualities. Zmeys are intelligent, but not very highly so; they often place tribute on villages or small towns, demanding maidens for food, or gold. Their number of heads ranges from one to seven or sometimes even more, with three- and seven-headed dragons being most common. The heads also regrow if cut off, unless the neck is "treated" with fire (similar to the hydra in Greek mythology). Dragon blood is so poisonous that Earth itself will refuse to absorb it. In Bulgarian mythology these dragons are sometimes good, opposing the evil Lamya //, a beast that shares a likeness with the zmey. The most famous Polish dragon (Polish: Smok) is the Wawel Dragon or Smok Wawelski, the Dragon of Wawel Hill. It supposedly terrorized ancient Krakw and lived in caves on the Vistula river bank below the Wawel castle. According to lore based on the Book of Daniel, it was killed by a boy who offered it a sheepskin filled with sulphur and tar. After devouring it, the dragon became so thirsty that it finally exploded after drinking too much water. A metal sculpture of the Wawel Dragon is a well-known tourist sight in Krakw. It is very stylised but, to the amusement of children, noisily breathes fire every few minutes. The Wawel dragon also features on many items of Krakw tourist merchandise. Dragon is the coat of arms of the Polish princes- Piastw of czersk.[12] Other dragon-like creatures in Polish folklore include the basilisk, living in cellars of Warsaw, and the Snake King from folk legends.
Duchy of Czersk (Poland) coat of arms

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Dragons in Iberian mythology

Dragons in Asturian and Cantabrian mythology
The Culebre, or Culebre, is a giant winged serpent in the mythology of Asturias and Cantabria, in the north of Spain. It usually lives in a cave, guards treasures and keeps nymph-like beings called xanas or anjanas as prisoners. They are immortal, but grow old. They can be tricked in particular ways, especially on certain days.

Dragons in Aragonese mythology

There is a legend that a dragon dwelled in the Pea Uruel mountain near Jaca. It says that it could mesmerize people with his glance, so the young man who decided to kill the beast equipped himself with a shiny shield, so that the dragon's glance would be reflected. So, when the young man arrived the cave where the dragon lived, he could kill it easily because the dragon mesmerized itself. This legend is very similar to the Greek myth of Medusa. The king of Peter IV of Aragon used a dragon on his helmet to show that he was the king of Aragon, as a heraldic pun (Rei d'Aragn, dragn).

Dragons in Basque mythology

Herensuge is the name given to the dragon in Basque mythology, meaning apparently the "last serpent". The best known legend has St. Michael descending from Heaven to kill it but only once God agreed to accompany him in person. Sugaar, the Basque male god, is often associated with the serpent or dragon but able to take other forms as well. His name can be read as "male serpent". A. Xaho, a romantic myth creator of the 19th century, fused these myths in his own creation of Leherensuge, the first and last serpent, that in his newly coined legend would arise again some time in the future bringing the rebirth of the Basque nation.

Dragons in Catalan mythology

Dragons are well-known in Catalan myths and legends, in no small part because St. George (Catalan Sant Jordi) is the patron saint of Catalonia. Like most dragons, the Catalan dragon (Catalan drac) is an enormous serpent with two legs, or, rarely, four, and sometimes a pair of wings. As in many other parts of the world, the dragon's face may be like that of some other animal, such as a lion or bull. As is common elsewhere, Catalan dragons are fire-breathers, and the dragon-fire is all-consuming. Catalan dragons also can emit a fetid odor, which can rot away anything it touches. The Catalans also distinguish a vbria or vibra (cognate with English viper and wyvern), a female dragon with two prominent breasts, two claws and an eagle's beak.

Dragons in Portuguese mythology

In Portuguese mythology, coca[13] is a female dragon that battles Saint George on the Corpus Christi holiday. The fighting has a symbolic meaning: when the coca defeats Saint George the crops will be bad and there will be famine and death. When Saint George defeats the coca he cuts off her tongue and ears; the crops will have a good year and it announces prosperity. Still, she is called "saint" coca just like George is called saint and the people cheer for her. Another dragon called drago is also represented in Portuguese mythology and used to take part in celebrations during the Middle Ages.

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"Festa da Coca" during the Corpus Christi celebration, in Mono, Portugal

Vibria in a parade in Reus (Catalonia)

Cucafera during the "Fiesta Mayor de Santa Tecla" in Tarragona, Spain

Asian dragons Chinese dragon Lng (or Loong. Lung2 in Wade-Giles romanization.) The Chinese dragon, is a mythical Chinese creature that also appears in other Asian cultures, and is sometimes called the Oriental (or Eastern) dragon. Depicted as a long, snake-like creature with four claws, it has long been a potent symbol of auspicious power in Chinese folklore and art. This type of dragon, however, is sometimes depicted as a creature constructed of many animal parts. It might have the fins of some fish, or the horns of a stag. Indian dragon Nga A serpentine dragon common to all cultures influenced by Hinduism. They are often hooded like a cobra and may have several heads depending on their rank. They usually have no arms or legs but those with limbs resemble the Chinese dragon. Indonesian/Malay dragon Naga or Nogo Derived from the Indian nga, belief in the Indo-Malay dragon spread throughout the entire Malay Archipelago along with Hinduism. The word naga is still the common Malay/Indonesian term for dragons in general.[1] Like its Indian counterpart, the naga is considered divine in nature, benevolent, and often associated with sacred mountains, forests, or certain parts of the sea. Japanese dragon Ry Similar to Chinese dragons, with three claws instead of four. They are usually benevolent, associated with water, and may grant wishes. Khmer Dragon Neak The Khmer dragon, or neak is derived from the Indian nga. Like its Indian counterpart, the neak is often depicted with cobra like characteristics such as a hood. The number of heads can be as high as nine, the higher the number the higher the rank. Odd-headed dragons are symbolic of male energy while even headed dragons symbolize female energy. Traditionally, a neak is distinguished from the often serpentine Makar and Tao, the former possessing crocodilian traits and the latter possessing feline traits. A dragon princess is the heroine of the creation myth of Cambodia. Korean dragon Yong (Mireu) A sky dragon, essentially the same as the Chinese lng. Like the lng, yong and the other Korean dragons are associated with water and weather. In pure Korean, it is also known as 'mireu'. Imoogi A hornless ocean dragon, sometimes equated with a sea serpent. Imoogi literally means, "Great Lizard". The legend of the Imoogi says that the sun god gave the Imoogi their power through a human girl, which would be transformed into the Imoogi on her 17th birthday. Legend also said that a dragon-shaped mark would be found on the shoulder of the girl, revealing that she was the Imoogi in human form. Gyo A mountain dragon. In fact, the Chinese character for this word is also used for the imoogi. Philippine Dragon Bakunawa The Bakunawa appears as a gigantic serpent that lives in the sea. Ancient natives believed that the Bakunawa caused the moon or the sun to disappear during an eclipse. It is said that during certain times of the year, the Bakunawa arises from the ocean and proceeds to swallow the moon whole. To keep the Bakunawa from completely eating the moon, the natives would go out of their houses with pots and pans in hand and make a noise barrage in order to scare the Bakunawa into spitting out the moon back into the sky. Some say that the Bakunawa is known to kill people by imagining their death and remote in eye contact. Vietnamese dragon Rng or Long (Ly dynasty, Daiviet X) These dragons' bodies curve lithely, in sine shape, with 12 sections, symbolising 12 months in the year. They are able to change the weather, and are responsible for crops. On the dragon's back are little, uninterrupted, regular fins. The head has a long mane, beard, prominent eyes, crest on nose, but no horns. The jaw is large and opened, with a long, thin tongue; they always keep a chu (gem/jewel) in their mouths (a symbol of humanity, nobility and knowledge). European dragons Catalan dragon drac Catalan dragons are serpent-like creatures with two legs (rarely four) and, sometimes, a pair of wings. Their faces can resemble that of other animals, like lions or cattle. They have a burning breath. Their breath is also poisonous, the reason by which dracs are able to rot everything with their stench. A vbria is a female dragon. French dragons Dragon The French representation of dragons spans much of European history, and has even given

European dragon its name to the dragoons, a type of cavalry. Sardinian dragon scultone The dragon named "scultone" or "ascultone" appears in legends in Sardinia, Italy. It had the power to kill human beings with its gaze. It was a sort of basilisk, lived in the bush and was immortal. Scandinavian & Germanic dragons Lindworm Lindworms are serpent-like dragons with either two or no legs. In Nordic and Germanic heraldry, the lindworm looks the same as a wyvern. The dragon Fafnir was a lindworm. English dragons Wyvern Wyverns are common in medieval heraldry. Their usual blazon is statant. Wyverns are normally shown as dragons with two legs and two wings. Welsh dragons Y Ddraig Goch In Welsh mythology, after a long battle (which the Welsh King Vortigern witnesses) a red dragon defeats a white dragon; Merlin explains to Vortigern that the red dragon symbolizes the Welsh, and the white dragon symbolizes the Saxons thus foretelling the ultimate defeat of the English by the Welsh. The ddraig goch appears on the Welsh national flag. Gaelic dragons Bheithir In Celtic Mythology Ben Vair in Scotland takes its name from the dragon that used to live in a great hollow in the face of a mountain known as Corrie Lia. The dragon was tricked into walking along a pontoon bridge with hidden spikes. Hungarian dragons (Srknyok) zomok A great snake living in a swamp, which regularly kills pigs or sheep. A group of shepherds can easily kill them. srknykgy A giant winged snake, which is in fact a full-grown zomok. It often serves as flying mount of the garaboncis (a kind of magician). The srknykgy rules over storms and bad weather. srkny A dragon in human form. Most of them are giants with multiple heads. Their strength is held in their heads. They become gradually weaker as they lose their heads. In contemporary Hungarian the word srkny is used to mean all kinds of dragons. Slavic dragons zmey, zmiy, mij, , or zmaj, or drak, or smok Smok Wawelski from Sebastian Mnster's Cosmographie Universalis, 1544 Similar to the conventional European dragon, but multi-headed. They breathe fire and/or leave fiery wakes as they fly. In Slavic and related tradition, dragons symbolize evil. Specific dragons are often given Turkic names (see Zilant, below), symbolizing the long-standing conflict between the Slavs and Turks. However, in Serbian and Bulgarian folklore, dragons are defenders of the crops in their home regions, fighting against a destructive demon Ala, whom they shoot with lightning.[2][3] Armenian dragon Vishap Related to European dragons Siberian dragon Yilbegn Related to European Turkic and Slavic dragons Romanian dragons Balaur, Zburator Balaur are very similar to the Slavic zmey: very large, with fins and multiple heads. Chuvash dragons Vere Celen Chuvash dragons represent the pre-Islamic mythology of the same region. Asturian and Leonese dragons Culebre In Asturias and Len mythology the Culebres are giant winged serpents, which live in caves where they guard treasures and kidnapped xanas. They can live for centuries and, when they grow really old, they use their wings to fly. Their breath is poisonous and they often kill cattle to eat. Leonese language term Cuelebre comes from Latin colbra, i.e., snake. Albanian Dragon Dragua In the Albanian mythology the Draguas have four legs and two bat wings. They have a single horn in their head and they have big ears. They live in the forests and cannot be seen unless they want to be. A Dragua can live up to 100 years and cannot be killed by humans. After the Ottoman invasion, the Draguas became protectors of the highlanders. Portuguese dragons Coca In Portuguese mythology coca is a female dragon that fights with Saint George. She loses her strength when Saint George cuts off one of her ears. Greek dragons Drkn - Cadmus fighting the Ismenian dragon (which guarded the sacred spring of Ares) is a legendary story from the Greek lore dating to before ca. 560550 B.C. Greek dragons commonly had a role of protecting important objects or places. For example, the Colchian dragon watched the Golden Fleece and the Nemean dragon guarded the sacred groves of Zeus.[4] The name comes from the Greek "draken" meaning "to see clearly".[5] Tatar dragons Zilant Really closer to a wyvern or cockatrice, the Zilant is the symbol of Kazan. Zilant itself is a Russian rendering of Tatar ylan, i.e., snake. Turkish dragons Ejderha or Evren The Turkish dragon secretes flames from its tail, and there is no mention in any legends of its having wings, or even legs. In fact, most Turkish (and later Islamic) sources describe dragons as gigantic snakes. Lithuanian Dragons Slibinas This dragon is more of a hydra with multiple heads, though sometimes it does appear with one head.

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Dragons in Italian mythology

The legend of Saint George and the dragon is well-known in Italy, but other Saints are depicted fighting a dragon. For instance, the first bishop of the city of Forl, named Saint Mercurialis, was said to have killed a dragon and saved Forl, so he often is depicted killing a dragon. Likewise, the first patron saint of Venice, Saint Theodore of Tyro, was a dragon-slayer, and a statue representing his slaying of the dragon still tops one of the two columns in St. Mark's square. St. Michael, the patron saint of paratroopers, is also frequently depicted slaying a dragon. Many dragons of the European Middle Ages were thought to be demonic or of evil status. According to the Golden Legend, compiled by the Italian Jacobus de Voragine, Saint Margaret the Virgin was swallowed by Satan in the shape of a dragon, from which she escaped alive when the cross she carried irritated the dragon's innards. The Golden Legend, in an atypical moment of scepticism, describes this last incident as "apocryphal and not to be taken seriously" (trans. Ryan, 1.369) - which did not prevent the legend from being popuar and getting artistic treatments.

Saint Margaret and the Dragon, alabaster with traces of gilding, Toulouse, ca 1475 (Metropolitan Museum of Art)

But many more are the legends about dragons in Italy, particularly in Umbria. One of the most famous dragons of Italian folklore is Thyrus, a wyvern that besieged Terni in the Middle Ages. One day, a young and brave knight, tired of witnessing the death of his fellow citizens and depopulation of Terni, faced the dragon and killed him. From that day, the town assumed the creature in its coat of arms. Also a Latin inscription supports this: "Thyrus et amnis dederunt signa Teramnis" that stands under the banner of the town of Terni.

Thyrus, the dragon of Terni

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Another poem tells of another dragon that yet lived near the village of Fornole, near Terni in the south of Umbria. Pope Saint Sylvester arrived in Umbria and freed the population of Fornole from the ferocity of the dragon, making him become mild. In gratitude, the population built, in the 13th century, a little church dedicated to the Saint on the top of the mountain, near the dragon's lair. In the apse of the church there is a fresco representing the iconography of the Saint.
"Saint Silvestro resurrects two magicians, and the Fornole dragon", Vernio Bardi Chapel, Santa Croce (Florence)

Dragons in modern media

In modern times, a paradigm shift has occurred that places European dragons as allies instead of adversaries. Dragons are increasingly viewed as friends of man and as highly intelligent and noble creatures, while still remaining the fearsome beasts of legend. They are frequently shown as guardians and close friends of individual humans. Many of these ideas were first popularised by Anne McCaffrey with her Dragonriders of Pern series, with later authors such as Christopher Paolini and J. K. Rowling also depicting sympathetic dragon characters in Eragon and Harry Potter, respectively. Dragons continue to be a popular subject for movies, such as the film How To Train Your Dragon adapted from the book by Cressida Cowell, and are particularly popular in multimedia fantasy franchises, most famously that of Warcraft. The Inheritance Cycle shows dragons as the ancient guardians of the world, possessing far superior intelligence than that of a human, as well as magical abilities. The dragons were once thought to be evil, much like the common descriptions of mythology, but they brought peace to the world because this misunderstanding was resolved by the elves. The movie How To Train Your Dragon provides a very similar concept. As the vikings have learned to fight and kill dragons their entire life, dragons are first viewed as evil, monstrous creatures. But as Hiccup is able to see past these lies, a new light on dragons is painted they are shown to truly be friendly, and only by aiding a dragon is evil able to be defeated.

References
Early production concept artwork of "Toothless" and "Hiccup". [1] The various Near Eastern sources for the dragon and the Beast are summarized, for example in Howard Wallace, "Leviathan and the Beast in Revelation" The Biblical Archaeologist 11.3 (September 1948), pp. 61-68; the origins of draco in mistranslations of the Septuagint and Jerome's Vulgate, engendering shifts in emblemmatic significance for Christians, are analyzed in Nicolas K. Kiessling, "Antecedents of the Medieval Dragon in Sacred History" Journal of Biblical Literature 89.2 (June 1970), pp. 167-177.

[2] Helmut Nickel, "Of Dragons, Basilisks, and the Arms of the Seven Kings of Rome" Metropolitan Museum Journal 24, (1989:25-34) p. 25. [3] Primum signum totius legionis est aquila, quam aquilifer portat. Dracones etiam per singulas cohortes a draconariis feruntur ad proelium (Vegetius, ii, ch XIII. 'De centuriis atque vexillis peditum'). [4] Harry Thurston Peck, Harper's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, 1898, s.v. 'Signum' . [5] Frances Wood, The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia (University of California Press) 2002. [6] The transformation is examined in Nicolas K. Kiessling, "Antecedents of the Medieval Dragon in Sacred History", Journal of Biblical Literature 89.2 (June 1970:167-177). [7] J.R.R. Tolkien, "Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics." (http:/ / www. scribd. com/ doc/ 21301124/ J-R-R-Tolkien-Beowulf-The-Monsters-and-the-Critics) Proceedings of the British Academy, 22 (1936), 24595.

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[8] Thomas Jones, ed. and trans., "The Story of Myrddin and the Five Dreams of Gwenddydd in the Chronicle of Elis Gruffydd", Etudes celtiques 8 (1958-59:315-345). [9] The dragon is one of three plagues in the land, which "can Vil England nivr si agen. Obiit 24 Kal Dekembris 1247 be seen as variants on the theme of the historical invaders who threatened the sovereignty of the Island of Britain" (Sioned Davies, tr. The Mabinogion (Oxford University Press, 2007) "Introduction" p. xii); see also Sabine Heinz, Celtic Symbols, 2008, s.v. "Dragon". [10] Fox-Davies, Arthur Charles (1909). A Complete Guide to Heraldry (http:/ / openlibrary. org/ details/ completeguidetoh00foxdrich). New York: Dodge Pub. Co. ISBN 0517266431. LCCN09-023803 pp. 225-6. [11] Kadish, Sharman (2006). Jewish Heritage in England : An Architectural Guide. English Heritage., p. 203 [12] Wojciech Grczyk, "lady recepcji legend arturiaskich w heraldyce Piastw czerskich i kronikach polskich", Kultura i Historia, Uniwersytet Marii Curie Skodowskiej w Lublinie, 17/2010 http:/ / www. kulturaihistoria. umcs. lublin. pl/ archives/ 1793 . [13] (http:/ / www. cm-moncao. pt/ portal/ page/ moncao/ portal_municipal/ Turismo/ Corpo de Deus)

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External links
Theoi Project website: Dragons of Ancient Greek Mythology (http://www.theoi.com/greek-mythology/ dragons.html) excerpts from Greek sources, illustrations, lists and links.

Theoi Project website: All dragon references (http://www.google.com/custom?domains=www.theoi.com& q=dragons&sitesearch=www.theoi.com&sa=Google+Search&client=pub-3887923691185452&forid=1& ie=ISO-8859-1&oe=ISO-8859-1& cof=GALT:#008000;GL:1;DIV:#336699;VLC:663399;AH:center;BGC:FFFFFF;LBGC:6F3C1B;ALC:0000FF;LC:0000FF;T:000 /;FORID:1&hl=en).

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Chinese dragon
Chinese dragon

Chinese name Traditional Chinese Simplified Chinese Hanyu Pinyin

lng

Transcriptions Gan - Romanization Mandarin - Hanyu Pinyin Min - Hokkien POJ Cantonese - Yale Romanization lhng
Japanese name Hiragana Kyjitai Shinjitai 1. 2.

lung4

lng

lng, ling

Transcriptions - Revised Hepburn 1. ry 2. tatsu - Kunrei-shiki 1. ry 2. tatu

Korean name Hangul Hanja 1. / 2. (Pure Korean)

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Transcriptions - Revised 1. Romanization ryong/yong 2. mir

Vietnamese name Quc ng Hn t rng, long

Chinese dragons are legendary creatures in Chinese mythology and folklore, with mythic counterparts among Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, Bhutanese, Western and Turkic dragons. In Chinese art, dragons are typically portrayed as long, scaled, serpentine creatures with four legs. In yin and yang terminology, a dragon is yang and complements a yin fenghuang ("Chinese phoenix"). In contrast to European dragons, which are considered evil, Chinese dragons traditionally symbolize potent and auspicious powers, particularly control over water, rainfall, hurricane, and floods. The dragon is also a symbol of power, strength, and good luck.With this, the Emperor of China usually use the dragon as a symbol of his imperial power. In Chinese daily language, excellent and outstanding people are compared to the dragon while incapable people with no achievements are compared with other, disesteemed creatures, such as the worm. A number of Chinese proverbs and idioms feature references to the dragon, for example: "Hoping one's son will become a dragon" (, i.e. be as a dragon).

Symbolic value
Historically, the dragon was the symbol of the Emperor of China. In the Zhou Dynasty, the 5-clawed dragon was assigned to the Son of Heaven, the 4-clawed dragon to the nobles (zhuhou, seigneur), and the 3-clawed dragon to the ministers (daifu). In the Qin Dynasty, the 5-clawed dragon was assigned to represent the Emperor while the 4-clawed and 3-clawed dragons were assigned to the commoners. The dragon in the Qin Dynasty appeared on national flags.[1] The dragon is sometimes used in the West as a national emblem of China. However, this usage within both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China on Taiwan as the symbol of nation is not common. Instead, it is generally used as the symbol of culture. In Hong Kong, the dragon is part of the design of Brand Hong Kong, a symbol used to promote Hong Kong as an international brand name.[2] In European-influenced cultures, the dragon has aggressive, warlike connotations and it is conjectured that the Chinese government wishes to avoid using it as a symbol, but most Chinese disagree with this decision.[3] Westerners only sometimes confuse the disposition of the benevolent Chinese dragon with the aggressive Western dragon. Many Chinese people often use the term "Descendants of the Dragon" (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: lng de chun rn) as a sign of ethnic identity, as part of a trend started in the 1970s when different Asian nationalities were looking for animal symbols for representations.[1] The wolf was used among the Mongols, the monkey among Tibetans.[1] In Chinese culture today, the dragon is mostly used for decorative purposes. It is a taboo to disfigure a depiction of a dragon; for example, an advertisement campaign commissioned by Nike, which featured the American basketball player LeBron James slaying a dragon (as well as beating up an old Kung Fu master), was immediately banned by the Chinese government after public outcry over disrespect.[4]

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Regional variations across Asia

While depictions of the dragon in art and literature are largely consistent throughout the cultures in which it is found, there are some regional differences. The remainder of this article deals with aspects common across cultures, as well as features peculiar to cultural China. For more information on peculiarities in the depiction of the dragon in other Asian cultures, see: Druk, the Thunder Dragon of Bhutanese mythology Japanese dragon Korean dragon Nga (or Naga), a Hindu or Buddhist deity often depicted as a king cobra Vietnamese dragon

Dragon worship
Origin

Chinese Dragon on a banner

The origin of the Chinese dragon is not certain. The presence of dragon in Chinese culture can dates back several thousands of years with the discovery of a dragon statue dating back to the fifth millennium BC from the Yangshao culture in Henan in 1987,[5] and jade badges of rank in coiled form have been excavated from the Hongshan culture circa 4700-2900 BC.[6] The coiled snake or dragon form played an important role in early Chinese culture. TThe character for "dragon" in the earliest Chinese writing has a similar coiled form, as do later jade dragon amulets from the Shang period.[7] Ancient Chinese referred to unearthed dinosaur bones as dragon bones and documented them as such. For example, Chang Qu in 300 BC documents the discovery of "dragon bones" in Sichuan.[8] The modern Chinese word for dinosaur is konglong (, meaning "terrible dragon"), and villagers in central China have long unearthed fossilized "dragon bones" for use in traditional medicines, a practice that continues today.[9] The binomial name for a variety of dinosaur discovered in China, Mei long, in Chinese ( mi and lng) means "sleeping dragon." Fossilized remains of Mei long have been found in China in a sleeping and coiled form, with the dinosaur nestling its snout beneath one of its forelimbs while encircling its tail around its entire body.[10]

The C-shaped jade totem of Hongshan Culture

Jade-carved dragon garment ornament from the Warring States period (403 BC-221 BC).

stylized

depictions

of

Some have further suggested that the Chinese dragon form comes from existing animals, such as snakes, fish, or

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crocodiles. A view advocated by He Xin is that the early dragon depicted a species of crocodile, specifically, Crocodylus porosus, the saltwater crocodile, which is the largest living reptile, and once ranged into China during ancient times. The crocodile is known to be able to accurately sense changes in air pressure, and be able to sense coming rain. This may have been the origin of the dragon's mythical attributes in controlling the weather, especially the rain. The association with the crocodile is also supported by the view in ancient times that large crocodiles are a variety of dragon. For example, in the Story of Zhou Chu, about the life of a Jin Dynasty warrior, he is said to have killed a "dragon" that infested the waters of his home village, which appears to have been a crocodile.

Gilded-bronze handle in the shape of a dragon's head and neck, made during the Eastern Han period (25220 AD)

Some scholars believe that the Chinese dragon form originated from totems of different tribes in China, as a merger of totems of various tribes consequential to tribal mergers. Legendary figures like Nwa () and Fuxi () are depicted as having snake bodies. Some scholars have noted that a myth arose that the first legendary Emperor of China, Huangdi (, Yellow Emperor) used a snake for his coat of arms. According to the myth, every time he conquered another tribe, he incorporated his defeated enemy's emblem into his own, thus explains why the dragon appears to have features of various animals.

Mythical creature
From its origins as totems or the stylized depiction of natural creatures, the Chinese dragon evolved to become a mythical animal. The Han Dynasty scholar Wang Fu recorded Chinese myths that long dragons had nine anatomical resemblances. The people paint the dragon's shape with a horse's head and a snake's tail. Further, there are expressions as 'three joints' and 'nine resemblances' (of the dragon), to wit: from head to shoulder, from shoulder to breast, from breast to tail. These are the joints; as to the nine resemblances, they are the following: his horns resemble those of a stag, his head that of a camel, his eyes those of a demon, his neck that of a snake, his belly that of a clam (shen, ), his scales those of a carp, his claws those of an eagle, his soles those of a tiger, his ears those of a cow. Upon his head he has a thing like a broad eminence (a big lump), called [chimu] (). If a dragon has no [chimu], he cannot ascend to the sky.[11]

Non-Imperial Chinese dragon in Shanghai

Further sources give variant lists of the nine animal resemblances. Nine Dragon Screen, Datong (detail) Sinologist Henri Dor lists these characteristics of an authentic dragon: "The horns of a deer. The head of a camel. A demon's eyes. The neck of a snake. A tortoise's viscera. A hawk's claws. The palms of a tiger. A cow's ears. And it hears through its horns,

Chinese dragon its ears being deprived of all power of hearing."[12] He notes that, "Others state it has a rabbit's eyes, a frog's belly, a carp's scales." The anatomy of other legendary creatures, including the chimera and manticore, is similarly amalgamated from fierce animals. Chinese dragons were considered to be physically concise. Of the 117 scales, 81 are of the yang essence (positive) while 36 are of the yin essence (negative). Initially, the dragon was benevolent but the Buddhists introduced the concept of malevolent influence among some dragons. Just as water destroys, they said, so can some dragons destroy via floods, tidal waves and storms. They suggested that some of the worst floods were believed to have been the result of a mortal upsetting a dragon.

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Mini-Sculpture of a Dragon on top of a temple in Hsinchu, Taiwan

Many pictures of oriental dragons show a flaming pearl under their chin. The pearl is associated with wealth, good luck, and prosperity. Chinese dragons are occasionally depicted with bat-like wings growing out of the front limbs, but most do not have wings, as their ability to fly (and control rain/water, etc.) are mystical and not seen as a result of their physical attributes. This description accords with the artistic depictions of the dragon down to the present day. The dragon has also acquired an almost unlimited range of supernatural powers. It is said to be able to disguise itself as a silkworm, or become as large as our entire universe. It can fly among the clouds or hide in water (according to the Guanzi). It can form clouds, can turn into water, can change color as an ability to blend in with their surroundings, as an effective form of camouflage or glow in the dark (according to the Shuowen Jiezi). In Singapore and many other countries, folktales speak of the dragon having all the attributes of the other 11 creatures of the zodiac, this includes the whiskers of the rat, the face and horns of an ox, claws and teeth of a tiger, belly of a rabbit, body of a snake, legs of a horse, the beard of a goat, wit(or brain) of a monkey, crest of a rooster, ears of a dog, the snout of a pig. In some circles, it is considered bad luck to depict a dragon facing downwards, as it is seen as disrespectful to place a dragon in such manner that it cannot ascend to the sky. Also, depictions of dragons in tattoos are prevailent as they are symbols of strength and power, especially criminal organisations where dragons hold a meaning all on their own. As such, it is believed that one must be fierce and strong enough, hence earning the right to wear the dragon on his skin, lest his luck be consumed by the dragon.

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Ruler of weather and water

Chinese dragons are strongly associated with water in popular belief. They are believed to be the rulers of moving bodies of water, such as waterfalls, rivers, or seas. They can show themselves as water spouts (tornado or twister over water). In this capacity as the rulers of water and weather, the dragon is more anthropomorphic in form, often depicted as a humanoid, dressed in a king's costume, but with a dragon head wearing a king's headdress. There are four major Dragon Kings, representing each of the four seas: the East Sea (corresponding to the East China Sea), the South Sea (corresponding to the South China Sea), the West Sea (sometimes seen as the Indian Ocean and beyond), and the North Sea (sometimes seen as Lake Baikal).

A dragon seen floating among clouds, on a golden canteen made during the 15th century, Ming Dynasty

Because of this association, they are seen as "in charge" of water-related weather phenomenon. In premodern times, many Chinese villages (especially those close to rivers and seas) had temples dedicated to their local "dragon king". In times of drought or flooding, it was customary for the local gentry and government officials to lead the community in offering sacrifices and conducting other religious rites to appease the dragon, either to ask for rain or a cessation thereof. The King of Wu-Yue in the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period was often known as the "Dragon King" or the "Sea Dragon King" because of his extensive hydro-engineering schemes which "tamed" the sea.

Symbol of imperial authority

According to Chinese legend, both Chinese primogenitors, the earliest Emperors, Yandi and Huangdi, were closely related to 'Long' (Chinese Dragon). At the end of his reign, the first legendary Emperor, Huangdi, was said to have been immortalized into a dragon that resembled his emblem, and ascended to Heaven. The other legendary Emperor, Huangdi's brother, Yandi was born by his mother's telepathy with a mythic dragon. Since the Chinese consider Huangdi and Yandi as their ancestors, they sometimes refer to themselves as "the descendants of the dragon". This legend also contributed towards the use of the Chinese dragon as a symbol of imperial power. The dragon, especially yellow or golden dragons with five claws on each foot, was a symbol for the emperor in many Chinese dynasties. The imperial throne was called the Dragon Throne. During the late Qing Dynasty, the dragon was even adopted as the national flag. The dragon is featured in the carvings on the steps of imperial palaces and tombs, such as the Forbidden City in Beijing.

An imperial robe from the Qing Dynasty

In some Chinese legends, an Emperor might be born with a birthmark in the shape of a dragon. For example, one legend tells the tale of a peasant born with a dragon birthmark who eventually overthrows the existing dynasty and founds a new one; another legend might tell of the prince in hiding from his enemies who is identified by his dragon birthmark. In contrast, the Empress of China was often identified with the Fenghuang.

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Modern belief
In modern times, belief in the dragon appears to be sporadic at best. There appear to be very few who would see the dragon as a literally real creature. The worship of the Dragon Kings as rulers of water and weather continues in many areas, and is deeply ingrained in Chinese cultural traditions such as Chinese New Year celebrations. Dragon kites are also used in these celebrations.

Depictions of the dragon

Neolithic depictions
Dragons or dragon-like depictions have been found extensively in neolithic-period archaeological sites throughout China. The earliest depiction of dragons was found at Xinglongwa culture sites. Yangshao culture sites in Xi'an have produced clay pots with dragon motifs. The Liangzhu culture also produced dragon-like patterns. The Hongshan culture sites in present-day Inner Mongolia produced jade dragon amulets in the form of pig dragons. One such early form was the pig dragon. It is a coiled, elongated creature with a head resembling a boar.[13] The character for "dragon" in the earliest Chinese writing has a similar coiled form, as do later jade dragon amulets from the Shang period.

An ancient seal script form of the character for "dragon" that is now written or and pronounced lng in Mandarin Chinese.

Classical depictions
Chinese literature and myths refer to many dragons besides the famous long. The linguist Michael Carr analyzed over 100 ancient dragon names attested in Chinese classic texts.[14] Many such Chinese names derive from the suffix -long: Tianlong (Chinese: ; pinyin: tinlng; WadeGiles: t'ien-lung; literally "heavenly dragon"), celestial dragon that guards heavenly palaces and pulls divine chariots; also a name for Draco (constellation) Shenlong (Chinese: ; pinyin: shnlng; WadeGiles: shen-lung; literally "god dragon"), thunder god that controls the weather, appearance of a human head, dragon's body, and drum-like stomach Fucanglong (Chinese: ; pinyin: fcnglng; WadeGiles: fu-ts'ang-lung; literally "hidden treasure dragon"), underworld guardian of precious metals and jewels, associated with volcanoes Dilong (Chinese: ; pinyin: dlng; WadeGiles: ti-lung; literally "earth dragon"), controller of rivers and seas; also a name for earthworm Yinglong (Chinese: ; pinyin: ynglng; WadeGiles: ying-lung; literally "responding dragon"), winged dragon associated with rains and floods, used by Huangdi to kill Chi You Jiaolong (Chinese: ; pinyin: jiolng; WadeGiles: chiao-lung; literally "crocodile dragon"), hornless or scaled dragon, leader of all aquatic animals Panlong (Chinese: ; pinyin: pnlng; WadeGiles: p'an-lung; literally "coiled dragon"), lake dragon that has not ascended to heaven Huanglong (Chinese: ; pinyin: hunglng; WadeGiles: huang-lung; literally "yellow dragon"), hornless dragon symbolizing the emperor Feilong (Chinese: ; pinyin: filng; WadeGiles: fei-lung; literally "flying dragon"), winged dragon that rides on clouds and mist; also a name for pterosaur (compare Feilong kick and Fei Long character)

Chinese dragon Qinglong (Chinese: ; pinyin: qnglng; WadeGiles: ch'ing-lung; literally "Azure Dragon"), the animal associated with the East in the Chinese Four Symbols, mythological creatures in the Chinese constellations Qiulong (Chinese: ; pinyin: qulng; WadeGiles: ch'iu-lung; literally "curling dragon"), contradictorily defined as both "horned dragon" and "hornless dragon" Chilong (Chinese: ; pinyin: chlng; WadeGiles: ch'ih-lung; literally "demon dragon"), a hornless dragon or mountain demon Fewer Chinese dragon names derive from the prefix long-: Longwang (Chinese: ; pinyin: lngwng; WadeGiles: lung-wang; literally "Dragon Kings") divine rulers of the Four Seas Longma (Chinese: ; pinyin: lngm; WadeGiles: lung-ma; literally "dragon horse"), emerged from the Luo River and revealed Bagua (concept) to Fu Xi Some additional Chinese dragons are not named with long , for instance, Hong (Chinese: ; pinyin: hng; WadeGiles: hung; literally "rainbow"), a two-headed dragon or rainbow serpent Shen (Chinese: ; pinyin: shn; WadeGiles: shen; literally "giant clam"), a shapeshifting dragon or sea monster believed to create mirages Bashe (Chinese: ; pinyin: bsh; WadeGiles: pa-she; literally "ba snake") was a giant python-like dragon that ate elephants Teng (Chinese: ; pinyin: tng; WadeGiles: t'eng) or Tengshe (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: tngsh; WadeGiles: t'eng-she; lit. "soaring snake") is a flying dragon without legs Chinese scholars have classified dragons in diverse systems. For instance, Emperor Huizong of Song canonized five colored dragons as "kings". The Azure Dragon [Qinglong ] spirits, most compassionate kings. The Vermillion Dragon [Zhulong ] spirits, kings that bestow blessings on lakes. The Yellow Dragon [Huanglong ] spirits, kings that favorably hear all petitions. The White Dragon [Bailong ] spirits, virtuous and pure kings. The Black Dragon [Xuanlong ] spirits, kings dwelling in the depths of the mystic waters.[15]

25

With the addition of the Yellow Dragon of the Center to Azure Dragon of the East, these Vermillion, White, and Black Dragons coordinate with the Four Symbols, including the Vermilion Bird of the South, White Tiger of the West, and Black Tortoise of the North.

Children of Dragon
Several Ming Dynasty texts list what were claimed as the Nine Offspring of the Dragon (), and subsequently these feature prominently in popular Chinese stories and writings. The scholar Xie Zhaozhe (, 15671624) in his work Wu Za Zu (, ca. 1592) gives the following listing, as rendered by M.W. de Visser: A well-known work of the end of the sixteenth century, the Wuzazu , informs us about the nine different young of the dragon, whose shapes are used as ornaments according to their nature. The [pulao ], dragons which like to cry, are represented on the tops of bells, serving as handles. The [qiuniu ], which like music, are used to

Pulao in Changchun Temple, Wuhan

adorn

musical

instruments.

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26

The [chiwen /], which like swallowing, are placed on both ends of the ridgepoles of roofs (to swallow all evil influences). The [chaofeng ], lion-like beasts which like precipices, are placed on the four corners of roofs. The [yazi /], which like to kill, serve as ornaments of sword-grips. The [bixi ], which have the shape of the [chilong ], and are fond of literature, are represented on the sides of grave-monuments. The [bi'an ], which like litigation, are placed over prison gates (in order to keep guard). The [suanni ], which like to sit down, are represented upon the bases of Buddhist idols (under the Buddhas' or Bodhisattvas' feet). The [baxia ], finally, big tortoises which like to carry heavy objects, are placed under grave-monuments.

Qianlong-era bixi near Marco Polo Bridge, Beijing

Further, the same author enumerates nine other kinds of dragons, which are represented as ornaments of different objects or buildings according to their liking prisons, water, the rank smell of newly caught fish or newly killed meat, wind and rain, ornaments, smoke, shutting the mouth (used for adorning key-holes), standing on steep places (placed on roofs), and fire.[16] The Sheng'an waiji () collection by the poet Yang Shen (, 14881559) gives different 5th and 9th names for the dragon's nine children: the taotie (), which loves to eat and is found on food-related wares, and the jiaotu (), which looks like a conch or clam, does not like to be disturbed, and is used on the front door or the doorstep. Yang's list is bixi, chiwen or chofng, pulao, bi'an, taotie, qiuniu, yazi, suanni, and jiaotu.[17] Oldest known attestation of the "children of the dragon" list is found in the Shuyuan Zaji (, Miscellaneous records from the bean garden) by Lu Rong (14361494); however, he noted that the list enumerates mere synonyms of various antiques, not children of a dragon.[18]

Dragon toes
The first Ming Emperor copied the Yuan ruling and decreed that the dragon would be his emblem and that it would have five toes (or claws) The four-clawed dragon was typically for imperial nobility and certain high ranking officials. The three clawed dragon was used by lower ranks and the general public (widely seen on various Chinese goods in Ming Dynasty). The Long, however, was only for select royalty closely associated with the Imperial family, usually in various symbolic colors, while it was a capital offense for anyone - other than the emperor himself - to ever use the completely gold-colored, five-clawed Long dragon The reverse side of a six-lobed bronze mirror from the motif. Improper use of claw number and/or colors was considered 8th century, during the Tang Dynasty (618907), treason, punishable by execution of the offender's entire clan. showing a dragon with three toes on each foot Since most East Asian nations at one point or another were considered Chinese tributaries, they were only allowed four-clawed dragons. The five toes rule was first enforced in AD 1336 (Yuan the second year). "(For commoners) It is forbidden to wear any cloth with patterns of Qilin, Male Fenghuang (Chinese phoenix), White rabbit, Lingzhi, Five-Toe Two-Horn Long, Eight Longs, Nine Longs, 'Ten thousand years', Fortune-longevity character and Golden Yellow etc." ("")[19]

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Cultural references
Number nine
The number nine is special in China as it is the largest possible single digit, and Chinese dragons are frequently connected with it. For example, a Chinese dragon is normally described in terms of nine attributes and usually has 117 (9x13) scales - 81 (9x9) Yang and 36 (9x4) Yin. This is also why there are nine forms of the dragon and the dragon has nine offspring (see Classical depictions above). The "Nine Dragon Wall" is a screen wall with images of A close up view of one full dragon (and the tail end nine different dragons, and is found in imperial palaces and and claw of another) from the Nine Dragons handscroll gardens. The wall has 9 large dragons, as well as small dragons painted in AD 1244 by Chen Rong, an artist of the Song Dynasty that cover the edge. In all there are 635 dragons on it. As nine was considered the number of the emperor, only the most senior officials were allowed to wear nine dragons on their robes - and then only with the robe completely covered with surcoats. Lower-ranking officials had eight or five dragons on their robes, again covered with surcoats; even the emperor himself wore his dragon robe with one of its nine dragons hidden from view. There are a number of places in China called "Nine Dragons", the most famous being Kowloon (in Cantonese) in Hong Kong. The part of the Mekong in Vietnam is known as Cu Long, with the same meaning.

Chinese zodiac
The dragon is one of the 12 animals in the Chinese zodiac which is used to designate years in the Chinese calendar. It is thought that each animal is associated with certain personality traits. Dragon years are usually the most popular to have babies. There are more babies born in Dragon years than in any other animal years of the Zodiac.

Constellations
The Azure Dragon - Qing Long - is considered to be the primary of the four celestial guardians, the other three being the Zhu Que - (Vermilion Bird), Bai Hu - (White Tiger), Xuan Wu - (Black Tortoise-like creature). In this context, the Azure Dragon is associated with the East and the element of Wood.

Dragonboat racing
Main article Dragon boat At special festivals, especially the Duan Wu festival, dragon boat races are an important part of festivities. Typically, these are boats rowed by a team of up to 12 rowers, and with a carved dragon as the head of the boat. Dragon boat racing is also an important part of celebrations outside of China, such as at Chinese New Year.

Dragon dancing
Main article Dragon dance On auspicious occasions, including Chinese New Year and the opening of shops and residences, festivities often include dancing with dragon puppets. These are "life sized" cloth-and-wood puppets manipulated by a team of people, supporting the dragon with poles. They perform choreographed moves to the accompaniment of drums and music.

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Dragons and Ngas

In many Buddhist countries, the concept of the nga has been merged with local traditions of great and wise serpents or dragons, as depicted in this stairway image of a mufti-headed nga emerging from the mouth of a Makara in the style of a Chinese dragon at Phra Maha Chedi Chai Mongkol on the premises of Wat Pha Namthip Thep Prasit Vararam in Thailand's Roi Et Province Nong Phok District.

Dragons and Tigers

Tigers have always been an eternal rival to the dragon, thus various artworks depict a dragon and tiger fighting an epic battle. A well used Chinese idiom to describe equal rivals (often in sports nowadays) is "Dragon versus Tiger". In Chinese martial arts, "Dragon style" is used to describe styles of fighting based more on understanding movement, while "Tiger style" is based on brute strength and memorization of techniques.

Chinese dragons in popular culture

As a part of traditional folklore, dragons appear in a variety of mythological fiction. In the classical story Journey to the West, the son of the Dragon King of the West was condemned to serve as a horse for the travellers because of his indiscretions at a party in the Detail of an embroidered silk gauze ritual garment from a 4th century BC, Zhou era tomb at Mashan, heavenly court. The Monkey King's cudgel R Y Bng was stolen Hubei province, China. The flowing, curvilinear design from the Eastern (Donghai) Dragon King o gung. In Fengshen incorporates dragons, phoenixes, and tigers. Yanyi and other stories, Nezha, the boy hero, defeats the Dragon Kings and tames the seas. Chinese dragons also appear in innumerable Japanese anime movies and TV shows, manga, and in Western political cartoons as a personification of the People's Republic of China. The Chinese respect for dragons is emphasized in Naomi Novik's Temeraire novels, where they were the first people to tame dragons and are treated as equals, intellectuals or even royalty, rather than beasts solely bred for war in the West.

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References
[1] Sleeboom, Margaret. [2004] (2004). Academic Nations in China and Japan: Framed in concepts of Nature, Culture and the Universal. Routledge publishing. ISBN 0-415-31545-X [2] "Brand Overview" (http:/ / www. brandhk. gov. hk/ brandhk/ eview. htm), Brand Hong Kong, 09-2004. Retrieved on 23-02-2007. [3] BBC Article: Fiery Debate Over China's Dragon (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ asia-pacific/ 6171963. stm), an article covering China's decision not to use a dragon mascot and the resulting disappointment. [4] Robertson, Benjamin (2004-12-17). "The Dragon battles back to beat Nike" (http:/ / www. atimes. com/ atimes/ China/ FL17Ad01. html). Asia Times Online. . Retrieved 2007-03-20. [5] Howard Giskin and Bettye S. Walsh (2001). An introduction to Chinese culture through the family. State University of New York Press. p.126. ISBN0791450473. [6] Teaching Chinese Archeology (http:/ / www. nga. gov/ education/ chinatp_sl01. htm), National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC [7] Salviati, Filippo (2002). The Language of Adornment: Chinese Ornaments of Jade, Crystal, Amber and Glass, Fig. 17. Ten Speed Press. ISBN 1580085873. [8] Dong Zhiming (1992). Dinosaurian Faunas of China. China Ocean Press, Beijing. ISBN3-540-52084-8. OCLC26522845. [9] "Dinosaur bones 'used as medicine'" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ asia-pacific/ 6276948. stm). BBC News. 2007-07-06. . Retrieved 2007-07-06. [10] Xu and Norell, (2004). "A new troodontid dinosaur from China with avian-like sleeping posture." Nature, 431(7010): 838-841. doi: 10.1038/news041011-7 [11] de Visser, Marinus Willem (1913), The Dragon in China and Japan (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ cu31924021444728), Verhandelingen der Koninklijke akademie van wetenschappen te Amsterdam. Afdeeling Letterkunde. Nieuwe reeks, deel xiii, no. 2, Amsterdam: Johannes Mller, p.70, (Also available at University of Georgia Library (http:/ / fax. libs. uga. edu/ GR830xD7xV8/ )) [12] Dor, Henri. 1917. Researches into Chinese Superstitions (http:/ / openlibrary. org/ b/ OL13587109M/ Researches-into-Chinese-superstitions). M. Kennelly, D.J. Finn, and L.F. McGreat, trs. T'usewei. Ch'eng-wen reprint 1966, 681. [13] "Jade coiled dragon, Hongshan Culture (c. 4700-2920 B.C.)" (http:/ / www. nga. gov/ exhibitions/ china1999/ 037_010. htm), National Gallery of Art, Washington DC. Retrieved on 23-02-2007. [14] Carr, Michael. 1990. "Chinese Dragon Names" (http:/ / sealang. net/ sala/ archives/ pdf4/ carr1990chinese. pdf), Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 13.2:87-189. He classified them into seven categories: Rain-dragons, Flying-dragons, Snake-dragons, Wug-dragons [wug refers to "worms, bugs, and small reptiles"], Crocodile-dragons, Hill-dragons, and Miscellaneous dragons. [15] Adapted from Dor 682. [16] de Visser 1913, pp.101102. The primary source is Wu Za Zu, chapter 9, beginning with "...". The title of Xie Zhaozhe's work, Wu Za Zu, has been variously translated into English as Five Assorted Offerings (in Xie Zhaozhe (http:/ / www. renditions. org/ renditions/ authors/ xiezz. html)), Five Sundry Bands (in " Disease and Its Impact on Politics, Diplomacy, and the Military ... (http:/ / jhmas. oxfordjournals. org/ cgi/ pdf_extract/ 57/ 2/ 177?ck=nck)") or Five Miscellanies (in Changing clothes in China: fashion, history, nation (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=Ju3N4VeiQ28C& pg=PA48), p. 48). [17] (Wu Sansheng) (2006), (Eight thousand words and expressions viewed against the background of Chinese culture) (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=KQJ_tIU1ixoC& pg=PA345), () (Commercial Press, Hong Kong), p.345, ISBN9620718461, (Chinese) [18] (1) (http:/ / vip. book. sina. com. cn/ book/ chapter_69989_55313. html) ("Chapter 9, Dragon's derived and associated creatures: Nine children of the dragon (1)"), in Yang Jingrong and Liu Zhixiong (2008). The full text of Shuyuan Zaji, from which Yang and Liu quote, is available in electronic format at a number of sites, e.g. here: (http:/ / xxgblog. tcip. net. cn/ index. php/ 56/ viewspace-3024. html) [19] The Twenty-Four Histories: The History of Yuan-Dress Code (zh:), compiled under Song Lian (), AD 1370.

External links
(Yang Jirong); (Liu Zhixiong) (2008), (The Origin of the Dragon) (http://vip.book. sina.com.cn/book/catalog.php?book=69989), , ISBN7806635513 Dragon Articles (http://www.cdot.org/history/dragon_articles.htm), Crystal Dragon of Taiwan, cdot.org Dragons in Ancient China (http://www.chinapage.com/dragon1.html), China the Beautiful, chinapage.com Eastern Dragon Overview (http://www.blackdrago.com/easterndragons.htm), The Circle of the Dragon, blackdrago.com Forbidden City Dragon Wall panography (http://www.world-heritage-tour.org/asia/china/ming-qing/beijing/ forbidden-city/court-of-eternal-longevity/sphere-quicktime.html), world-heritage-tour.org The Chinese Dragon (http://www.everythingdragons.com/Chinese-Dragons/Chinese-Dragons.html), everythingdragons.com

Chinese dragon (http://www.jsdj.com/luyou/changsi/LONG.htm), The Dragon's 9 Children (Chinese), jsdj.com

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Wyvern
A wyvern or wivern ( /wavrn/) is a legendary winged reptilian creature with a dragon's head, wings and forelegs, but with only a barbed tail to its rear half. The dragon has four legs. The wyvern is often found in heraldry.[1] There exists a purely sea-dwelling variant, termed the Sea-Wyvern which has a fish tail in place of a barbed dragon's tail. Two of these mythical sea beasts form the supporters of the arms of West Dorset District Council. Wyverns are mentioned in Dante Alighieri's Inferno (Canto XVII) as the component body for the poem's Geryon.

Etymology
The usual spelling wyvern (older wivern too) is not attested before the 17th century as 'winged two-footed dragon'.[2] It is an alteration of Middle English wyvere, wyver (13th century), loanword of Old French wivre (French guivre and vouivre), itself from Latin vipera 'viper', 'adder', 'asp',[3] [4] altered in Proto-French to *wipera by Germanic influence (see Old High German wipera).

Use as symbol or mascot

The wyvern (and its 'cousin' the four-legged dragon) is a frequent heraldic device on British coats of arms and flags, and a fairly popular commercial logo or mascot as well, especially in Wales and what was once the West Country Kingdom of Wessex, but also farther afield in Herefordshire and Worcestershire, as the rivers Wye and Severn run through Hereford and Worcester respectively. For example, a local school travel company is called Wyvern Schooltours Ltd and one of the local radio stations is called Wyvern FM.[5] [6] Vauxhall Motors had a model in its range in the 1950s called the Wyvern. The Westland Wyvern was a British single-seat carrier-based multi-role strike aircraft built by Westland Aircraft that served in the 1950s, seeing active service in the 1956 Suez Crisis. The wyvern is a frequent mascot of athletic teams, particularly in the United Kingdom and the United States, and is the mascot of the Korean Baseball Organization team SK Wyverns, established in 2000. The beast, in addition, serves as the badge for Kingswood Oxford School, an independent day school in West Hartford, Connecticut, USA. Similarly, a wyvern is
The wyvern is used for both supporters in the arms of John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough. Frequently when used as a supporter it rests on its tail alone, termed sejant, with both forelegs supporting the escutcheon

A wyvern fighting with a wolf. Relief, Trento Cathedral, Italy

the

crest

of

Newington

Wyvern

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College in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, and is the symbol of the Trinity Residents' Club in Perth, Western Australia. It is employed, too, by The LLVM Compiler Infrastructure and is also the background logo for BackTrack Linux.[7] [8] [9] The crest for Alpha Chi Sigma, the professional chemistry fraternity, contains a wyvern. The Wyvernid is the symbol of, or is used in the crest of, Wesley College, Dublin, Magdalene College, Cambridge, and Woodbridge College in Woodbridge, Ontario. Wyverns appear as both supporters in the arms of Leyton Orient F.C., London's second oldest professional football club. A white (argent) wyvern formed the crest of the Borough of Leicester as recorded at the heraldic visitation of Leicestershire in 1619: A wyvern sans legs argent strewed with wounds gules, wings expanded ermine. The term sans legs may not imply that the wyvern was "without legs", rather that its legs are not depicted, being hidden or folded under.[10] [11] [12] This was adopted by the Midland Railway in 1845, when it became the crest of its unofficial coat of arms.[13] The company asserted that the "wyvern was the standard of the Kingdom of Mercia", and that it was "a quartering in the town arms of Leicester".[14] [15] [16] [17] However, in 1897 the Railway Magazine noted that there appeared "to be no foundation that the wyvern was associated with the Kingdom of Mercia".[15] The Kings of Aragon of the House of Barcelona since Peter IV used a wyvern as a crest on their helmets. Nowadays this symbol has been officially adopted as the coat of arms of the Generalitat Valenciana (Valencian Parliament and Government). Wyverns are also an important part of the mythological animals in many traditional local festivals of Catalonia.

A golden wyvern is believed to have been the symbol of the ancient kingdom of Wessex

Coat of arms, City of Leicester, with crest: A wyvern argent sans legs

Cryptozoology
Some cryptozoologists have interpreted wyverns as surviving pterosaurs, which were extinct around 65 million years ago.[18] There are alleged sightings in remote areas of pterosaur-like creatures such as the Kongamato in Africa.[19]

Arms of Midland Railway at Derby station, 2006, showing as crest the Wyvern sans legs of Leicester

References
[1] 1911 Britanica [2] T. F. Hoad, English Etymology, Oxford University Press, 1993 (ISBN 0-19-283098-8). p. 546. [3] T. F. Hoad 546 [4] "Oxford English Dictionary Second edition, 1989; online version November 2010.;" (http:/ / www. oed. com/ Entry/ 230944). . Retrieved 2011-02-18. [5] "Welcome to Wyvern Schooltours" (http:/ / www. wyvernschootlours. co. uk). . [6] "Wyvern FM" (http:/ / www. mediauk. com/ radio/ 259/ wyvern-fm). Media UK. . Retrieved 2009-06-04.

Wyvern
[7] "Trinity Residents' Club inc." (http:/ / www. trinityresclub. com. au). . [8] "The LLVM Compiler Infrastructure" (http:/ / llvm. org/ Logo. html). . [9] "BackTrack Linux" (http:/ / www. backtrack-linux. org/ screenshots/ ). . [10] Geoffrey Briggs, Civic & Corporate Heraldry, London 1971 [11] C. W. Scot-Giles, Civic Heraldry of England and Wales, 2nd edition, London, 1953 [12] A. C. Fox-Davies, The Book of Public Arms, London 1915 [13] Cuthbert Hamilton Ellis, The Midland Railway, 1953 [14] Frederick Smeeton Williams, The Midland Railway: Its rise and progress: A narrative of modern enterprise, 1876 [15] The Railway Magazine, Vol. 102, 1897 [16] Dow (1973) [17] Clement Edwin Stretton, History of The Midland Railway, 1901 [18] "Wyvern" (http:/ / www. unknownexplorers. com/ wyvern. php). Unknown Explorers. . Retrieved 2007-04-26. [19] "Rainsnow.org" (http:/ / www. rainsnow. org/ wod_cryptozoology. htm). The Wonderful World of Cryptozoology. . Retrieved 26 April 2007.

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External links
Lady Gryphon's Mythical Realm: Wyvern (http://www.mythicalrealm.com/creatures/dragon-wyverns.html) Dave's Mythical Creatures and Places: Wyvern (http://www.eaudrey.com/myth/wyvern.htm) Dragonsinn: Wyvern Facts (http://www.dragonsinn.net/fict-wyvern.htm) "Wyvern": Compact OED definition (http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/wyvern?view=uk)

List of dragons in mythology and folklore

This article is a list of dragons in mythology and folklore.
Asian dragons Chinese dragon Lng (or Loong. Lung2 in Wade-Giles romanization.) The Chinese dragon, is a mythical Chinese creature that also appears in other Asian cultures, and is sometimes called the Oriental (or Eastern) dragon. Depicted as a long, snake-like creature with four claws, it has long been a potent symbol of auspicious power in Chinese folklore and art. This type of dragon, however, is sometimes depicted as a creature constructed of many animal parts. It might have the fins of some fish, or the horns of a stag.

Indian dragon

Nga

A serpentine dragon common to all cultures influenced by Hinduism. They are often hooded like a cobra and may have several heads depending on their rank. They usually have no arms or legs but those with limbs resemble the Chinese dragon. Derived from the Indian nga, belief in the Indo-Malay dragon spread throughout the entire Malay Archipelago along with Hinduism. The word naga is still the common [1] Malay/Indonesian term for dragons in general. Like its Indian counterpart, the naga is considered divine in nature, benevolent, and often associated with sacred mountains, forests, or certain parts of the sea.

Indonesian/Malay dragon

Naga or Nogo

List of dragons in mythology and folklore

33
Similar to Chinese dragons, with three claws instead of four. They are usually benevolent, associated with water, and may grant wishes.

Japanese dragon

Ry

Khmer Dragon

Neak

The Khmer dragon, or neak is derived from the Indian nga. Like its Indian counterpart, the neak is often depicted with cobra like characteristics such as a hood. The number of heads can be as high as nine, the higher the number the higher the rank. Odd-headed dragons are symbolic of male energy while even headed dragons symbolize female energy. Traditionally, a neak is distinguished from the often serpentine Makar and Tao, the former possessing crocodilian traits and the latter possessing feline traits. A dragon princess is the heroine of the creation myth of Cambodia.

Korean dragon

Yong (Mireu)

A sky dragon, essentially the same as the Chinese lng. Like the lng, yong and the other Korean dragons are associated with water and weather. In pure Korean, it is also known as 'mireu'. A hornless ocean dragon, sometimes equated with a sea serpent. Imoogi literally means, "Great Lizard". The legend of the Imoogi says that the sun god gave the Imoogi their power through a human girl, which would be transformed into the Imoogi on her 17th birthday. Legend also said that a dragon-shaped mark would be found on the shoulder of the girl, revealing that she was the Imoogi in human form. A mountain dragon. In fact, the Chinese character for this word is also used for the imoogi. The Bakunawa appears as a gigantic serpent that lives in the sea. Ancient natives believed that the Bakunawa caused the moon or the sun to disappear during an eclipse. It is said that during certain times of the year, the Bakunawa arises from the ocean and proceeds to swallow the moon whole. To keep the Bakunawa from completely eating the moon, the natives would go out of their houses with pots and pans in hand and make a noise barrage in order to scare the Bakunawa into spitting out the moon back into the sky. Some say that the Bakunawa is known to kill people by imagining their death and remote in eye contact. These dragons' bodies curve lithely, in sine shape, with 12 sections, symbolising 12 months in the year. They are able to change the weather, and are responsible for crops. On the dragon's back are little, uninterrupted, regular fins. The head has a long mane, beard, prominent eyes, crest on nose, but no horns. The jaw is large and opened, with a long, thin tongue; they always keep a chu (gem/jewel) in their mouths (a symbol of humanity, nobility and knowledge).

Imoogi

Gyo

Philippine Dragon

Bakunawa

Vietnamese dragon

Rng or Long

(Ly dynasty, Daiviet X) European dragons Catalan dragon drac Catalan dragons are serpent-like creatures with two legs (rarely four) and, sometimes, a pair of wings. Their faces can resemble that of other animals, like lions or cattle. They have a burning breath. Their breath is also poisonous, the reason by which dracs are able to rot everything with their stench. A vbria is a female dragon.

List of dragons in mythology and folklore

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The French representation of dragons spans much of European history, and has even given its name to the dragoons, a type of cavalry.

French dragons

Dragon

Sardinian dragon

scultone

The dragon named "scultone" or "ascultone" appears in legends in Sardinia, Italy. It had the power to kill human beings with its gaze. It was a sort of basilisk, lived in the bush and was immortal. Lindworms are serpent-like dragons with either two or no legs. In Nordic and Germanic heraldry, the lindworm looks the same as a wyvern. The dragon Fafnir was a lindworm.

Scandinavian & Germanic dragons

Lindworm

English dragons

Wyvern

Wyverns are common in medieval heraldry. Their usual blazon is statant. Wyverns are normally shown as dragons with two legs and two wings. In Welsh mythology, after a long battle (which the Welsh King Vortigern witnesses) a red dragon defeats a white dragon; Merlin explains to Vortigern that the red dragon symbolizes the Welsh, and the white dragon symbolizes the Saxons thus foretelling the ultimate defeat of the English by the Welsh. The ddraig goch appears on the Welsh national flag.

Welsh dragons

Y Ddraig Goch

Gaelic dragons

Bheithir

In Celtic Mythology Ben Vair in Scotland takes its name from the dragon that used to live in a great hollow in the face of a mountain known as Corrie Lia. The dragon was tricked into walking along a pontoon bridge with hidden spikes. A great snake living in a swamp, which regularly kills pigs or sheep. A group of shepherds can easily kill them. A giant winged snake, which is in fact a full-grown zomok. It often serves as flying mount of the garaboncis (a kind of magician). The srknykgy rules over storms and bad weather. A dragon in human form. Most of them are giants with multiple heads. Their strength is held in their heads. They become gradually weaker as they lose their heads. In contemporary Hungarian the word srkny is used to mean all kinds of dragons.

Hungarian dragons (Srknyok)

zomok

srknykgy

srkny

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Slavic dragons

zmey, zmiy, mij, , or zmaj, or Similar to the conventional European dragon, but multi-headed. They breathe fire drak, or smok and/or leave fiery wakes as they fly. In Slavic and related tradition, dragons symbolize evil. Specific dragons are often given Turkic names (see Zilant, below), symbolizing the long-standing conflict between the Slavs and Turks. However, in Serbian and Bulgarian folklore, dragons are defenders of the crops in their home regions, fighting [2] [3] against a destructive demon Ala, whom they shoot with lightning.

Smok Wawelski from Sebastian Mnster's Cosmographie Universalis, 1544 Armenian dragon Siberian dragon Romanian dragons Chuvash dragons Asturian and Leonese dragons Vishap Yilbegn Balaur, Zburator Vere Celen Culebre Related to European dragons Related to European Turkic and Slavic dragons Balaur are very similar to the Slavic zmey: very large, with fins and multiple heads. Chuvash dragons represent the pre-Islamic mythology of the same region. In Asturias and Len mythology the Culebres are giant winged serpents, which live in caves where they guard treasures and kidnapped xanas. They can live for centuries and, when they grow really old, they use their wings to fly. Their breath is poisonous and they often kill cattle to eat. Leonese language term Cuelebre comes from Latin colbra, i.e., snake. In the Albanian mythology the Draguas have four legs and two bat wings. They have a single horn in their head and they have big ears. They live in the forests and cannot be seen unless they want to be. A Dragua can live up to 100 years and cannot be killed by humans. After the Ottoman invasion, the Draguas became protectors of the highlanders. In Portuguese mythology coca is a female dragon that fights with Saint George. She loses her strength when Saint George cuts off one of her ears. Cadmus fighting the Ismenian dragon (which guarded the sacred spring of Ares) is a legendary story from the Greek lore dating to before ca. 560550 B.C. Greek dragons commonly had a role of protecting important objects or places. For example, the Colchian dragon watched the Golden Fleece and the Nemean dragon guarded the [4] sacred groves of Zeus. The name comes from the Greek "draken" meaning "to see [5] clearly".

Albanian Dragon

Dragua

Portuguese dragons Coca

Greek dragons

Drkn -

Tatar dragons

Zilant

Really closer to a wyvern or cockatrice, the Zilant is the symbol of Kazan. Zilant itself is a Russian rendering of Tatar ylan, i.e., snake.

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The Turkish dragon secretes flames from its tail, and there is no mention in any legends of its having wings, or even legs. In fact, most Turkish (and later Islamic) sources describe dragons as gigantic snakes. This dragon is more of a hydra with multiple heads, though sometimes it does appear with one head.

Turkish dragons

Ejderha or Evren

Lithuanian Dragons Slibinas

Aido Wedo, the Rainbow Serpent of Dahomey mythology Apalala, a mythical river dragon who was converted to Buddhism Apep or Apophis the giant snake or serpent from Egyptian mythology Azazel is described as a dragon in the Apocalypse of Abraham Azhi Dahaka in Avestan mythology. Qinglong (or Seiry) in Chinese mythology, one of the Four Symbols (Chinese constellation) Bolla (also "Bullar"), the sleeping dragon of Albanian mythology Brnensky drak (The dragon of Brno), the dragon killed nearby Moravian city (legend) Con rit is a water dragon from Vietnamese mythology Dragon Kings, from Chinese mythology The Dragon of Loschy Hill, of Yorkshire folklore The Dragons of St. Leonard's Forest, of Sussex folklore Fafnir, transformed dragon (Germanic mythology) The Green Dragon of Mordiford, of Herefordshire folklore Gorynych, Zmei, the most famous of Russian dragons Guivres from Medieval France Huanglong, the Yellow Dragon of the Center, in Chinese mythology Jrmungandr, the sea serpent or dragon in Norse mythology The Knucker from Lyminster in Sussex Lagarfljtsormurinn, a worm/dragon living in the Lagarfljt, near Egilsstair, Iceland. The Hydra, also called the Lernaean Hydra, from Greek Mythology is described as a dragon-like animal Illuyankas from Hittite mythology Ladon from Greek mythology The Laidly Worm of Spindleston Heugh, of Northumbrian legend The Lambton Worm, of Northumbrian legend The Ljubljana dragon, the protector dragon of Ljubljana, capital of Slovenia The Longwitton dragon, of Northumbrian legend Lotan/Leviathan from Levantine mythology and Hebrew scriptures, a demonic dragon reigning the waters The Meister Stoor Worm of Orkney legend Mushussu, musrussu or sirrush, the Babylonian dragon from the Ishtar Gate Nhggr (the 'Dread Biter', also spelled Nidhogg) from Norse mythology Ouroboros the "tail-eater." Orochi, the eight-headed serpent slain by Susanoo in Japanese mythology Python, from Greek mythology, the snake killed by Apollo Quetzalcoatl from Aztec mythology has a dragon-like aspect Ryjin, the dragon god of the sea in Japanese mythology. Satan appears as a "great red dragon" in the Book of Revelation Srkny, dragon of Hungarian mythology Smok Wawelski (the Wawel Dragon) from Polish mythology, was killed by a clever shoemaker's apprentice The Tarasque, tamed by Saint Martha Thevetat Tiamat and Apsu from Babylonian mythology are sometimes considered dragons

List of dragons in mythology and folklore Typhon from Greek mythology is often thought of as a dragon Vritra, a major asura in Vedic religion The Whitby Wyrm of Yorkshire Folklore Xiuhcoatl is a serpent from Aztec mythology Yam from Levantine mythology Teju Jagua from Guaran mythology is described was a huge lizard with seven dog-like heads, entitled to a "fiery gaze", and being associated as the god of fruits, caves and (more common with the Dragons in Europe) as the protector of hidden treasures Zilant, by the Tataro-Bulgarian mythology lived in present-day Kazan and is represented on the city's coat of arms Zirnitra, dragon-god in Wendish mythology. It was later used in the Royal Danish heraldry as a representation of Wendland Zmey Gorynych - The dragon of the Slavic mythology. Its name is translated as "Snake son-of-mountain" (due to the fact it lives in a mountain), it has three heads, wings, and it spits fire. The Amaru - Dragon of Inca Mythology. It had a llama's head, fox's mouth, condor wings, snake's body, fish's tail and dragon scales. The unnamed five-headed dragon subdued by the Buddhist goddess Benzaiten at Enoshima in Japan in A.D. 552

37

The unnamed dragon (referred to by the Saxon draca and wyrm) defeated by Beowulf and Wiglaf in the Anglo-Saxon epic poem Beowulf. The unnamed dragon defeated by Saint George.

References
[1] "dragon." kamus.net. 2010. http:/ / www. kamus. net/ result. php?w=en-usa& q=dragon& submit=Search& e=0 (29 June 2011). [2] , (1981). . Belgrade: " " : . (A book in Serbian about mythical creatures of Serbian traditions) [3] -, . "" (http:/ / bgrod. org/ Vjara/ index. php?p=bogove& page=zmej). . . Retrieved 2007-08-13. (An extract from the book (The Dragon in Bulgarian Folklore), in Bulgarian) [4] (http:/ / www. theoi. com/ greek-mythology/ dragons. html) [5] (http:/ / www. encyclopedia. com/ doc/ 1O27-dragon. html)

Dragons in Greek mythology

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Dragons in Greek mythology

Dragons play a role in Greek mythology.

Ladon
Ladon was the serpent-like dragon that twined round the tree in the Garden of the Hesperides and guarded the golden apples. Ladon was also said to have as many as one hundred heads. He was overcome and possibly slain by Heracles. After a few years, the Argonauts passed by the same spot, on their chthonic return journey from Colchis at the opposite end of the world, and heard the lament of "shining" Aigle, one of the Hesperides, and viewed the still-twitching Ladon (Argonautica, book iv). The creature is associated with the constellation Draco. Ladon was given several parentages, each of which placed him at an archaic level in Greek myth: the offspring of "Ceto, joined in love with Phorcys" (Hesiod, Theogony 333) or of Typhon, who was himself serpent-like from the waist down, and Echidna (Bibliotheke 2.113; Hyginus, Preface to Fabulae) or of Gaia herself, or in her Olympian manifestation, Hera: "The Dragon which guarded the golden apples was the brother of the Nemean lion" asserted Ptolemy Hephaestion (recorded in his New History V, lost but epitomized in Photius, Myriobiblion 190).

Lernaean Hydra
The Lernaean Hydra was a dragon-like water serpent with fatally venomous breath, blood and fangs, a daughter of Typhon and Echidna. The creature was said to have anywhere between five and 100 heads, although most sources put the number somewhere between seven and nine. For each head cut off, one or two more grew back in its place. It had an immortal head which would remain alive after it was cut off. Some accounts claim that the immortal head was made of gold. It lived in a swamp near Lerna and frequently terrorized the townsfolk until it was slain by Heracles, who cut the heads off, with the help of his nephew Iolaus, who then singed the oozing stump with a blazing firebrand to prevent any new heads from growing, as the second of his Twelve Labors. Hera sent a giant crab to distract Heracles, but he simply crushed it under his foot. Hera then placed it in the heavens as the constellation Cancer. After slaying the serpent, Heracles buried the immortal head under a rock and dipped his arrows in the creature's blood to make them fatal to his enemies. In one version, the poisoned arrows would eventually prove to be the undoing of his centaur tutor Chiron, who was placed in the heavens as the constellation Centaurus.

Pytho or Python
In Greek mythology Pythons was the earth-dragon of Delphi, always represented in the vase-paintings and by sculptors as a serpent. Various myths represented Python as being either male or female (a drakaina).[1] Python was the chthonic enemy of Apollo, who slew it and remade its former home his own oracle, the most famous in Greece. There are various versions of Python's birth and death at the hands of Apollo. In the earliest, the Homeric Hymn to Apollo, little detail is given about Apollo's combat with the serpent or its parentage. The version related by Hyginus [1] holds that when Zeus lay with the goddess Leto, and she was to deliver Artemis and Apollo, Hera sent Python to pursue her throughout the lands, so that she could not be delivered wherever the sun shone. Thus when the infant was grown he pursued the python, making his way straight for Mount Parnassus where the serpent dwelled, and chased it to the oracle of Gaia at Delphi, and dared to penetrate the sacred precinct and kill it with his arrows beside the rock cleft where the priestess sat on her tripod. The priestess of the oracle at Delphi became known as the Pythia, after the place-name Pytho, which was named after the rotting () of the serpent's corpse after it was slain.

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The Colchian Dragon

This immense serpent, a child of Typhon and Echidna, guarded the Golden Fleece at Colchis.[2] It was said to never sleep, rest, or lower its vigilance. According to Ovid's Metamorphoses, the monster had a crest and three tongues.[3] When Jason went to retrieve the Fleece, the witch Medea put the dragon to sleep with her magic and drugs,[4] or perhaps Orpheus lulled it to sleep with his lyre. Afterwards, Medea herself had dragons pull her chariot.

The Ismenian Dragon

The Ismenian Dragon, of the spring of Ismene at Thebes, Greece, was slain by the hero Cadmus.[5] It was the offspring of Ares, who later turned the hero into a serpent.

References
[1] "Python at Theoi.com" (http:/ / www. theoi. com/ Ther/ DrakainaPython. html) [2] "A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ok4pAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA280& dq=jason+ argonauts& as_brr=4#v=onepage& q=jason argonauts& f=false) [3] Morford, Mark; Robert Lenardon (2003). Classical Mythology (7 ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. pp.581. [4] "Colchian Dragon at Theoi.com" (http:/ / www. theoi. com/ Ther/ DrakonKholkikos. html) [5] Theoi.com: Drakon Ismenios (http:/ / www. theoi. com/ Ther/ DrakonIsmenios. html); excerpts of Greek myth in translation.

External links
Theoi Project - Drakon Hesperios (http://www.theoi.com/Ther/DrakonHesperios.html)

Saint George and the Dragon

The episode of Saint George and the Dragon appended to the hagiography of Saint George was Eastern in origin,[1] brought back with the Crusaders and retold with the courtly appurtenances belonging to the genre of Romance. The earliest known depictions of the motif are from tenth- or eleventh-century Cappadocia[2] and eleventh-century Georgia;[3] previously, in the iconography of Eastern Orthodoxy, George had been depicted as a soldier since at least the seventh century. The earliest known surviving narrative of the dragon episode is an eleventh-century Georgian text.[4] William Shakespeare refers to St. George and the Dragon in Richard III; act v, also in King Lear; act I.

Saint George and the Dragon by Gustave Moreau

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St. George by Hans Acker 1440

Advance our standards, set upon our foes Our ancient world of courage fair St. George Inspire us with the spleen of fiery dragons..... Richard III. act v, sc.3.

Come not between the Dragon and his wrath..... King Lear. Act I, Sc 2

The dragon motif was first combined with the already standardised Passio Georgii in Vincent of Beauvais' encyclopedic Speculum Historiale, and then Jacobus de Voragine's Golden Legend (ca 1260) guaranteed its popularity in the later Middle Ages as a literary and pictorial subject.[5] The legend gradually became part of the Christian traditions relating to Saint George and was used in many festivals thereafter.[6]

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The legends
According to the Golden Legend the narrative episode of Saint George and the Dragon took place in a place he called "Silene," in Libya; the Golden Legend is the first to place this legend in Libya as a sufficiently exotic locale, where a dragon might be imagined. In the tenth-century Georgian narrative, the place is the fictional city of Lasia, and it is the godless Emperor who is Selinus.[7] The town had a pond, as large as a lake, where a plague-bearing dragon dwelled that envenomed all the countryside. To appease the dragon, the people of Silene used to feed it two sheep every day, and when the sheep failed, they fed it their children, chosen by lottery. It happened that the lot fell on the king's daughter, who is in some versions of the story called Sabra.[8] The king, distraught with grief, told the people they could have all his gold and silver and half of his kingdom if his daughter were spared; the people refused. The daughter was sent out to the lake, decked out as a bride, to be fed to the dragon.
A 15th century Georgian plaque depicting Saint George rescuing the emperor's daughter.

Saint George by chance rode past the lake. The princess, trembling, sought to send him away, but George vowed to remain. The dragon reared out of the lake while they were conversing. Saint George fortified himself with the Sign of the Cross,[9] charged it on horseback with his lance and gave it a grievous wound. Then he called to the princess to throw him her girdle, and he put it around the dragon's neck. When she did so, the dragon followed the girl like a meek beast on a leash. She and Saint George led the dragon back to the city of Silene, where it terrified the people at its approach. But Saint George called out to them, saying that if they consented to become Christians and be baptised, he would slay the dragon before them. The king and the people of Silene converted to Christianity, George slew the dragon, and the body was carted out of the city on four ox-carts. "Fifteen thousand men baptized, without women and children." On the site where the dragon died, the king built a church to the Blessed Virgin Mary and Saint George, and from its altar a spring arose whose waters cured all disease.[10] Traditionally, the sword[11] with which St. George slew the dragon was called Ascalon, a name recalling the city of Ashkelon, Israel. From this tradition, the name Ascalon was used by Winston Churchill for his personal aircraft during World War II (records at Bletchley Park), since St. George is the Patron Saint of England.

St. George and the Dragon, wood sculpture by Bernt Notke in Stockholm's Storkyrkan

St. George and the Dragon, 13th-century mural, chapel of the former Knights Templar commandery in Coulommiers, France

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Woodcut frontispiece of Alexander Barclay, Lyfe of Seynt George (Westminster, 1515)

Saint George defeating the dragon and saving the princess.

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Origins
The figure of the dragon slayer figures in the founding myth of Delphi, where Apollo slays the drakon Pytho, and has ancient Near Eastern roots as old as Mesopotamian Labbu. A dragon is also the enemy figure in Revelation and in the saintly legend of Margaret the Virgin. The region had long venerated other religious figures. These historians deem it likely that certain elements of their ancient worship could have passed to their Christian successors. Notable among these ancient deities was Sabazios, the Sky Father of the Phrygians and known as Sabazius to the Romans. This god was traditionally depicted riding on horseback. The iconic image of St. George on horseback trampling the serpent-dragon beneath him is considered to be similar to these pre-Christian representations of Sabazios, the mounted god of Phrygia and Thrace. According to Christopher Booker it is more likely, however, that the "George and the Dragon" story is a medieval adaptation of the ancient Greek myth of Perseus and Andromedaevidence for which can be seen in the similarity of events and locale in both stories.[12] In this connection, the Perseus and Andromeda myth was known throughout the Middle Ages from the influence of Ovid. In imagery, other Greek myths also played a role. "Medieval artists used the Greco-Roman image of Bellerophon and the Chimaera as the template for representations of Saint George and the Dragon."[13]
Saint George and the Dragon, by Rogier van der Weyden

These myths in turn may derive from an earlier Hittite myth concerning the battle between the Storm God Tarhun and the dragon Illuyankas. Such stories also have counterparts in other Indo-European mythologies: the slaying of the serpent Vritra by Indra in Vedic religion, the battle between Thor and Jrmungandr in the Norse story of Ragnarok, the Greek account of the defeat of the Titan Typhon by Zeus.[14] Parallels also exist outside of Indo-European mythology, for example the Babylonian myths of Marduk slaying the dragon Tiamat.[15] The book of Job 41:21 speaks of a creature whose "breath kindleth coals, and a flame goeth out of his mouth."[16] In Italy, Saint Mercurialis, first bishop of the city of Forl, is also depicted slaying a dragon.[17] Saint Julian of Le Mans, Saint Veran, Saint Bienheur, Saint Crescentinus, Saint Margaret of Antioch, Saint Clement of Metz, Saint Martha, Saint Quirinus of Malmedy, Saint Donatus of Arezzo, and Saint Leonard of Noblac were also venerated as dragon-slayers.[18] Others trace the origin of Saint George and the Dragon to Palestine,where the supposed dragon was controlled by Satan. The creature blocked the city's water supply and would only move if given a virgin sacrifice. Over time, all of the virgins were sacrificed except for the noble's daughter, and even she was sent to quench the castle's thirst. However, Saint George (or Mar Jiryis ) arrived at the last moment on his white horse, striking down the dragon with a spear between its eyes.[19]

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Treatment by artists
Paintings Paolo Uccello, Saint George and the Dragon, c. 1470. National Gallery, London. Giovanni Bellini, Saint George Fighting the Dragon, c. 1471. Pesaro altarpiece.[20] Raphael (Raffaello Santi), St. George, 1504. Oil on wood. Louvre, Paris, France. Raphael (Raffaello Santi), St. George and the Dragon, 15041506. Oil on wood. National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., United States Tintoretto (Jacopo Robusti), St. George and the Dragon, 1555.[21] Peter Paul Rubens, Saint George and the Dragon, 1620. Edward Burne-Jones, St. George and the Dragon, 1866.[22] Gustave Moreau, St. George and the Dragon, c. 1870. Oil on canvas. The National Gallery, London. Briton Rivire, St. George and the Dragon, c. 1914. Sculptures Bernt Notke, wood, Storkyrkan in Stockholm, ca. 14841489.[23] Salvador Dal, Saint George and the Dragon, ca. 19771984 Landmark Loews Movie Palace Statue, Saint George and the dragon at The Landmark Loews Movie Palace in Jersey City, NJ, US. 2010.[24] Mosaic Edward Poynter, Saint George for England, 1869. Central Lobby in the Palace of Westminster. Engravings Benedetto Pistrucci, engraving for coin dies, 1817. Other Edward Elgar, The Banner of St George: a ballad for chorus and orchestra, words by Shapcott Wensley, 1879.
A half sovereign with Benedetto Pistrucci's engraving. Coat of arms of Moscow

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Contemporary retelling
The 1898 Dream Days by Kenneth Grahame includes a chapter entitled The Reluctant Dragon, in which an elderly St. George and a benign dragon stage a mock battle to satisfy the townsfolk and get the dragon introduced into society. Later made into a film by Walt Disney Productions, and set to music by John Rutter as a children's operetta. In 1935 Stanley Holloway recorded a humorous retelling of the tale as St. George and the Dragon written by Weston and Lee The Dragon Knight, a series of books by Gordon R. Dickson, adopted this story as a past event into its canon, significant in that dragons had since referred to humans as 'georges.' The story of St. George and the Dragon is referred to on occasion, but never told. The first book in the series, The Dragon and the George, is a retelling of a previous short story by the same author, "St. Dragon and the George". In the 1950s, Stan Freberg and Daws Butler wrote and performed St. George and the Dragon-Net (a spoof of the tale and of Dragnet) for Freberg's radio show. The story's recording became the first comedy album to sell over 1 million copies. A 1975 episode of "Space: 1999" titled "Dragon's Domain" made reference to the legend of St. George and the Dragon. A crewman from the space station heroically kills a dragon-like creature after it has consumed other astronauts. The main character played by Barbara Bain eventually concludes that the crewman's story will create new mythology similar to the legend of St. George. The 1981 Paramount Pictures/Disney film Dragonslayer was loosely based on the tale.[25]
The Wedding of Saint George and the Princess Sabra by Dante Gabriel Rossetti.

St. George and the Dragon by Briton Reviere.

EC Comics published a comic called "By George!!" in Weird Fantasy #15. The story revealed that the 'dragon' was in fact a lost, misunderstood alien child who didn't mean any harm.

Margaret Hodges retold the legend in a 1984 children's book (Saint George and the Dragon) with Caldecott Medal-winning illustrations by Trina Schart Hyman. American artist Butt Johnson [26] uses the theme in a drawing entitled "Mario, Patron Saint of Brooklyn" [27] portraying characters from the video game Super Mario Bros., and featuring Mario in the role of Saint George slaying the "dragon" (King Koopa). The poem "Fairy Tale" by Yury Zhivagothe main character from Boris Pasternak's novel "Doctor Zhivago"relates a modified account of this legend; Yury's poem differs in that it is nonreligious and makes no mention of the village. In Elizabeth Kostova's The Historian,[28] Saint George is chronicled as being the saint who killed Vlad Tepesh[29] (also known as Dracula, which means "son of the dragon" or "son of the devil").

Saint George and the Dragon In Graham McNeill's book Mechanicum, part of the Horus Heresy series, the story is retold and St. George is revealed to be the future Emperor of mankind.

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Alternative legends
The village of Wormingford in Essex, England also lays claim to the George and the Dragon legend. A dragon, now believed to have been a crocodile that escaped from Richard I, was slain in the River Stour. There are differing accounts, including different dragon slayers, however one popular account tells how Sir George Marney (of Layer de la Haye) killed the dragon with his lance. The church in Wormingford (which is dedicated to St Andrew) has a stained glass window depicting this scene.[30] [31]
A church altar dedicated to Saint George and Saint Barbara at St. Verena's Catholic Church in Roggenbeuren, Germany.

Notes
[1] Robertson, The Medieval Saints' Lives (pp 51-52) suggested that the dragon motif was transferred to the George legend from that of his father fellow soldier saint, Saint Theodore Tiro. The Roman Catholic writer Alban Butler (Lives of the Saints) was at pains to credit the motif as a late addition: "It should be noted, however, that the story of the dragon, though given so much prominence, was a later accretion, of which we have no sure traces before the twelfth century. This puts out of court the attempts made by many folklorists to present St. George as no more than a christianized survival of pagan mythology." [2] Walter 2003:128, noted by British Museum Russian Icon "The Miracle of St George and the Dragon / Black George" (http:/ / www. britishmuseum. org/ research/ online_research_catalogues/ search_object_details. aspx?objectid=62490& partid=1& catalogueOnly=true& catParentPageid=25390& output=bibliography/ !!/ OR/ !!/ 6256/ !/ / !/ A Catalogue of the Russian Icons in the British Museum/ !/ / !!/ / !!!/ & catalogueName=Icons in the British Museum& catalogueSection=A catalogue of the Russian icons in the British Museum& sortBy=catNumber). [3] Christopher Walter, The Warrior Saints in Byzantine Art and Tradition 2003:141, notes the earliest datable image, at Pavnisi, Georgia (1154-58) [4] Patriarchal Library, Jerusalem, codex 2, according to Christopher Walter, The Warrior Saints in Byzantine Art and Tradition 2003:140; Walter quotes the text at length, from a Russian translation. [5] Margaret Aston, Faith and Fire Continuum Publishing, 1993 ISBN 1-85285-073-6 page 272 [6] Christian Roy, 2005, Traditional Festivals ISBN 978-1-57607-089-5 page 408; Dorothy Spicer, Festivals of Western Europe, (BiblioBazaar), 2008 ISBN 1-4375-2015-4, page 67 [7] Quoted in Walter 2003:141. [8] http:/ / www. mainlesson. com/ display. php?author=langm& book=saints& story=patron [9] In the earliest, Georgian version where the dragon is more clearly a representation of paganism, or at least of infernal power, the sign of the Cross itself was sufficient to defeat the dragon. [10] Thus Jacobus de Voragine, in William Caxton's translation ( On-line text (http:/ / www. fordham. edu/ halsall/ basis/ goldenlegend/ GL-vol3-george. html)). [11] Ascalon, Askalon (Seven Champions); Askelon (Percy's ballads) (http:/ / home. ix. netcom. com/ ~kiyoweap/ myth/ arms-weap/ ascalon. htm) [12] Booker, Christopher (2004). The Seven Basic Plots. Continuum. pp.2526. ISBN978-0-8264-5209-2. [13] Theoi Greek Mythology (http:/ / www. theoi. com/ greek-mythology/ dragons. html). [14] Mallory, J. P. (1989). In Search of the Indo-Europeans. Thames and Hudson. ISBN0-500-27616-1. [15] Combat of Marduk and Tiamat in the Babylonian Creation Myths, Fourth Tablet at Sacred-texts.com (http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ ane/ blc/ blc11. htm) The killing of Tiamat is featured from line 93 [16] Job 41;21 (http:/ / www. bartleby. com/ 108/ 18/ 41. html) [17] Catholic Encyclopedia: Forli (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 06137a. htm)

Saint George and the Dragon

[18] Sauroctones (http:/ / www. mythofrancaise. asso. fr/ mythes/ themes/ saurocto. htm) [19] http:/ / www. pitt. edu/ ~dash/ stgeorge. html [20] (http:/ / cgfa. sunsite. dk/ bellini/ p-bellini6. htm) [21] (http:/ / www. ibiblio. org/ wm/ paint/ auth/ tintoretto/ st-george-dragon. jpg) [22] (http:/ / www. abcgallery. com/ B/ burne-jones/ burnejones12. html) [23] Nordisk familjebok (http:/ / runeberg. org/ nfbt/ 0053. html). 1914. . [24] (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ media/ rm2439874048/ nm1144187) [25] No Land is an Urland- The Creation of the World of Dragonslayer by Danny Fingeroth from Dragonslayer- The Official Marvel Comics Adaptation of the Spectacular Paramount/Disney Motion Picture!, Marvel Super Special Vol.1, No. 20, published by Marvel Comics Group, 1981 [26] http:/ / www. crggallery. com/ artists/ butt-johnson/ [27] http:/ / www. buttjohnson. com/ drawings/ mario/ mario. html [28] The Historian [29] Vlad tepes [30] http:/ / www. bures-online. co. uk/ dragon/ worm. htm [31] http:/ / www. dedhamvalesociety. org. uk/ Files/ VillageWORMINGFORD. pdf

47

References
Loomis, C. Grant, 1949. White Magic, An Introduction to the Folklore of Christian Legend (Cambridge: Medieval Society of America) Whatley, E. Gordon, editor, with Anne B. Thompson and Robert K. Upchurch, 2004. St. George and the Dragon in the South English Legendary (East Midland Revision, c. 1400) Originally published in Saints' Lives in Middle English Collections ( on-line text: Introduction (http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/teams/whgeodintro. htm)). Catholic Encyclopedia, " Saint George (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06453a.htm)" (Kalamazoo, Michigan: Medieval Institute Publications) ( On-line Introduction (http://www.lib.rochester.edu/ camelot/teams/whgeodintro.htm))

External links
Saint George church in Dolinka (Hungarian: Inm) (http://www.dolinka.org/hu/telepules/egyhaz/ szent-gyorgy-templom.html) St George and the Dragon Felt Board Story (http://www.storyresources.com/product_details. php?category_id=106&item_id=309) from Felt Works (http://www.storyresources.co.nz) St George and the Dragon Events and Ideas - Official Website for Tourism in England (http://www. enjoyengland.com/attractions/events/calendar/april/st-george.aspx) St George Unofficial Bank Holiday (http://www.stgeorgesholiday.com/st_george.asp): St. George and the Dragon, free illustrated book based on 'The Seven Champions' by Richard Johnson (1596) St George's Bake and Brew (http://www.childrenssociety.org.uk/stgeorge) (http://rampartsilver.com/index.php?main_page=product_info&cPath=3&products_id=6): St. George 3 Ruble Coin

A Book of Dragons

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A Book of Dragons
A Book of Dragons
Author(s) Illustrator Cover artist Country Language Genre(s) Publisher Ruth Manning-Sanders Robin Jacques Robin Jacques United States English Fairy Tales E. P. Dutton

Publication date 1965 Media type Pages Print (hardcover) 128 pp

A Book of Dragons is a 1965 anthology of 14 fairy tales from around the world that have been collected and retold by Ruth Manning-Sanders. It is one in a long series of such anthologies by Manning-Sanders. In the foreword, Manning-Sanders states that "not all dragons want to gobble up princesses." She thus includes tales of kind and proud dragons, along with the savage ones. Also in the foreword, the author relates a condensed version of Saint George and the Dragon and concludes, "[Y]ou will not find St George and the Dragon among the stories in this book; because this is a book of fairy tales, and the story of St George belongs more properly to legend." This book was first published in the United Kingdom in 1964, by Methuen & Co. Ltd. Some of tales from this book are recollected in A Choice of Magic (1971) by Manning-Sanders. And some of tales from this book are recollected in Folk and Fairy Tales (1978) by Manning-Sanders.

Table of contents
1. Constantes and the Dragon (Greece) 2. Chien Tang (China) 3. Stan Bolovan (Romania) 4. My Lord Bag of Rice (Japan) 5. The Nine Doves (Greece) 6. The Yellow Dragon (China) 7. Pepito (Greece) 8. Yanni (Macedonia) 9. The Dragon and His Grandmother (Germany) 10. The Thirteenth Son of the King of Erin (Ireland) 11. Baskets in a Little Cart (China) 12. The Prince with the Golden Hand (Slav) 13. The Three Dogs (Germany) 14. The Dragon of the Well (Greece)

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Nga

A Hoysala sculpture of a Naga couple. Halebidu.

Sarpa Kavu at Sakthanthamburan palace, Thrissur

Vishnu resting on Ananta-Shesha, with consort Lakshmi.

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Naga stone worship at Hampi

Nag temple at Baba Dhansar, Reasi district, Jammu & Kashmir

Nga (Sanskrit: , IAST: ng, Burmese: , IPA:[n]; Javanese: ng, Khmer: neak, Thai: nak, Chinese: ) is the Sanskrit and Pli word for a deity or class of entity or being, taking the form of a very great snakespecifically the King Cobra, found in Hinduism and Buddhism. The use of the term nga is often ambiguous, as the word may also refer, in similar contexts, to one of several human tribes known as or nicknamed "Ngas"; to elephants; and to ordinary snakes, particularly the King Cobra and the Indian Cobra, the latter of which is still called ng in Hindi and other languages of India. A female nga is a ng or ngin.

Etymology
In Sanskrit, a ng () is a cobra, a specific type of snake (hooded snake). A synonym for ng is phain (). There are several words for "snake" in general, and one of the very commonly used ones is sarp (). Sometimes the word ng is also used generically to mean "snake".[1] [2] The word is cognate with English 'snake', Germanic: *snk-a-, Proto-IE: *(s)ng-o-.[3]

In the Mahabharata
In the great epic Mahabharata, the depiction of Nagas tends toward the negative, and they are portrayed as the deserving victims of the snake sacrifice and of predation by the eagle-king Garuda. The epic calls them "persecutors of all creatures", and tells us "the snakes were of virulent poison, great prowess and excess of strength, and ever bent on biting other creatures" (Book I: Adi Parva, Section 20). At the same time, nagas are important players in many of the events narrated in the epic, frequently no more evil nor deceitful than the other protagonists, and sometimes on the side of good. The epic frequently characterizes Nagas as having a mixture of human and serpent-like traits. Sometimes it characterizes them as having human traits at one time, and as having serpent-like traits at another. For example, the story of how the Naga prince Sesha came to hold the world on his head begins with a scene in which he appears as a dedicated human ascetic, "with knotted hair, clad in rags, and his flesh, skin, and sinews dried up owing to the hard penances he was practising." Brahma is pleased with Shesha, and entrusts him with the duty of carrying the world. At that point in the story, Shesha begins to exhibit the attributes of a serpent. He enters into a hole in the Earth and slithers all the way to bottom, where he then loads the Earth onto his head. (Book I: Adi Parva, Section 36.)

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Enmity with Garuda

The great nemesis of the Nagas in the Mahabharata is the gigantic eagle-king Garuda. Garuda and the Nagas began life as cousins. The sage Kasyapa had two wives, Kadru and Vinata, the former of whom desired many offspring, and the latter of whom desired few but powerful offspring. Each got her wish. Kadru laid 1000 eggs which hatched into snakes, and Vinata laid two, which hatched into the charioteer of Surya the sun god and Garuda. Through a foolish bet, Vinata became enslaved to her sister, and as a result Vinata's son Garuda was required to do the bidding of the snakes. Though compliant, he chafed and built up a grudge that he would never relinquish. When he asked the snakes what he would have to do in order to be released from his bondage, they told him he would have to bring them amrita, the elixir of immortality. Garuda stole the elixir from the gods and brought it to the serpents in fulfillment of their requirement, but through a ruse prevented them from partaking of it and achieving immortality. From that point onward, he regarded them as enemies and as food. (Book I: Adi Parva, Sections 16ff.)

The curse of Kadru

Kadru, the ancestral mother of snakes, made a bet with her sister Vinata, the stakes being that the loser would be enslaved to the winner. Eager to secure victory, Kadru requested the cooperation of her offspring in order to fix the bet so that Kadru would win. When her offspring balked at the request, Kadru grew angry and cursed them to die a fiery death in the snake-sacrifice of King Janamejaya, the son of Parikshit, who was the son of Abhimanyu the son of Arjuna. The king of the snakes Vasuki was aware of the curse, and knew that his brethren would need a hero to rescue them from it. He approached the renowned ascetic Jaratkaru with a proposal of marriage to a snake-goddess, Manasa, Vasuki's own sister. Out of the union of the ascetic and the snake-maiden was born "a son of the splendor of a celestial child." This son was named Astika, and he was to be the savior of the snakes. In accordance with Kadru's curse, Janamejaya prepared a snake sacrifice of a type described in the scriptures, the Puranas. He erected a sacrificial platform and hired priests and other professionals needed for the rites. Following the proper form, the priests lit the sacrificial fire, duly fed it with clarified butter, uttered the required mantras, and began calling the names of snakes. The power of the rite was such that the named snakes were summoned to the fire and were consumed by it. As the sacrifice took on genocidal proportions, Astika came to the rescue. He approached Janamejaya and praised the sacrifice in such eloquent terms that the king offered to grant him a boon of his choosing. Astika promptly requested that the sacrifice be terminated. Though initially regretful of his offer, Janamejaya was true to his word, and the sacrifice came to an end. (Book I: Adi Parva, Sections 13-58.)

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Other mentions in the Mahabharata

The serpent king Vasuki helped the gods to recover amrita, the elixir of immortality, from the Ocean of Milk by serving as the cord they wrapped around Mount Mandara in order to churn up the depths of the ocean. (Book I: Adi Parva, Section 18.) The naga princess Ulupi had a son Iravat by the Pandava hero Arjuna. (Book I: Adi Parva, Section 216.) Though he had the support of many nagas, Iravat was eventually slain by the Rakshasa Alamvusha at the battle of Kurukshetra. (Book VI: Bhishma Parva, Section 91.) Matali, the charioteer of the god Indra, sought a husband for his daughter Gunakesi. He approached the naga Aryaka and proposed the marriage of Gunakesi with the naga's handsome grandson Sumukha. Alas, Aryaka replied, Garuda had already declared his intent to devour the comely youth, having previously murdered his father. Matali, however, persuaded Indra and Vishnu to give A naga guarding the Temple of Wat Sisaket in Sumukha a draught of amrita, the elixir of immortality. Sumukha Vientiane, Laos drank the potion, and thus was rendered impervious to any assault by the lord of the birds. The young couple were happily married. (Book V: Udyoga Parva, Section 103.)

In Hinduism
Compare with Tiamat and Apsu. Stories involving the ngas are still very much a part of contemporary cultural traditions in predominantly Hindu regions of Asia (India, Nepal, and the island of Bali). In India, ngas are considered nature spirits and the protectors of springs, wells and rivers. They bring rain, and thus fertility, but are also thought to bring disasters such as floods and drought. According to traditions ngas are only malevolent to humans when they have been mistreated. They are susceptible to mankind's disrespectful actions in relation to the environment. They are also associated with watersrivers, lakes, seas, and wellsand are generally regarded as guardians of treasure. According to Beer (1999), Naga and cintamani are often depicted together and associated directly in the literature. They are objects of great reverence in some parts of southern India where it is believed that they bring fertility and prosperity to their venerators. Expensive and grand rituals like Nagamandala[4] are conducted in their honor (see Nagaradhane). In India, certain communities called Nagavanshi consider themselves descendants of Nagas.

An open-air Lingam(symbol of god Shiva) from Lepakshi sheltered by a naga

Varuna, the Vedic god of storms, is viewed as the King of the ngas. Ngas live in Ptla, the seventh of the "nether" dimensions or realms.[5] They are children of Kashyapa and Kadru. Among the prominent ngas of Hinduism are Manasa, Sesha, and Vasuki.

Nga The ngas also carry the elixir of life and immortality. Garuda once brought it to them and put a cup with elixir on the ground but it was taken away by Indra. However, few drops remained on the grass. The ngas licked up the drops, but in doing so, cut their tongues on the grass, and since then their tongues have been forked.[6] Vishnu is originally portrayed in the form sheltered by a Shesha naga or reclining on Shesha, but the iconography has been extended to other deities as well. The serpent is a common feature in Ganesha iconography and appears in many forms: around the neck,[7] use as a sacred thread (Sanskrit: yajyopavta)[8] wrapped around the stomach as a belt, held in a hand, coiled at the ankles, or as a throne.[9] Shiva is often shown garlanded with a snake.[10] Nagas are also snakes that may take human form. They tend to be very curious. Maehle (2007: p.?) affirms that according to tradition, Patajali is held to be an incarnation of di S'esha.

53

Patanjali as Adi-Sesha

In Buddhism
Traditions about ngas are also very common in all the Buddhist countries of Asia. In many countries, the nga concept has been merged with local traditions of great and wise serpents or dragons. In Tibet, the nga was equated with the klu, wits that dwell in lakes or underground streams and guard treasure. In China, the nga was equated with the lng or Chinese dragon. The Buddhist nga generally has the form of a great cobra-like snake, usually with a single head but sometimes with many. At least some of the ngas are capable of using magic powers to transform themselves into a human semblance. In Buddhist painting, the nga is sometimes Mucalinda sheltering Gautama Buddha at Wat Phrathat Doi Suthep in Chiang Mai, Thailand portrayed as a human being with a snake or dragon extending over his head. One nga, in human form, attempted to become a monk; when telling it that such ordination was impossible, the Buddha told it how to ensure that it would be reborn a man, able to become a monk.

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Ngas are believed to both live on Mount Sumeru, among the other minor deities, and in various parts of the human-inhabited earth. Some of them are water-dwellers, living in streams or the mer; others are earth-dwellers, living in underground caverns. The ngas are the servants of Virpka (Pli: Virpakkha), one of the Four Heavenly Kings who guards the western direction. They act as a guard upon Mount Sumeru, protecting the devas of Tryastria from attack by the Asuras.

Gigantic naga protecting Buddha amongst the

other sculptures of Bunleua Sulilat's Sala Keoku. Among the notable ngas of Buddhist tradition is Mucalinda, protector of the Buddha. In the Vajrayana and Mahasiddha traditions according to Beer (1999), many notable fully enlightened nagas also transmitted and/or transported terma into and out of the human realm that had been elementally encoded by adepts.

Norbu (1999: p.?) states that according to tradition the Prajnaparamita terma teachings are held to have been conferred upon Nagarjuna by Nagaraja, the King of the nagas, who had been guarding them at the bottom of a lake. Refer Lotus Sutra.

Other traditions
For Malay sailors, ngas are a type of dragon with many heads; in Thailand and Java, the nga is a wealthy underworld deity. In Laos they are beaked water serpents. Phaya Naga, Water Dragon, is a well-known dragon in Thailand. People in Thailand see it as a holy creature and worship it in the temple. It allegedly lives in Mekong river.

In Lake Chinni
In Malay and Orang Asli traditions, the lake Chinni, located in Pahang is home to a naga called Sri Gumum. Depending on legend versions, her predecessor Sri Pahang or her son left the lake and later fought a naga called Sri Kemboja. Kemboja is the former name of what is Cambodia. Like the naga legends there, there are stories about an ancient empire in lake Chinni, although the stories are not linked to the naga legends.[11] [12]

A naga at the steps of a building in the Wat Phra Kaew in Bangkok

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In Cambodia
In a Cambodian legend, the nga were a reptilian race of beings who possessed a large empire or kingdom in the Pacific Ocean region. See Kaliya. The Nga King's daughter married an Indian Brahmana named Kaundinya, and from their union sprang the Cambodian people. Therefore still Cambodians say that they are "Born from the Nga". The Seven-Headed Nga serpents depicted as statues on Cambodian temples, such as Angkor Wat, apparently represent the seven races within Nga society, which has a mythological, or symbolic, association with "the seven colors of the rainbow". Furthermore, Cambodian Nga possess numerological symbolism in the number of their heads. Odd-headed Nga symbolise the Male Energy, Infinity, Timelessness, and Immortality. This is because, numerologically, all odd numbers come from One (1). Even-headed Nga are said to be "Female, representing Physicality, Mortality, Temporality, and the Earth."

Cambodian Naga at the Royal Palace in Phnom Penh

In the Mekong
The legend of the Nga is a strong and sacred belief held by Thai and Lao people living along the Mekong River. Many pay their respects to the river because they believe the Nga still rule in it, and locals hold an annual sacrifice for the Nga. Each ceremony depends on how each village earns its living from the Mekong River for instance, through fishing or transport. Local residents believe that the Nga can protect them from danger, so they are likely to make a sacrifice to Nga before taking a boat trip along the Mekong River. Also, every year on the night of 15th day of 11th month in the Lao lunar calendar at the end of Vassa, an unusual phenomenon occurs in the area of the Mekong River stretching over 20 kilometres between Pak-Ngeum and Phonephisai districts in Nong Khai province, Thailand. Fireballs appear to rise from the river into the nighttime sky. Local villagers believe that Nga under Mekong River shoot the fireballs into the air to celebrate the end of Vassa, because Nga meditate during this time.[13]
Naga emerging from the mouth of a Makara in the style of a Chinese dragon

A photograph on display in bars, restaurants, guesthouses, and markets around Thailand captioned, Queen of Nagas seized by American Army at Mekhong River, Laos Military Base on June 27, 1973 with the length of 7.80 meters is a hoax. The photograph is actually that taken by USN LT DeeDee Van Wormer, of an oarfish found in late 1996 by US Navy SEAL trainees on the coast of Coronado, California.[14] [15]

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In 2000, Richard Freeman from the Centre for Fortean Zoology visited the area and talked with witnesses who claimed to have seen gigantic snakes far larger than any python. The general description was of a 60 foot serpent with black scales that had a greenish sheen. Freeman speculated that the nga legend was based on a real animal, possibly a giant madtsoiid snake.[16]

In popular culture
Several Bollywood films have been made on the theme of Nagin (female nga), including Nagin (1954 film), Nagin (1976 film), Nagina (1986 film), Jaani Dushman: Ek Anokhi Kahani(2002), Hisss (2010 film) and the television series Naaginn (2007-9).

Nagayon Paya ( means Dragon-roofed-Buddha ) at Monywa, Myanmar

In the Harry Potter book series, the pet snake of Voldemort is named Nagini, which as stated above is a female naga. The snake in the book is referred to as a female. The popular MMORPG World of Warcraft features an aggressive race of aquatic snake-people called Naga. They were once elves who, in the distant past, brought about events that resulted in a world-wide disaster. They became trapped in the ocean as a consequence. Their queen made a pact with a mysterious god-like being in exchange for survival; they were then transformed into humanoid serpents. They are generally regarded as evil. In Legend of the Five Rings, there was an ancient civilization called Naga who had human torsos with serpent-like tails and sharing feeling through the Akasha. In decline, they created the Great Sleep (a sort of hibernation) in order to fight what they call the Foul - the Taint of the Shadowlands - in a distant future. They woke from the Great Sleep in order to help the Emerald Empire in a war against they common enemy.[17] The video game Chrono Trigger features an enemy creature called a Naga or Naga-ette with the upper half of a humanoid female and the lower half is serpentine.

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Well-known ngas
Ananta-Sesha, ("Limitless-Eternal") the world serpent with a thousand heads.[18] Balarama, origin of Ananta-Sesha.[19] Karkotaka controls weather. Mucalinda protects the Buddha. Padmavati, the Ng queen & companion of Dharanendra. Paravataksha, his sword causes earthquakes and his roar caused thunder. Takshaka, king of the Ngas. Ulupi, a companion of Arjuna in the epic Mahabharata. Vasuki, king of the Nagas who helped the devas recover amrita from the Ocean of Milk. Manasa, the Hindu goddess of Nagas and curer of snake-bite and sister of Vasuki Kaliya, a snake conquered by Krishna Naga is also present in the Kapampangan polytheistic beliefs, see Deities of Philippine Mythology

Where nga live

Patala (or Nagaloka), the seventh of the "nether" dimensions or realms, Bhoga-vat being its capital.[20] Lake Manosarowar, lake of the Great Ngas. Mount Sumeru

Lord Krishna dancing on the serpent Kaliya; while the serpent's wives pray to Krishna

Nagaland in India Kacha Naga/Duplicate Naga, the Naga tribes outside Nagaland. Naggar, village in the Himalayas, Tibet, that derives its name from Naga (Cobra). Nagpur, Indian city derived from Ngapuram, literally "city of ngas". Pacific Ocean (Cambodian myth) Sheshna's well in Benares, India, said to be an entrance to Patala. Nagadaa, where naag-yaGYa was performed. Mekong river Anantnag, Indian city (Kashmir) named after one of 12 prominent divine naga king mentioned in Bhavishyapuran. Takshila, an ancient place in Pakistan named after one of 12 prominent divine naga king in Bhavishyapuran.

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Notes
[1] For the specific terminology for cobra see p. 432, Vaman Shivram Apte, The Student's English-Sanskrit Dictionary (Motilal Banarsidass: 2002 reprint edition) ISBN 81-208-0299-3. [2] Vaman Shivram Apte. A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary. p. 539. The first definition of nga given reads "A snake in general, particularly the cobra." [3] Proto-IE: *(s)ng-o-, Meaning: snake, Old Indian: ng- m. 'snake', Germanic: *snk-a- m., *snak-an- m., *snak- f.; *snak-a- vb. http:/ / starling. rinet. ru/ cgi-bin/ response. cgi?single=1& basename=/ data/ ie/ piet& text_number=2649& root=config [4] http:/ / www. udupipages. com/ home/ temple/ naga. html [5] Patala (http:/ / www. mythfolklore. net/ india/ encyclopedia/ patala. htm) [6] Mahbhrata 1.30.20, Sanskrit: http:/ / sacred-texts. com/ hin/ mbs/ mbs01030. htm, English: http:/ / sacred-texts. com/ hin/ m01/ m01035. htm [7] For the story of wrapping Vsuki around the neck and ea around the belly and for the name in his sahasranama as Sarpagraiveyakgda ("Who has a serpent around his neck"), which refers to this standard iconographic element, see: Krishan, Yuvraj (1999), Gaea: Unravelling An Enigma, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 81-208-1413-4 pp=51-52. [8] For text of a stone inscription dated 1470 identifying Ganesha's sacred thread as the serpent ea, see: Martin-Dubost, p. 202. [9] For an overview of snake images in Ganesha iconography, see: Martin-Dubost, Paul (1997). Gaea: The Enchanter of the Three Worlds. Mumbai: Project for Indian Cultural Studies. ISBN 81-900184-3-4. , p. 202. [10] Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-43878-0. ; p. 151 [11] http:/ / www. nici. ru. nl/ ~peterh/ srigumum/ doc/ stories. html [12] http:/ / www. journeymalaysia. com/ ML_chini. htm [13] Bang Fai Phaya Nark (Naga fireballs) (http:/ / www. thaifolk. com/ doc/ literate/ payanak/ payanak_e. htm) [14] Ranges, Trevor (2002 2006). "A Big Fish Tale" (http:/ / www. thailandroad. com/ trevor/ naga. html). thailandroad.com. pp. 2. . "We were on our morning physical fitness run when we came across this huge fish lying on the sand." [15] "SEALs and a serpent of the sea" (http:/ / www. navy. mil/ media/ allhands/ acrobat/ ah199704. pdf) (PDF). ALL HANDS. Naval Media Center. April 1997. pp. 2021. . "The silvery serpent of the sea an oarfish was discovered last year by Basic Underwater Demolition/SEAL (BUD/S) Instructor Signalman 2nd Class (SEAL) Kevin Blake." [16] "In the coils of the Naga," ForteanTimes, January 2003 (http:/ / www. forteantimes. com/ features/ articles/ 221/ in_the_coils_of_the_naga. html) [17] "Legend of the Five Rings : Enemies of the Empire" Source book from the 4th Edition, p. 69. [18] Bhgavata Pura 3.26.25 [19] Bhgavata Pura 10.1.24 [20] Bhgavata Pura 1.11.11

References
Beer, Robert (1999). The Encyclopedia of Tibetan Symbols and Motifs (Hardcover). Shambhala. ISBN 157062416X, ISBN 978-1570624162 Claudia Mller-Ebeling, Claudia and Christian Rtsch and Surendra Bahadur Shahi (2002). Shamanism and Tantra in the Himalayas. Transl. by Annabel Lee. Rochester, Vt.: Inner Traditions. Maehle, Gregor (2007). Ashtanga Yoga: Practice and Philosophy (Paperback). New World Library. ISBN 1577316061 & ISBN 978-1577316060 Norbu, Chgyal Namkhai (1999). The Crystal and The Way of Light: Sutra, Tantra and Dzogchen. Snow Lion Publications. ISBN 1-55939-135-9

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External links
Nagas in the Pali Canon (http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/n/nagaa.htm) Nagas (http://www.khandro.net/mysterious_naga.htm) Image of a Seven-Headed Naga (http://www.btinternet.com/~andy.brouwer/be2.jpg) Nagas and Serpents (http://www.reptilianagenda.com/research/r073101a.shtml) Depictions of Nagas (http://angkorblog.com/_wsn/page16.html) in the area of Angkor Wat in Cambodia

Japanese dragon
Japanese dragons are diverse legendary creatures in Japanese mythology and folklore. Japanese dragon myths amalgamate native legends with imported stories about dragons from China, Korea and India. The style of the dragon was heavily influenced by the Chinese dragon. Like these other Asian dragons, most Japanese ones are water deities associated with rainfall and bodies of water, and are typically depicted as large, wingless, serpentine creatures with clawed feet. The modern Japanese language has numerous "dragon" words, including indigenous tatsu from Old Japanese ta-tu, Sino-Japanese ry or ry from Chinese lng , nga from Sanskrit nga, and doragon from English dragon.
Dragon, by Hokusai.

Indigenous Japanese dragons

The ca. 680 CE Kojiki and the ca. 720 CE Nihongi mytho-histories have the first Japanese textual references to dragons. "In the oldest annals the dragons are mentioned in various ways," explains de Visser (1913:135), "but mostly as water-gods, serpent- or dragon-shaped." The Kojiki and Nihongi mention several ancient dragons: Yamata no Orochi "8-branched giant snake" was an 8-headed and 8-tailed dragon slain by the god of wind and sea Susanoo, who discovered the Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi (legendary sword of the Imperial Regalia of Japan) in one of its tails. Watatsumi "sea god" or Ryjin "dragon god" was the ruler of seas and oceans, and described as a dragon capable of changing into human form. He lived in the undersea Ryg-j "dragon palace castle", where he kept the magical tide jewels. Toyotama-hime "Luminous Pearl Princess" was Ryjin's daughter. She purportedly was an ancestress of Emperor Jimmu, Japan's legendary first emperor. Wani was a sea monster that is translated as both "shark" and "crocodile". Kuma-wani "bear (i.e., giant or strong) shark/crocodile" are mentioned in two ancient legends. One says the sea god Kotoshiro-nushi-no-kami transformed into an "8-fathom kuma-wani" and fathered Toyotama-hime, the other says a kuma-wani piloted the ships of Emperor Chai and his Empress Jing. Mizuchi or was a river dragon and water deity. The Nihongi records legendary Emperor Nintoku offering human sacrifices to mizuchi angered by his river engineering projects. These myths about Emperor Jimmu descending from Toyatama-hime evidence the folklore that Japanese Emperors are descendants of dragons. Compare the ancient Chinese tradition of dragons symbolizing the Emperor of China. Dragons in later Japanese folklore were influenced by Chinese and Indian myths. Kiyohime "Purity Princess" was a teahouse waitress who fell in love with a young Buddhist priest. After he spurned her, she studied magic, transformed into a dragon, and killed him.

Japanese dragon Nure-onna "Wet Woman" was a dragon with a snake's body and a woman's head. She was typically seen while washing her hair on a riverbank and would sometimes kill humans when angered. Zennyo Ry "goodness-like dragon king" was a rain-god depicted either as a dragon with a snake on its head or as a human with a snake's tail. In My Lord Bag of Rice, the Ry "dragon king" of Lake Biwa asks the hero Tawara Tda to kill a giant centipede. Urashima Tar rescued a turtle which took him to Ryg-j and turned into the attractive daughter of the ocean god Ryjin. Inari, the god of fertility and agriculture, was sometimes depicted as a dragon or snake instead of a fox.

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Sino-Japanese dragons
Chinese dragon mythology is central to Japanese dragons. Japanese words for "dragon" are written with kanji "Chinese characters", either simplified shinjitai or traditional kyjitai from Chinese long . These kanji can be read tatsu in native Japanese kun'yomi and ry or ry in Sino-Japanese on'yomi. Many Japanese dragon names are loanwords from Chinese. For instance, the Japanese counterparts of the astrological Four Symbols are: Seiry < Qinglong "Azure Dragon" Suzaku < Zhuque "Vermilion Bird" Byakko < Baihu "White Tiger" Genbu < Xuanwu "Black Tortoise"

Japanese Shiry "4 dragon [kings]" are the legendary Chinese Longwang "Dragon Kings" who rule the four seas. Gk < Aoguang "Dragon King of the East Sea" Gkin < Aoqin "Dragon King of the South Sea" Gjun < Aorun "Dragon King of the West Sea" Gjun < Aoshun "Dragon King of the North Sea"

Some authors differentiate Japanese ry and Chinese long dragons by the number of claws on their feet. "In Japan," writes Gould (1896:248), "it is invariably figured as possessing three claws, whereas in China it has four or five, according as it is an ordinary or an Imperial emblem." During World War II, the Japanese military named many armaments after Chinese dragons. The Kry < jiaolong "flood dragon" was a midget submarine and the Shinry < shenlong "spirit dragon" was a rocket kamikaze aircraft. An Imperial Japanese Army division, the 56th Division, was codenamed the Dragon Division. The Dragon Division was annihilated in the Chinese town of Longling, in Chinese meaning Dragon's Tomb.

Indo-Japanese dragons
When Buddhist monks from other parts of Asia brought their faith to Japan they transmitted dragon and snake legends from Buddhist and Hindu mythology. The most notable examples are the nga or "Nga; rain deity; protector of Buddhism" and the ngarja or Ngaraja; snake king; dragon king". De Visser (1913:179) notes that many Japanese nga legends have Chinese features. "This is quite clear, for it was via China that all the Indian tales came to Japan. Moreover, many originally Japanese dragons, to which Chinese legends were applied, were afterwards identified with nga, so that a blending of ideas was the result." For instance, the undersea palace where nga kings supposedly live is called Japanese ryg "dragon palace" from Chinese longgong . Compare ryg-j "dragon palace castle", which was the sea-god Ryjin's undersea residence. Japanese legends about the sea-god's tide jewels, which controlled the ebb and flow of tides, have

Japanese dragon parallels in Indian legends about the nga's nyoi-ju "cintamani; wish-fulfilling jewels". Some additional examples of Buddhistic Japanese dragons are: Hachidai ry "8 great naga kings" assembled to hear the Buddha expound on the Lotus Sutra, and are a common artistic motif. Mucharinda "Mucalinda" was the Nga king who protected the Buddha when he achieved bodhi, and is frequently represented as a giant cobra. Benzaiten is the Japanese name of the goddess Saraswati, who killed a 3-headed Vritra serpent or dragon in the Rigveda. According to the Enoshima Engi, Benzaiten created Enoshima Island in 552 CE in order to thwart a 5-headed dragon that had been harassing people. Kuzury "9-headed dragon", deriving from the multi-headed Naga king or "Shesha", is worshipped at Togakushi Shrine in Nagano Prefecture.

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Dragon temples
Dragon lore is traditionally associated with Buddhist temples. Myths about dragons living in ponds and lakes near temples are widespread. De Visser (1913:181-184) lists accounts for Shitenn-ji in Osaka, Gogen Temple in Hakone, Kanagawa, and the shrine on Mount Haku where the Genpei Jsuiki records that a Zen priest saw a 9-headed dragon transform into the goddess Kannon. In the present day, the Lake Saiko Dragon Shrine at Fujiyoshida, Yamanashi has an annual festival and fireworks show. Temple names, like Japanese toponyms, frequently involve dragons. For instance, the Rinzai sect has Tenry-ji "Heavenly Dragon Temple", Rytaku-ji "Dragon Swamp Temple", Ryan-ji "Dragon Peace Temple". According to legend (de Visser 1913:180), when the Hk-ji or Asuka-dera Buddhist temple was dedicated at Nara in 596, "a purple cloud descended from the sky and covered the pagoda as well as the Buddha hall; then the cloud became five-coloured and assumed the shape of a dragon or phoenix". The Kinry-no-Mai "Golden Dragon Dance" is an annual Japanese dragon dance performed at Sens-ji, a Buddhist temple in Asakusa. The dragon dancers twist and turn within the temple grounds and outside on the streets. According to legend, the Sens Temple was founded in 628 after two fishermen found a gold statuette of Kannon in the Sumida River, at which time golden dragons purportedly ascended into heaven. The Golden Dragon Dance celebrates the temple founding and allegedly provides good fortune and prosperity.

Images

Kiyohime changes from a Serpent, by Yoshitoshi Tsukioka

Susanoo slaying the Yamata no Orochi, by Kuniteru

The ama diver Princess Tamatori steals the Dragon King's jewel, by Utagawa Kuniyoshi

The Dragon King's daughter, by Utagawa Kuniyoshi

Japanese dragon

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The Buddha riding a sea-dragon, by Kunisada.

Sea-dragon, by Utagawa Kuniyoshi

Japanese Dragon fountain in Hakone

Dragon shrines
Japanese dragons are associated with Shinto shrines as well as Buddhist temples. Itsukushima Shrine on Miyajima or Itsukushima Island in Japan's Inland Sea was believed to be the abode of the sea-god Ryjin's daughter. According to the Gukansh and The Tale of Heike (Heinrich 1997:74-75), the sea-dragon empowered Emperor Antoku to ascend the throne because his father Taira no Kiyomori offered prayers at Itsukushima and declared it his ancestral shrine. When Antoku drowned himself after being defeated in the 1185 Battle of Dan-no-ura, he lost the imperial Kusanagi sword (which legendarily came from the tail of the Yamata no Orochi] dragon) back into the sea. In another version, divers found the sword, and it is said to be preserved at Atsuta Shrine. The great earthquake of 1185 was attributed to vengeful Heike spirits, specifically the dragon powers of Antoku. Ryjin shink "dragon god faith" is a form of Shinto religious belief that worships dragons as water kami. It is connected with agricultural rituals, rain prayers, and the success of fisherman.
Japanese Dragon shrine in Fujiyoshida.

Dragons in modern culture

Dragons are a familiar motif in Japanese art and architecture, literature, and popular culture. Some alphabetically arranged examples include: Chunichi Dragons are a professional baseball team. Dragon Ball is a manga and anime metaseries. Dragon Quest is a popular videogame series. Kamen Rider Ryuki (English Kamen Rider Dragon Knight) is a show in the Kamen Rider Series. Long is the main villain of the Gekiranger Super Sentai series, americanized in Power Rangers: Jungle Fury as Dai Shi and Scorch. King Ghidorah is a three-headed golden dragon that has taken many forms in the kaiju films, specifically in the Godzilla series. Manda is a dragon in kaiju films. Nsu is a dragon robot in the Ultraman series.

Japanese dragon "Ry " or "Dragon: the Old Potter's Tale" is a short story by Rynosuke Akutagawa Haku/Kohaku from the film Spirited Away is a river spirit whose true form is that of a white dragon.

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Emperor Antoku's grandmother rescuing him from a dragon, by Yoshitsuya Ichieisai.

Natsu, the main character of the anime/mang series Fairy Tail was raised by a Dragon, and can use fire for attacks. Breath of Fire IV shows a tale of Ryu and Fou-Lu being able to transform into ancient dragons. In Touhou, a dragon is said to be the highest-order god of Gensokyo. Based from Perfect Memento that he lived anywhere and he looks like a serpent with hands and horns. In Monster Hunter Portable 3rd Amatsumagatsuchi the elder dragon of Sacred Mountain also loosely based on Japanese dragon with three claws and It possess the ability to manipulate storms and wind.

Other Asian dragons

Chinese dragon Druk Korean dragon Nga Vietnamese dragon

Japanese dragon

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References Further reading

Aston, William George, tr. 1896. Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697 (http://www.sacred-texts. com/shi/nihon0.htm). 2 vols. Kegan Paul. 1972 Chamberlain, Basil H., tr. 1919. The Kojiki, Records of Ancient Matters (http://www.sacred-texts.com/shi/kj/index.htm). Gould, Charles. 1896. Mythical Monsters" (http://books.google. com/books?id=YKEAAAAAMAAJ&dq=mythical+monsters). W. H. Allen & Co. Heinrich, Amy Vladeck. 1997. Currents in Japanese Culture: Translations and Transformations. Columbia University Press. Ingersoll, Ernest. 1928. " Chapter Nine: The Dragon in Japanese Art (http://www.sacred-texts.com/etc/ddl/ddl11.htm)", in Dragons and Dragon Lore, Payson & Clarke. Smith, G. Elliot. 1919. The Evolution of the Dragon (http://fax. libs.uga.edu/BL313xS648/#). Longmans, Green & Company. Visser, Marinus Willern de. 1913. The Dragon in China and Japan (http://fax.libs.uga.edu/GR830xD7xV8/#). J. Mller.
A dragon ascends towards the heavens with Mount Fuji in the background in this 1897 ukiyo-e print from Ogata Gekk's Views of Mount Fuji.

External links

Dragons, Dragon Art, and Dragon Lore in Japan (http://www. onmarkproductions.com/html/dragon.shtml), A to Z Photo Dictionary of Japanese Buddhism Dragons of Fame: Japan (http://www.blackdrago.com/famous_japanese.htm), The Circle of the Dragon The Japanese Dragon (http://www.dragonorama.com/oriental/japanese.html), Dragonorama Ryjin shink (http://eos.kokugakuin.ac.jp/modules/xwords/entry.php?entryID=795), Encyclopedia of Shinto The Azure Dragon of the East (http://www2.gol.com/users/stever/spring.htm), Steve Renshaw and Saori Ihara Ryuu (http://www.aisf.or.jp/~jaanus/deta/r/ryuu.htm), Japanese Architecture & Art Net User System Lucky Motifs on a Dragon Robe (http://www.kyohaku.go.jp/eng/dictio/data/senshoku/c_ryuho.htm), Kyoto National Museum Japanese Dragon Tattoos (http://www.freetattoodesigns.org/dragon-tattoos.html#japanese), The Japanese dragon in tattoo art

China

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China
China

TraditionalChinese: SimplifiedChinese:

Transliterations Kejia (Hakka) - Romanization: Chng-koet

Mandarin - HanyuPinyin: - Wade-Giles: - Bopomofo Zhnggu Chung-kuo Listen Min - HokkienPOJ: Tiong-kok

- Min DongBUC: Dng-guk Wu - Romanization: tson koh

Yue (Cantonese) - Jyutping: zung gwok

China (/En-us-China.oggtan/) is seen variously as an ancient civilization extending over a large area in East Asia, a nation and/or a multinational entity. With nearly 4,000 years of continuous history, China is one of the world's oldest civilizations.[1] [2] [3] Prior to the 19th century, it possessed an advanced economy; but successive dynasties missed the Industrial Revolution that occurred in Europe and China began to decline.[4] [5] In the 19th and 20th century, European and Japanese imperialism, internal weakness and civil war damaged the country and its economy, and led to the overthrow of imperial rule. In 1949, after major combat in the Chinese Civil War had ended, two states calling themselves "China" emerged: The People's Republic of China (PRC), established in 1949, commonly known as China, has control over mainland China and the largely self-governing territories of Hong Kong (since 1997) and Macau (since 1999). The Republic of China (ROC) established in 1912 in mainland China, now commonly known as Taiwan, has control over the islands of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu, the Pratas island group, and a few other outlying islands.

China In the 1950s, change to economic policies in Taiwan transformed the island into a technology-oriented industrialized developed economy after a period of high growth rates and rapid industrialization. Meanwhile, mainland China, under Mao's rule, remained underdeveloped and striken with famines, natural disasters and disastrous CPC-led political campaigns that caused millions of deaths. In the 1970s, reforms led by Deng Xiaoping, known as the Four Modernizations, improved agriculture, industry, technology and defense, raising living standards and making the PRC one of the great powers.[6] [7] [8] By 2011 challenges included the growing divide between rich and poor and environmental degradation. Historically, the cultural sphere of China has extended across East Asia as a whole, with Chinese religion, customs, and writing systems being adopted to varying degrees by neighbors such as Japan, Korea and Vietnam. Through its history, China was the source of many major inventions.[9] It has also one of the world's oldest written language systems. The first evidence of human presence in the region was found at the Zhoukoudian cave. It is one of the earliest known specimens of Homo erectus, now commonly known as the Peking Man, estimated to have lived from 300,000 to 780,000 years ago.[10] [11] [12]

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Etymology
English names
The word "China" is derived from Cin ( ,)a Persian name for China popularized in Europe by Marco Polo.[13] [14] The first recorded use in English dates from 1555.[15] In early usage, "china" as a term for porcelain was spelled differently from the name of the country, the two words being derived from separate Persian words.[16] Both these words are derived from the Sanskrit word Cna (),[16] used as a name for China as early as AD 150.[17]
The traditional (top) and simplified (bottom)

There are various scholarly theories regarding the origin of this word. characters for "China" in Chinese. The first character means "middle" or "center", and the The traditional theory, proposed in the 17th century by Martino second character means "country" or "state." Martini, is that "China" is derived from "Qin" (, pronounced chin), the westernmost of the Chinese kingdoms during the Zhou Dynasty, or from the succeeding Qin Dynasty (221 206 BC).[18] In the Hindu scriptures Mahbhrata (5th century BC)[19] and Manusmti (Laws of Manu) (2nd century BC), the Sanskrit word Cna () is used to refer to a country located in the Tibeto-Burman borderlands east of India.[20] Another theory is that this word is derived from Yelang, an ancient kingdom in what is now Guizhou whose inhabitants referred to themselves as 'Zina'.[21]

Chinese names
The official name of China changed with each dynasty or with each new government, the imperial governments referred to themselves as the Empire of the Great Qing, Empire of the Great Ming, etc. However, the common name remained as Zhnggu (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: , Mandarin pronunciation:[tkw]) through dynastic changes. This translates traditionally as "the central Kingdom", or as "the middle country". The name Zhnggu first appeared in the Classic of History (6th century BC), and was used to refer to the late Zhou Dynasty, as they believed that they were the "center of civilization,"[22] while peoples in the four cardinals were called Eastern Yi, Southern Man, Western Rong and Northern Di respectively. Some texts imply that "Zhnggu" was originally meant to refer to the capital of the sovereign, to differ from the capital of his vassals.[23] The use of "Zhnggu" implied a claim of political legitimacy, and "Zhnggu" was often used by states who saw themselves as the sole legitimate successor to previous Chinese dynasties; for example, in the era of the Southern Song Dynasty, both the Jin Dynasty and the Southern Song state claimed to be "Zhnggu."[24]

China Zhnggu was used as a common name for the Republic of China (Zhonghua Minguo) after its establishment in 1912. After the Communists took over control of mainland China in 1949, they established the People's Republic of China (PRC). After the ROC's loss of the UN "China" seat in 1971, the PRC gained the ability to be the "representative" of "China" under the One-China policy and as a result is now commonly known as "China" or "Zhnggu" in Chinese. The Republic of China nowadays is commonly known as "Taiwan".[25]

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History
Ancient China was one of the earliest centers of human civilization. Chinese civilization was also one of the few to invent writing,[9] the others being Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley Civilization, the Maya and other Mesoamerican civilizations, the Minoan civilization of ancient Greece, and Ancient Egypt.[26]

Prehistory
Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest hominids in China date from 250,000 to 2.24 million years ago.[27] [28] A cave in Zhoukoudian (near present-day Beijing) has fossils dated at somewhere between 300,000 to 780,000 years.[10] [11] [12] The fossils are of Peking Man, an example of Homo erectus who used fire. The earliest evidence of a fully modern human in China comes from Liujiang County, Guangxi, where a cranium has been found and dated at approximately 67,000 years old. Controversy persists over the dating of the Liujiang remains (a partial skeleton from Minatogawa in Okinawa).[29] [30]

Dynastic rule
Chinese tradition names the first dynasty Xia, but it was considered mythical until scientific excavations found early Bronze Age sites at Erlitou in Henan Province in 1959.[31] Archaeologists have since uncovered urban sites, bronze implements, and tombs in locations cited as Xia's in ancient historical texts, but it is impossible to verify that these remains are of the Xia without written records from the period.

Jade deer ornament made during the first historical Chinese dynasty, the Shang, 17th to 11th Century BC.

Some of the thousands of life-size Terracotta Warriors of the Qin Dynasty, ca. 210 BC.

The first Chinese dynasty that left historical records, the loosely feudal Shang (Yin), settled along the Yellow River in eastern China from the 17th to the 11th century BC. The Oracle bone script of the Shang Dynasty represent the oldest forms of Chinese writing found and the direct ancestor of modern Chinese characters used throughout East Asia. The Shang were invaded from the west by the Zhou, who ruled from the 12th to the 5th century BC, until their centralized authority was slowly eroded by feudal warlords. Many independent states eventually emerged out of the weakened Zhou state, and continually waged war with each other in the Spring and Autumn Period, only occasionally deferring to the Zhou king. By the time of the Warring States Period, there were seven powerful sovereign states, each with its

own king, ministry and army.

China The first unified Chinese state was established by Qin Shi Huang of the Qin state in 221 BC, who proclaimed himself as the "First Emperor" and created many reforms in the Empire, notably the forced standardization of the Chinese language and measurements. The Qin Dynasty lasted only fifteen years, as its harsh legalist and authoritarian policies soon led to widespread rebellion. The subsequent Han Dynasty ruled China between 206 BC and 220 AD, and created a lasting Han cultural identity among its populace that extends to the present day. The Han Dynasty expanded the empire's territory considerably with military campaigns reaching Korea, Vietnam, Mongolia and Central Asia, and also helped establish the Silk Road in Central Asia. After Han's collapse, another period of disunion followed, including the highly chivalric period of the Three Kingdoms. Independent Chinese states of this period such as Wu opened diplomatic relations with Japan, introducing the Chinese writing system there. In 580 AD, China was reunited under the Sui. However, the Sui Dynasty was short-lived after a failure in the Goguryeo-Sui Wars (598614) weakened it. Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties, Chinese technology and culture reached its zenith. The Tang Empire was at its height of power until the middle of the 8th century, when the An Shi Rebellion destroyed the prosperity of the empire. The Song Dynasty was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese polity to establish a permanent standing navy. Between the 10th and 11th centuries, the population of China doubled in size. This growth came about through expanded rice cultivation in central and southern China, and the production of abundant food surpluses.

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10th11th century Longquan celadon porcelain pieces from Zhejiang province, during the Song Dynasty

Within its borders, the Northern Song Dynasty had a population of some 100 million people. The Song Dynasty was a culturally rich period for philosophy and the arts. Landscape art and portrait painting were brought to new levels of maturity and complexity after the Tang Dynasty, and social elites gathered to view art, share their own, and trade precious artworks. Philosophers such as Cheng Yi and Chu Hsi reinvigorated Confucianism with new commentary, infused Buddhist ideals, and emphasized a new organization of classic texts that brought about the core doctrine of Neo-Confucianism. In 1271, the Mongol leader and fifth Khagan of the Mongol Empire Kublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty, with the last remnant of the Song Dynasty falling to the Yuan in 1279. Before the Mongol invasion, Chinese dynasties reportedly had approximately 120 million inhabitants; after the conquest was completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported roughly 60 million people.[32] A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Mongols in 1368 and founded the Ming Dynasty.[33] Ming Dynasty thinkers such as Wang Yangming would further critique and expand Neo-Confucianism with ideas of individualism and innate morality that would have tremendous impact on later Japanese thought. Chosun Korea also became a nominal vassal state of Ming China and adopted much of its Neo-Confucian bureaucratic structure.

Along the River During the Qingming Festival; daily life of people from the Song period at the capital, Bianjing, today's Kaifeng.

Under the Ming Dynasty, China had another golden age, with one of the strongest navies in the world, a rich and prosperous economy and a flourishing of the arts and culture. It was during this period that Zheng He led explorations throughout the world, possibly reaching America. During the early Ming Dynasty China's capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing. In 1644 Beijing was sacked by a coalition of rebel forces led by Li Zicheng, a minor Ming official turned leader of the peasant revolt. The last Ming Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide when the

China city fell. The Manchu Qing Dynasty then allied with Ming Dynasty general Wu Sangui and overthrew Li's short-lived Shun Dynasty, and subsequently seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing Dynasty. The Qing Dynasty, which lasted until 1912, was the last dynasty in China. In the 19th century the Qing Dynasty adopted a defensive posture towards European imperialism, even though it engaged in imperialistic expansion into Central Asia. At this time China awoke to the significance of the rest of the world, the West in particular. As China opened up to foreign trade and missionary activity, opium produced by British India was forced onto Qing China. Two Opium Wars with Britain weakened the Emperor's control. European imperialism proved to be disastrous for China: The Arrow War (18561860) [2nd Opium War] saw another disastrous defeat for China. The subsequent passing of the humiliating Treaty of Tianjin in 1856 and the Beijing Conventions of 1860 opened up more of the country to foreign penetrations and more ports for their vessels. Hong Kong was ceded over to the British. Thus, the "unequal treaties system" was established. Heavy indemnities had to be paid by China, and more territory and control were taken over by the foreigners.Busky, Donald F. (2002). " Communism in History and Theory. Greenwood Publishing Group, p.2. The weakening of the Qing regime, and the apparent humiliation of the unequal treaties in the eyes of the Chinese people had several consequences. One consequence was the Taiping Civil War, which lasted from 1851 to 1862. It was led by Hong Xiuquan, who was partly influenced by an idiosyncratic interpretation of Christianity. Hong believed himself to be the son of God and the Clipper ship Celestial Empire younger brother of Jesus. Although the Qing forces were eventually victorious, the civil war was one of the bloodiest in human history, costing at least 20 million lives (more than the total number of fatalities in the World War I), with some estimates of up to two hundred million. Other costly rebellions followed the Taiping Rebellion, such as the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars (185567), Nien Rebellion (18511868), Miao Rebellion (185473), Panthay Rebellion (18561873) and the Dungan revolt (18621877).[35] [36] These rebellions resulted in an estimated loss of several million lives each and led to disastrous results for the economy and the countryside.[37] [38] [39] The flow of British opium hastened the empire's decline. In the 19th century, the age of colonialism was at its height and the great Chinese Diaspora began. About 35 million overseas Chinese live in Southeast Asia today.[40] The famine in 187679 claimed between 9 and 13 million lives in northern China.[41] From 108 BC to 1911 AD, China experienced 1,828 famines,[42] or one per year, somewhere in the empire.[43]

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While China was wracked by continuous war, Meiji Japan succeeded in rapidly modernizing its military and set its sights on Korea and Manchuria. At the request of the Korean emperor, the Chinese government sent troops to aid in suppressing the Tonghak Rebellion in 1894. However, Japan also sent troops to Korea, leading to the First Sino-Japanese War, which resulted in Qing China's loss of influence in the Korean Peninsula as well as the cession of Taiwan to Japan. Following this series of defeats, a reform plan for the empire to become a modern Meiji-style constitutional monarchy was drafted by the Guangxu Emperor in 1898, but was opposed and stopped by the Empress Dowager

A corner tower of the Forbidden City at night; the palace was the residence for the imperial family from the reign of the Yongle Emperor of the Ming Dynasty in the 15th century until the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1912.

China Cixi, who placed Emperor Guangxu under house arrest in a coup d'tat. Further destruction followed the ill-fated 1900 Boxer Rebellion against westerners in Beijing. By the early 20th century, mass civil disorder had begun, and calls for reform and revolution were heard across the country. The 38-year-old Emperor Guangxu died under house arrest on 14 November 1908, suspiciously just a day before Cixi's own death. With the throne empty, he was succeeded by Cixi's handpicked heir, his two year old nephew Puyi, who became the Xuantong Emperor. Guangxu's consort became the Empress Dowager Longyu. In another coup de'tat, Yuan Shikai overthrew the last Qing emperor, and forced empress Dowager Longyu to sign the abdication decree as regent in 1912, ending two thousand years of imperial rule in China. She died, childless, in 1913.

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Republic of China (191249)

On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was established, heralding the end of the Qing Dynasty. Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (the KMT or Nationalist Party) was proclaimed provisional president of the republic. However, the presidency was later given to Yuan Shikai, a former Qing general, who had ensured the defection of the entire Beiyang Army from the Qing Empire to the revolution. In 1915, Yuan proclaimed himself Emperor of China but was forced to abdicate and return the state to a republic when he realized it was an unpopular move, not only with the population but also with his own Beiyang Army and its commanders. After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, China was politically fragmented, with an internationally recognized but virtually powerless national government seated in Peking (Beijing). Warlords in various regions exercised actual control over their respective territories. In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang, under Chiang Kai-shek, was able to reunify the country under its own control, moving the nation's capital to Nanking (Nanjing) and implementing "political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's program for transforming China into a modern, democratic state. Effectively, political tutelage meant one-party rule by the Kuomintang.

Sun Yat-sen and Chiang Kai-shek at the founding of the Whampoa Military Academy. Flags of the Republic of China and the Nationalist Party shown.

The Second Sino-Japanese War (19371945) (part of World War II) forced an uneasy alliance between the Nationalists and the Map of Republic of China printed by Rand Communists as well as causing around 20 million Chinese civilian McNally & Co. in the year 1914. deaths.[44] With the surrender of Japan in 1945, China emerged victorious but financially drained. The continued distrust between the Nationalists and the Communists led to the resumption of the Chinese Civil War. In 1947, constitutional rule was established, but because of the ongoing Civil War many provisions of the ROC constitution were never implemented in mainland China.

China

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Post Civil War (1949present)

After its victory in the Chinese Civil War, the Communist Party of China (CPC) led by Mao Zedong gained control of most of Mainland China. On 1 October 1949, they established the People's Republic of China as a socialist state headed by a "Democratic Dictatorship" with the CPC as the ruling political party, thus, laying claim as the successor state of the ROC. The central government of the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalist Party) led by Chiang Kai-shek retreated to the island of Taiwan that it had administered at the end of World War II, and moved the ROC government there. Major armed hostilities ceased in 1950 but no peace treaty has been signed. Beginning in the late 1970s, the Republic of China began the implementation of full, multi-party, The People's Republic of China (purple) and the Republic of China representative democracy in the territories still (Taiwan) (orange). under its control (Taiwan, and a number of smaller islands including Quemoy and Matsu). Today, the ROC has active political participation by all sectors of society. The main cleavage in ROC politics is the issue of eventual political unification with the Chinese mainland vs. formal independence of Taiwan. After the Chinese Civil War, mainland China saw a dramatic improvement in life expectancy, leading to an explosion in population.[45] [46] [47] A series of disruptive socioeconomic movements started in the late 1950s with the Great Leap Forward and continued in the 1960s with the Cultural Revolution. The Great Chinese Famine resulted in an estimated 30 to 36 million deaths.[48] [49] With the death of its first generation Communist Party leaders such as Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai, the PRC began implementing a series of political and economic reforms advocated by Deng Xiaoping that eventually formed the foundation for mainland China's rapid economic development starting in the 1990s.

Mao Zedong proclaiming the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949.

Post-1978 reforms in mainland China have led to some relaxation of control over many areas of society. However, the PRC government still has almost absolute control over politics, and it continually seeks to eradicate what it perceives as threats to the social, political and economic stability of the country. Examples include the fight against terrorism, jailing of political opponents and journalists, custody regulation of the press, regulation of religion, and suppression of independence/secessionist movements. In 1989, the student protests at Tiananmen Square were violently put to an end by the Chinese military after 15 days of martial law. In 1997, Hong Kong was ceded to the PRC by the United Kingdom, and in 1999, Macau was handed over by Portugal. Since 1949, mainland China is administered by the People's Republic of Chinaa one-party state under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Partywhile the island of Taiwan and surrounding islands are administered by the Republic of Chinaa democratic multi-party state. After the founding of the People's Republic in 1949, both states claimed to be the sole legitimate ruler of all of China. After the Kuomintang retreat to Taiwan in 1949, the Republic of China had maintained official diplomatic relations with most states around the world, but by the 1970s, a

China shift had occurred in international diplomatic circles and the People's Republic of China gained the upper hand in international diplomatic relations and recognition count. In 1971, under UN resolution 2758, the representatives of Chiang Kai-shek to the United Nations were expelled from the intergovernmental organization. With the expulsion of the representatives, and effectively the Republic of China, the representatives of the People's Republic of China were invited to assume China's seat on the UN Security Council, the UN General Assembly and other United Nations councils and agencies. Later attempts by the Republic of China to rejoin the UN have either been blocked by the People's Republic of China, which has veto power on the UN Security Council, or rejected by the United Nations Secretariat or a United Nations General Assembly committee responsible for the General Assembly's agenda.[50] Since the relocation of its capital to Taiwan, the Republic of China has not formally renounced its claim to authority over all of China, nor has it changed its official maps, which include the mainland and Mongolia. Following the introduction of full democracy, and the electoral victory of the DPP's Chen Shui-bian in the presidential elections, the ROC had adopted a policy of separating the state's identity from "China", while moving towards identifying the state as "Taiwan". However, the ROC has not made any formal moves to change the name, flag, or national anthem of the state to reflect a Taiwanese identity due to the lack of consensus within Taiwan, pressure from the United States and the fear of invasion or military action from the People's Republic of China against the island. The Republic of China during the DPP years did not actively pursue its claims on mainland China or Mongolia. However, after having been elected as president, KMT's Ma Ying-jeou asserted that, constitutionally, mainland China is part of the Republic of China.[51] The People's Republic of China claims to have succeeded the Republic of China as the sole legitimate governing authority of all of China, which, from the official viewpoint of the People's Republic of China, includes the island of Taiwan. Over the last 50 years, both the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China have used diplomatic and economic means to compete for recognition in the international arena. Because most international, intergovernmental organizations observe the One-China policy of the People's Republic of China, the PRC has been able to pressure organizations, such as the World Health Organization and the International Olympic Committee, to refuse to officially recognize the Republic of China. Due to the One-China policy, states around the world are pressured to refuse, or to cut off diplomatic relations with the Republic of China. As a result, 23 U.N. member states currently maintain official diplomatic relations with the Republic of China, while the vast majority of U.N. member states maintain official diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China.

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Territory and environment

Historical political divisions
Top-level political divisions of China have altered as administrations changed. Top levels included circuits and provinces. Below that, there have been prefectures, subprefectures, departments, commanderies, districts, and counties. Recent divisions also include prefecture-level cities, county-level cities, towns and townships. Most Chinese dynasties were based in the historical heartlands of China, known as China proper. Various dynasties also expanded into peripheral territories like Inner Mongolia, Manchuria, Xinjiang, and Tibet. The Manchu-established Qing Dynasty and its successors, the ROC and the PRC, incorporated these territories into the Chinese empire.
Territories occupied by different dynasties as well as modern political states throughout the history of China.

Geography and climate

Composite satellite photo.

Terrace rice fields in Yunnan.

Snowy mountains in Diqing.

China ranges from mostly plateaus and mountains in the west to lower lands in the east. Principal rivers flow from west to east, including the Yangtze (central), the Yellow River (Huang He, north-central), and the Amur (northeast), and sometimes toward the south (including the Pearl River, Mekong (river), and Brahmaputra), with most Chinese rivers emptying into the Pacific Ocean.

China In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea there are extensive and densely populated alluvial plains. On the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, grasslands can be seen. Southern China is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges. In the central-east are the deltas of China's two major rivers, the Yellow and Yangtze rivers. Most of China's arable lands lie along these rivers, and they were the centers of China's major ancient civilizations. Other major rivers include the Pearl River, Mekong, Brahmaputra and Amur. Yunnan Province is considered a part of the Greater Mekong Subregion, which also includes Burma, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam.[52] In the west, the north has a great alluvial plain, and the south has a vast calcareous tableland traversed by hill ranges of moderate elevation, and the Himalayas, containing Earth's highest point, Mount Everest. The northwest also has high plateaus with more arid desert landscapes such as the Takla-Makan and the Gobi Desert, which has been expanding. During many dynasties, the southwestern border of China has been the high mountains and deep valleys of Yunnan, which separate modern China from Burma, Laos and Vietnam. The Paleozoic formations of China, excepting only the upper part of Main geographic features and regions of China. the Carboniferous system, are marine, while the Mesozoic and Tertiary deposits are estuarine and freshwater, or else of terrestrial origin. Groups of volcanic cones occur in the Great Plain of north China. In the Liaodong and Shandong Peninsulas, there are basaltic plateaus. The climate of China varies greatly. The northern zone (containing Beijing) has summer daytime temperatures of more than 30 degrees Celsius and winters of Arctic severity. The central zone (containing Shanghai) has a temperate continental climate with very hot summers and cold winters. The southern zone (containing Guangzhou) has a subtropical climate with very hot summers and mild winters. Due to a prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices, dust storms have become usual in the spring in China.[53] Dust has blown to southern Mainland China and Taiwan, and has reached the West Coast of the United States. Water, erosion, and pollution control have become important issues in China's relations with other countries.

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Economy
China was for a large part of the last two millennia the world's largest economy.[54] However, in the later part of the Qing Dynasty, China's economic development began to slow and Europe's rapid development during and after the Industrial Revolution enabled it to surpass China. Many analysts assert that the modern People's Republic of China is one of the leading examples of state capitalism in the 21st century.[55] [56] [57]

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Culture
Confucianism was the official philosophy throughout most of Imperial China's history, and mastery of Confucian texts was the primary criterion for entry into the imperial bureaucracy. China's traditional values were derived from various versions of Confucianism. A number of more authoritarian strains of thought have also been influential, such as Legalism. There was often conflict between the philosophies, e.g. the Song Dynasty Neo-Confucians believed Legalism departed from the original spirit of Confucianism. Examinations and a culture of merit remain greatly valued in China today. In recent years, a number of New Confucians (not to be confused with Neo-Confucianism) have advocated that democratic ideals and human rights are quite compatible with traditional Confucian "Asian values".[58] With the rise of European economic and military power beginning in the mid-19th century, non-Chinese systems of social and political organization gained adherents in China. Some of these would-be reformers totally rejected China's cultural legacy, while others sought to combine the strengths of Chinese and European cultures. In essence, the history of 20th-century China is one of experimentation with new systems of social, political, and economic organization that would allow for the reintegration of the nation in the wake of dynastic collapse.
Wang Yangming, a highly influential Neo-Confucian

A Chinese Opera (Beijing Opera) performance in Beijing of the historical character Yang Guifei.

Arts, scholarship, and literature

Calligraphy later became commercialized, and works by famous artists became prized possessions. Chinese literature has a long past; the earliest classic work in Chinese, the I Ching or "Book of Changes" dates to around 1000 BC. A flourishing of philosophy during the Warring States Period produced such noteworthy works as Confucius's Analects and Laozi's Tao Te Ching. (See also: the Chinese classics.) Dynastic histories were often written, beginning with Sima Qian's seminal Records of the Grand Historian, which was written from 109 BC to 91 BC.

Chinese calligraphy by Mi Fu, Song Dynasty, ca. 1100 CE

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The Tang Dynasty witnessed a poetic flowering, while the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature were written during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Printmaking in the form of movable type was developed during the Song Dynasty. Academies of scholars sponsored by the empire were formed to comment on the classics in both printed and handwritten form. Royalty frequently participated in these discussions as well.

The Song Dynasty was also a period of great scientific literature, and saw the creation of works such as Su Song's Xin Yixiang Fayao and Shen Kuo's Dream Pool Essays. There were also enormous works of historiography and large encyclopedias, such as Sima Guang's Zizhi Tongjian of 1084 AD or the Four Great Books of Song fully compiled and edited by the 11th century. For centuries, religious and social advancement in China could be achieved through high performance on the imperial examinations. This led to the creation of a meritocracy, although success was available only to males who could afford test preparation. Imperial examinations required applicants to write essays and demonstrate mastery of the Confucian classics. Those who passed the highest level of the exam became elite scholar-officials known as jinshi, a highly esteemed socio-economic position. Chinese philosophers, writers and poets were highly respected and played key roles in preserving and promoting the culture of the empire. Some classical scholars, however, were noted for their daring depictions of the lives of the common people, often to the displeasure of authorities.The Chinese invented numerous musical instruments, such as the zheng (zither with movable bridges), qin (bridgeless zither), sheng (free reed mouth organ), and xiao (vertical flute) and adopted and developed others such the erhu (alto fiddle or bowed lute) and pipa (pear-shaped plucked lute), many of which later spread throughout East Asia and Southeast Asia, particularly to Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.

The qin, a traditional Chinese stringed musical instrument, favored by scholars and the nobility, as highlighted in the Book of Rites: "a gentleman does not part with his qin or se without good reason."

Demography

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Hundreds of ethnic groups have existed in China throughout its history. The largest ethnic group in China by far is the Han. This group, however, is internally diverse and can be further divided into smaller ethnic groups that share similar traits. Over the last three millennia, many previously distinct ethnic groups in China have been Sinicized into a Han identity, which over time dramatically expanded the size of the Han population. However, these assimilations were usually incomplete, and vestiges of indigenous language and culture still often remain in various regions of China. Because of this, many within the Han identity have maintained distinct linguistic and cultural traditions while still identifying as Han.

Ethnolinguistic map of the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China

Several ethnicities have also dramatically shaped Han culture, e.g. the Manchurian clothing called the qipao became the new "Chinese" fashion after the 17th century, replacing earlier Han styles of clothing such as the Hanfu. The modern term Chinese nation (Zhonghua Minzu) is now used to describe a notion of a Chinese nationality that transcends ethnic divisions.

Languages
Most languages in China belong to the Sino-Tibetan languages family, spoken by 29 ethnicities. There are also several major linguistic groups within the Chinese language itself. The most spoken varieties are Mandarin (spoken by over 70% of the population), Wu, Yue (Cantonese), Min, Xiang, Gan, and Hakka. Non-Sinitic languages spoken widely by ethnic minorities include Zhuang (Thai), Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur (Turkic), Hmong and Korean.[59] Classical Chinese was the written standard in China for thousands of years, and allowed for written communication between speakers of various unintelligible languages and dialects in China. Written vernacular Chinese, or baihua, is the written standard based on the Mandarin dialect and first popularized in Ming Dynasty novels. It was adopted with significant modifications during the early 20th century as the national standard. Classical Chinese is still part of the high school curriculum and is thus intelligible to some degree to many Chinese.

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Religion
The "official" orthodox faith system held by most dynasties of China since at least the Shang Dynasty (1766 BC) until the overthrow of the last dynasty (1911 AD) centered on the worship of Shangdi ("Supreme God") or "Heaven" as an omnipotent force.[60] This faith system pre-dated the development of Confucianism and Taoism and the introduction of Buddhism, Islam and Christianity. It has features of monotheism in that Heaven is seen as an omnipotent entity, endowed with personality but no corporeal form. From the writings of Confucius, we find that Confucius himself believed that Heaven cannot be deceived, Heaven guides people's lives and maintains a personal relationship with them, and that Heaven gives tasks for people to fulfill to teach them righteousness (yi, ).[60] However, this faith system was not truly monotheistic since other lesser gods and spirits, which varied with locality, were also worshiped along with Shangdi. Still, variants such as Mohism approached high monotheism, teaching that the function of lesser gods and ancestral spirits is merely to carry out the will of Shangdi, which included observing "universal love" (jian'ai, ) and shunning fatalism.

The Round Mound Altar, the altar proper at the Temple of Heaven in Beijing, where the Emperor communed with Heaven

Worship of Shangdi and Heaven in ancient China includes the erection of shrines, the last and greatest being the Temple of Heaven in Beijing, Shang Dynasty bronze script and the offering of prayers. The ruler of China in every Chinese character for tian (), "Sky" or dynasty would perform annual sacrificial rituals to Heaven, usually by "Heaven." slaughtering a bull as sacrifice. Although its popularity gradually diminished after the advent of Taoism and Buddhism, among other religions, its concepts remained in use throughout the pre-modern period and have been incorporated in later religions in China, including terminology used in Chinese Christianity. Taoism is an indigenous religion of China and its beginnings are traditionally traced to the composition of Laozi's Tao Te Ching (The Book of Tao and Its Virtues) or to seminal works by Zhang Daoling. The philosophy of Taoism is centered on "the way"; an understanding of which can be likened to recognizing the true nature of the universe. Taoism in its unorganized form is also considered a folk religion of China. More secular derivatives of Taoist ideas include feng shui, Sun Tzu's Art of War, and acupuncture.

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Buddhism in China was first introduced from Central Asia during the Han Dynasty and became very popular among Chinese of all walks of life, embraced particularly by commoners, and sponsored by emperors in certain dynasties. Mahayana (Dacheng, ) is the predominant form of Buddhism practiced in China, where it was largely Sinicized and later exported to Korea, Japan and Vietnam. Some subsets of Mahayana popular in China include Pure Land (Amidism) and Zen. Buddhism is the largest organized faith in China and the country has the most Buddhist adherents in the world. Many Chinese, however, identify themselves as both Taoist and Buddhist at the same time. Ancestor worship is a major religious theme shared among all indigenous Chinese religions. Traditional Chinese culture, Taoism, Confucianism, and Chinese Buddhism all value filial piety, or a love and respect for one's parents and ancestors, as one of the most important virtues. Chinese people generally offer prayers and food for their ancestors, light incense and candles, and burn offerings of Joss paper. These activities are typically conducted at the site of ancestral graves or tombs, at an ancestral temple, or at a household shrine.

A Chinese Tang Dynasty (618907) sculpture of the Buddha seated in meditation.

Islam in China dates to a mission in 651, 18 years after Muhammad's death. Muslims came to China for trade, dominating the import/export industry during the Song Dynasty.[61] [62] They became influential in government circles, including Zheng He, Lan Yu and Yeheidie'erding, who designed the Yuan Dynasty's capital, Khanbaliq. Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study.[63] The Qing Dynasty waged war and genocide against Muslims in the Dungan revolt and Panthay Rebellion.[64] [65] [66] Judaism in China dates to as early as the 7th or 8th century AD. In the first half of the 20th century, tens of thousands of Jews from Europe arrived in Shanghai and Hong Kong during those cities' periods of economic expansion, seeking refuge from the Holocaust. Shanghai was notable for its volume of Jewish refugees, as it was the only port in the world to accept them without an entry visa.
The Huaisheng Mosque is one of the oldest Mosques in the world, built by Muhammad's uncle, Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas

Christianity in China has developed since at least the 7th century AD with the introduction of the Assyrian Church of the East. Christianity began to make significant inroads in China after the 16th century through Jesuit and later Protestant missionaries. The Taiping Rebellion was influenced to some degree by Christian teachings, and the Boxer Rebellion was in part a reaction against Christianity in China.

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Sports and recreation

For sports in the People's Republic of China, see Sport in the People's Republic of China, Sport in Hong Kong, and Sport in Macau. For sports in the Republic of China, see Sport in Taiwan. Many historians believe that football originated in China, where a form of the sport may have appeared around 1000 AD.[67] Other popular sports include martial arts, table tennis, badminton, and more recently, golf. Basketball is now popular among young people in urban centers. There are also many traditional sports. Chinese dragon boat racing occurs during the Duanwu Festival. In Inner Mongolia, Mongolian-style wrestling and horse racing are popular. In Tibet, archery and equestrian sports are part of traditional festivals.[68]
Dragon boat racing, a popular traditional Chinese sport.

Physical fitness is highly regarded. It is common for the elderly to practice tai chi chuan and qigong in parks. Board games such as Chess, Go (Weiqi), and Xiangqi (Chinese chess) are also common and have organized formal competitions. The capital city of the People's Republic of China, Beijing, hosted the 2008 Summer Olympics, a major international sporting event.

Science and technology

History of science and technology in China

Inventions Discoveries

By era
Han Dynasty Tang Dynasty Song Dynasty People's Republic of China Present-day PRC

Further information: History of science and technology in China,List of Chinese inventions,andList of Chinese discoveries Among the technological accomplishments of ancient China were paper (not papyrus) and papermaking, woodblock printing and movable type printing, the early lodestone and needle compass, gunpowder, toilet paper, early

China seismological detectors, matches, pound locks, the double-action piston pump, blast furnace and cast iron, the iron plough, the multi-tube seed drill, the suspension bridge,[69] natural gas as fuel, the differential gear for the South Pointing Chariot, the hydraulic-powered armillary sphere, the hydraulic-powered trip hammer, the mechanical chain drive, the mechanical belt drive, the raised-relief map, the propeller, the crossbow, the cannon, the rocket, the multistage rocket, etc. Chinese astronomers were among the first to record observations of a supernova. The work of the astronomer Shen Kuo (103195) alone was most impressive, as he theorized that the sun and moon were spherical, corrected the position of the pole star with his improved sighting tube, discovered the concept of true north, wrote of planetary motions such as retrogradation, and compared the orbital paths of the planets to points on the shape of a rotating willow leaf. With evidence for them, he also postulated geological theories for the processes of land formation in geomorphology and climate change in paleoclimatology. Other important astronomers included Gan De, Shi Shen, Zhang Heng, Yi Xing, Zhang Sixun, Su Song and Guo Shoujing. Chinese mathematics evolved independently of Greek mathematics and is therefore of great interest in the history of mathematics. The Chinese were also keen on documenting all of their technological achievements, such as in the Tiangong Kaiwu encyclopedia written by Song Yingxing (15871666). China's science and technology had fallen behind that of Europe by the 17th century. Political, social and cultural reasons have been given for this, although recent historians focus more on economic causes, such as the high level equilibrium trap. Since the PRC's market reforms, China has become better connected to the global economy and is placing greater emphasis on science and technology.

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Notes
[1] "China country profile" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ africa/ country_profiles/ 1287798. stm). BBC News. 2010-10-18. . Retrieved 2010-11-07. [2] Jervis, Nancy. What Is a Culture. (http:/ / www. emsc. nysed. gov/ ciai/ socst/ grade3/ whatisa. html) University of the State of New York. [3] "Oldest Living Civilization" (http:/ / www. historians. org/ projects/ giroundtable/ Chinese/ Chinese3. htm). American Historical Association. . [4] "The Song Dynasty in China. Columbia University" (http:/ / afe. easia. columbia. edu/ song/ ). Afe.easia.columbia.edu. . Retrieved 2010-10-29. [5] "Was China More Productive Than Europe?" (http:/ / afe. easia. columbia. edu/ chinawh/ web/ s5/ index. html). Afe.easia.columbia.edu. . Retrieved 2010-06-02. [6] "CIA ''The World Factbook'' China. Accessed November 26, 2009" (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ ch. html). Cia.gov. . Retrieved 2011-01-23. [7] "Dahlman, Carl J; Aubert, Jean-Eric. China and the Knowledge Economy: Seizing the 21st Century, WBI Development Studies. World Bank Publications. Accessed January 30, 2008" (http:/ / www. eric. ed. gov/ ERICWebPortal/ custom/ portlets/ recordDetails/ detailmini. jsp?_nfpb=true& _& ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED460052& ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no& accno=ED460052). Eric.ed.gov. . Retrieved 2010-06-02. [8] "The Real Great Leap Forward. The Economist. Sept 30, 2004" (http:/ / www. economist. com/ surveys/ displaystory. cfm?story_id=E1_PNTJQTR). Economist.com. 2004-09-30. . Retrieved 2010-06-02. [9] Haggett, Peter. [2001] (2001). Encyclopedia of World Geography, Volume 23. Edition 2, illustrated. Marshall Cavendish publishing. ISBN 0761472894, 9780761472896. p 37. p 2836. [10] Ian Tattersall (1997). "Out of Africa again...and again?". Scientific American 276 (4): 6068. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0497-60. [11] Shen, G; Gao, X; Gao, B; Granger, De (Mar 2009). "Age of Zhoukoudian Homo erectus determined with (26)Al/(10)Be burial dating". Nature 458 (7235): 198200. doi:10.1038/nature07741. ISSN0028-0836. PMID19279636. [12] Rincon, Paul (2009-03-11). "'Peking Man' older than thought" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 7937351. stm). BBC News. . Retrieved 2010-04-28. [13] " China (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=china)", Online Etymology Dictionary [14] Wood, Francis, Did Marco Polo go to China (1995), p. 61. [15] Eden, Richard, Decades of the New World (1555) "The great China whose kyng is thought the greatest prince in the world." [16] " china (http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ China?qsrc=2888)", The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Boston and New York, Houghton-Mifflin, 2000. [17] Found in Book 2 of Kautilya's Arthashastra. (Denis Crispin Twitchett, Michael Loewe, John King Fairbank, The Ch'in and Han Empires 221 B.C.-A.D. 220, p. 20.) [18] Martino, Martin, Novus Atlas Sinensis, Vienna 1655, Preface, p. 2.

China
[19] Liu, Lydia He, The clash of empires, p. 77. [20] Wade, Geoff, " The Polity of Yelang and the Origin of the Name 'China' (http:/ / www. sino-platonic. org/ complete/ spp188_yelang_china. pdf)", Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 188, May 2009, p. 20. [21] Wade, pp. 6ff. [22] :Roughly translated as "The Heavens awarded the lands and peoples of Zhnggu to our ancestors". [23] Roughly translated as "Zhnggu, the capital." [24] See Quansongwen (8,345 chapters), 2005. Historic texts written in the period of Southern Song refer to the Jin Dynasty as "barbarians", while Jin texts portray the Song as "Manzi." Official historic texts such as Songshi, which is written after the period, are more neutral. [25] The official name of the Republic of China in traditional Chinese is "", "" in simplified Chinese. The official name of the PRC in simplified Chinese is "", "" in traditional Chinese. Zhnggu are the first and last characters of both of these official names. Although in both of these contexts, the name does not contain the exact phrasing of "Zhnggu," it is expressed in the similar phrase "Zhonghua," while the PRC's official abbreviation is "." [26] Gernet, Jacques. [1996] (1996). A history of Chinese civilization Edition 2, illustrated. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521497817, 9780521497817. p 40. [27] "Early Homo erectus Tools in China" (http:/ / www. archaeology. org/ 0001/ newsbriefs/ china. html) by Archaeological Institute of America (http:/ / www. archaeological. org/ ) [28] List of Chinese fossil hominids (http:/ / www. chineseprehistory. org/ table. htm) at ChinesePrehistory.org (http:/ / www. chineseprehistory. org/ ) [29] "The Liujiang skeleton" (http:/ / www-personal. une. edu. au/ ~pbrown3/ Liujiang. html). . [30] "Skull may complicate human-origins debate. (Chinese Roots). Skull may complicate human-origins debate" (http:/ / www. thefreelibrary. com/ Skull+ may+ complicate+ human-origins+ debate. + (Chinese+ Roots)-a096417261). Thefreelibrary.com. 2002-12-21. . Retrieved 2010-06-02. [31] "Bronze Age China" (http:/ / www. nga. gov/ exhibitions/ chbro_bron. shtm) by National Gallery of Art (http:/ / www. nga. gov/ ) [32] Ping-ti Ho, "An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China", in tudes Song, Series 1, No 1, (1970) pp. 3353. [33] " Ming Dynasty (http:/ / encarta. msn. com/ encyclopedia_761580643/ ming_dynasty. html)". Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009. Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5kwQtyH2M) 2009-10-31. [34] Busky, Donald F. (2002). " Communism in History and Theory (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Q6b0j1VINWgC& printsec=frontcover& source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage& q=& f=false). Greenwood Publishing Group, p.2. [35] Jenks, R.D. Insurgency and Social Disorder in Guizhou: The Miao Rebellion, 18541873. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. 1994. [36] Cf. William J. Peterson, The Cambridge History of China Volume 9 (Cambridge University Press, 2002) [37] Damsan Harper, Steve Fallon, Katja Gaskell, Julie Grundvig, Carolyn Heller, Thomas Huhti, Bradley Maynew, Christopher Pitts. Lonely Planet China. 9. 2005. ISBN 1-74059-687-0 [38] Gernet, Jacques. A History of Chinese Civilization. 2. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996. [39] Perry, Elizabeth. Rebels and Revolutionaries in Northern China, 18451945 (Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1980). [40] The world's successful diasporas (http:/ / www. managementtoday. co. uk/ news/ 648273/ ). Management Today. April 3, 2007. [41] Dimensions of need People and populations at risk (http:/ / www. fao. org/ docrep/ U8480E/ U8480E05. htm). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). [42] Grda, C.: Famine: A Short History (http:/ / press. princeton. edu/ chapters/ s8857. html). Princeton University Press. [43] China: Land of Famine (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 3014847). Journal of the Royal Institute of International Affairs. [44] "Nuclear Power: The End of the War Against Japan" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ history/ worldwars/ wwtwo/ nuclear_01. shtml). BBC History. [45] "Health Improvement under Mao and Its Implications for Contemporary Aging in China" (http:/ / healthpolicy. stanford. edu/ research/ health_improvement_under_mao_and_its_implications_for_contemporary_aging_in_china/ ). Stanford University. . Retrieved 2011-01-05. [46] "China's population, 19692006" (http:/ / www. chinability. com/ Population. htm). Chinability. . Retrieved 2011-01-05. [47] Matt Rosenberg. "China Population The Population Growth of the World's Largest Country" (http:/ / geography. about. com/ od/ populationgeography/ a/ chinapopulation. htm). About.com. . Retrieved 2011-01-05. [48] " China's great famine: 40 years later (http:/ / www. bmj. com/ cgi/ content/ extract/ 319/ 7225/ 1619)". 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[54] Dahlman, Carl J; Aubert, Jean-Eric. China and the Knowledge Economy: Seizing the 21st Century. WBI Development Studies. World Bank Publications. Accessed January 30, 2008. (http:/ / www. eric. ed. gov/ ERICWebPortal/ custom/ portlets/ recordDetails/ detailmini. jsp?_nfpb=true& _& ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED460052& ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no& accno=ED460052) [55] Fengbo Zhang Notable Quotes [56] Communism Is Dead, But State Capitalism Thrives (http:/ / blogs. forbes. com/ greatspeculations/ 2010/ 03/ 22/ communism-is-dead-but-state-capitalism-thrives/ ), by Vahan Janjigian, forbes.com, Mar. 22 2010. [57] The Winners And Losers In Chinese Capitalism (http:/ / blogs. forbes. com/ gadyepstein/ 2010/ 08/ 31/ the-winners-and-losers-in-chinese-capitalism/ ), by Gady Epstein, forbes.com, Aug. 31 2010. [58] Bary, Theodore de. "Constructive Engagement with Asian Values" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20050311041507/ http:/ / www. columbia. edu/ cu/ ccba/ cear/ issues/ fall97/ graphics/ special/ debary/ debary. htm). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. columbia. edu/ cu/ ccba/ cear/ issues/ fall97/ graphics/ special/ debary/ debary. htm) on 2005-03-11. .. Columbia University. [59] Languages (http:/ / english. gov. cn/ 2005-08/ 16/ content_23691. htm). 2005. GOV.cn. URL accessed 3 May 2006. [60] Homer H. Dubs, "Theism and Naturalism in Ancient Chinese Philosophy," Philosophy of East and West, Vol. 9, No. 3/4, 1959 [61] "BBC Islam in China (650present)" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ religion/ religions/ islam/ history/ china_1. shtml). Bbc.co.uk. 2002-10-02. . Retrieved 2010-06-02. [62] "Islamic culture in China" (http:/ / www. religion-online. org/ showchapter. asp?title=1656& C=1645). . [63] "Looking East: The challenges and opportunities of Chinese Islam" (http:/ / www. hsais. org/ 2essay0405_4. htm). . [64] Levene, Mark. Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State. I.B.Tauris, 2005. ISBN 1845110579, page 288 [65] Giersch, Charles Patterson. Asian Borderlands: The Transformation of Qing China's Yunnan Frontier. Harvard University Press, 2006. ISBN 1845110579, page 219 [66] Dillon, Michael. Chinas Muslim Hui Community (http:/ / www. hsais. org/ 2essay0405_4. htm). Curzon, 1999. ISBN 0700710264, page xix [67] Origins of the Great Game (http:/ / athleticscholarships. net/ history-of-soccer. htm). 2000. Athleticscholarships.net. Retrieved 23 April 2006. [68] Qinfa, Ye. Sports History of China (http:/ / chineseculture. about. com/ library/ weekly/ aa032301a. htm). About.com. Retrieved 21 April 2006. [69] People have walked across the [[Anlan Bridge (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ lostempires/ china/ meetsusp. html)] for 1,700 years.]

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China.org.cn (http://www.china.org.cn/) China news, weather, business, travel, language courses, archives China (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html) entry at The World Factbook Forecasts for Chinese Development to 2060 by Issue (http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifsdev/ifs/frm_CountryProfile. aspx?Country=CN) China (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/china.htm) from UCB Libraries GovPubs China (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/China/) at the Open Directory Project Wikimedia Atlas of China China travel guide from Wikitravel China (http://www.state.gov/p/eap/ci/ch/) information from the U.S. Department of State U.S. Department of Commerce, Office of China Economic Area (http://www.export.gov/china/policyadd/ OCEA.asp?dName=policyadd) IBTimes HK Topics China (http://hken.ibtimes.com/topics/detail/227/china/)

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Legendary creature
A legendary creature is a mythological or folkloric creature.

Origin
Some mythical creatures have their origin in traditional mythology and have been believed to be real creatures, for example the dragon, the unicorn, and griffin. Others were based on real encounters, originating in garbled accounts of travelers' tales, such as the Vegetable Lamb of Tartary, which supposedly grew tethered to the earth (and was actually a type of fern).[1] Conversely, some creatures downplayed as just storytelling, have been rediscovered and found to be real freakster in percent times, such as the Giant Squid (the Kraken). In Africa, Natives of the Congo told European visitors of an animal that looked like a Chinese dragon. cross between a zebra and a giraffe. While the visitors assumed the stories were just folk tales, in 1901, Sir Harry Johnston brought back pelts that proved the creature, which we now call the okapi, was real.

Hybrids
Often mythical creatures are hybrids, a combination of two or more animals. For example, a centaur is a combination of a man and horse, the minotaur of a man and bull, and the mermaid, half woman and half fish. These were not always intended to be understood as literal juxtapositions of parts from disparate species. Lacking a common morphological vocabulary, classical and medieval scholars and travelers would attempt to describe unusual animals by comparing them point-for-point with familiar: the giraffe, for example, was called camelopard, and thought of as a creature half-camel, and half-leopard. The Liger is a hybrid animal of both the Lion and a Tiger. The leopard itself was so named as it was historically believed to be a half-lion (Latin: "leo") and half-panther (Latin: "pardus"). This etymology has been kept until the present day, despite its zoological inaccuracies.

Modern creatures
Other legendary creatures are thought to exist even today, but evidence is lacking. Famous examples are chupacabras, Bigfoot, Yeti, the Loch Ness Monster, and even space aliens. These are called cryptids by cryptozoologists.

Cultural influence
In medieval bestiaries, legendary creatures are listed together with real animals. Throughout history legendary creatures have been incorporated into heraldry and architectural decoration. Many legendary creatures appear prominently in fantasy fiction. These creatures are often claimed to have supernatural powers or knowledge or to guard some object of great value, which becomes critical to the plot of the story in which it is found. Dragons, for instance, are commonly depicted as perched on a gleaming hoard of gold which becomes the target of adventurers. Legendary creatures have also been accepted into many facets of popular culture, most notably in fantasy role playing games such as Dungeons & Dragons, video games, and Hollywood movies.

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References
[1] Large, Mark F.; John E. Braggins (2004). Tree Ferns [ILLUSTRATED]. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press, Incorporated. p.360. ISBN978-0881926309.

External links
Mystery Creatures: Mythical or Real (http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/46342/ mystery-creatures-mythical-or-real) - slideshow by Life magazine

Article Sources and Contributors

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Article Sources and Contributors

Dragon Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=441761035 Contributors: !Dragon, (jarbarf), -Majestic-, 09zackmanz, 1028, 12grange, 194.237.150.xxx, 21655, 3rdAlcove, 9allenride9, A D Monroe III, A Macedonian, A. Parrot, A3RO, ABBA lover 67, AFinch, ANOMALY-117, AWhiteC, Abductive, Abeg92, Abjad, Abrech, Abstractjazz, Academic Challenger, Achangeisasgoodasa, Achillobator, Acnetj, Adam Keller, Adam keller, Adashiel, Addrianna818, Adrian53194, Ae7flux, Aericanwizard, Aesopos, Ahhhorsepoo, Ahj, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, AjaxSmack, Alakazam, Alansohn, Albinochaos, Alcardi-orumov, Ale jrb, Alex '05, Alexander Iwaschkin, AlexiusHoratius, Alfirin, Algont, Alhutch, AliveFreeHappy, Allen3, Allstarecho, Altenmann, Am088, Amaurea, Amccune, Amdragman, Amicon, Amillar, Amos1992, AmosWolfe, AnOddName, Andonic, Andre Engels, Andreas Kaganov, Andrew c, Andrezilla, Andrs D., Andy pyro, Andycjp, AngBent, Angelo De La Paz, Angelofanarchy23, Angielaj, Ann Stouter, Anonymous Dissident, Anonymousefaggot, Another berean, Antandrus, Anthony Appleyard, Antiestablishment, Antonio Lopez, Antrophica, Apostrophe, Applejaxs, Aranae, Arsonal, Arthena, ArthurDuhurst, Asarelah, Asbpen, Ashawley, Ashcraft, Astramaglia, AtheWeatherman, Ausir, Auslli, Ave8er, Avivahannahc, AxelBoldt, Axeman89, AzaToth, Aznpinoy19, B, BD2412, BMT, Baa, Babassu, Bact, Baegis, Bakabaka, Ballista, Balthazarduju, Bass fishing physicist, Bathrobe, Bava Alcide57, Bdragon, Beckham 112, Bellenion, Belovedfreak, Ben 10, Bgag, Bhadani, Big Bird, Bigfrank69, Bingo3000, Bishonen, Bkobres, Blackspirals, Blahm, Blak-dragon, Blanchardb, Blikk, Blue Milk Mathematician, BlueLint, BlueMario1016, BlueNovember, Bluefire princess, Bluezy, Bob f it, Bobo192, Bogdangiusca, Bombyx, Bonadea, Bongwarrior, Bookandcoffee, Boring1577, Bourgeoisdude, Boven, Bradypierce, Brainyiscool, Brandmeister (old), Brandonrc2, Braximillius, Brian0918, Brian8710, Brianga, Bro2forlife, Broncojon, Bryan Derksen, Bryce, Brycemcnatt, Bubaloo, Burntsauce, Bvbacon, C.Fred, CBDunkerson, CMacMillan, CWY2190, Cactus.man, Caeruleancentaur, Callumt, Caltas, Calum.m.redhead, Calvin 1998, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, CanisRufus, Canterbury Tail, Captain Rotundo, Carioca, Carlaude, CarleneLovesDrWho, Casey yep, Cassiewulff, Catgut, CatherineMunro, Cdang, Cebra, Cenarium, Century0, Ceranthor, Changmw, Charleca, Charles Gaudette, Charles Sturm, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, CheeseburgerBrown, Cheesegunner, Chevereauthor, Chlorthos Dragon, Chmod007, Chocobo93, Chovain, Chris the speller, Chris37599, Chrisniess, ChristTrekker, ChristineStoddard, Christknight, Christofurry101, Chriswiki, Chunglee098, CiTrusD, Ciacchi, Cjhlib, Ckatz, Cleared as filed, Clone1, ClovisPt, Cobaltbluetony, ColinBoylett, Comatose51, Cometstyles, CommonsDelinker, Compwhiz, Comwizz2, Conversion script, Corpx, Cosmic Latte, Cradel, Crazy1monkey, Crazycomputers, Crisco 1492, Critical Info, Crowstar, Cush, Cxz111, Cybopath, D, D. Recorder, D3av, D6, DIG, DJ Clayworth, DJKingpin, DJThom93, DO'Neil, DOSGuy, DVD R W, DabMachine, Dabbler, Daecon, Daedalus969, Dan Gluck, Dan534, Daniel Olsen, DanielCD, Danielcz, Danielv5678, Daragahn, Dariune, Dark Tichondrias, Dark hyena, DarkFalls, Darn you indon, Darthnexus78, Das12345, Dave McKee, Dave6, David the great, Davidfivoryfisaac, Davidsalazarqui, Dawn Bard, Dbachmann, Dblevine, DeadEyeArrow, Deadly Coordinates, Deepshark5, Demonpop, Dendodge, Dentren, Deor, DerHexer, Deryck Chan, Desean84, Dethbyklok8675, Diablote, Digby Tantrum, DigitalC, Dina, Discospinster, Disinclination, Diyako, Dmesg, Doc Tropics, DoktorMax, Doncalamari, Double Blade, Dougweller, Downtown dan seattle, DracoLord Haven, Dragon Carter, Dragon Dude 7, Dragon2468, Dragonclownrider, Dragondeleter, Dragondragonfly, Dragonmaster67, Dragonox488, Dragonruler, Dragonshire, Dragonsinn, Dragonwish, Dragoragus, Drake Clawfang, Dream Focus, Dream of Nyx, DreamGuy, DreamHaze, Dreigenuchiha, DropDeadGorgias, Dudakoff6, DudeBLAHdudeBlah123, DumLoco, Dumbo1, Durova, Duston103, Dvc214, Dvschilpp, Dycedarg, Dynamite 007, Dynimite 007, Dysepsion, Dysprosia, EEMIV, EJF, Echosmoke, Ed Cormany, Ed g2s, Edgar181, Eduardo Sellan III, Edward The Magic Dragon, Edward Z. Yang, Egil, Elenseel, Elephantus, Eliz81, Elizabethrhodes, Elkman, Elvenscout742, Ember of Light, Emurphy42, Ender Wiiggin, Energie, Enigmaman, Enter the dragon, Epbr123, Ephert, Erdal12, Ericguttormson, Ericleb01, Esanchez7587, Esperant, Eurasian, Evadb, Everchanging02, Ex0pos, Executor Tassadar, Ezzi386, FF2010, Faithlessthewonderboy, Fakeemcdontexist, Falco52, Fan-1967, FangedFaerie, Farosdaughter, Fatuglyman, FaxCelestis, Felix Folio Secundus, Fenevad, Ff1959, Fgfgrrr5, FigmentJedi, Figs, Filmested, Fir0002, Firsfron, FisherQueen, Fisheromen, Flalek, Floria L, Flyguy649, FocalPoint, Fogelmatrix, Fordmadoxfraud, Fox, Foxmajik, Freakofnurture, Freedom skies, FreplySpang, Fridaylovin, Frogs416, Froid, Frymaster, Fudu97, FunkMonk, Furrykef, Fzbp-xnsq, G9altowolf, GHe, Gail, Gaius Cornelius, Galoubet, Gamemanica, Gamesage2293, Gareth Wyn, GayCommunist, Gaymamajoefromhell, Geekamalloy, General Eisenhower, Gggi69, Ghirlandajo, Ghosty510192, Giant89, Gigatt, Gilliam, Girlsrmyting, Gjd001, Glasnt, GlassCobra, Glen, Glenn Browne, Glennbandit, Glogger, Glowimperial, Goblim, GofferOffer, Gogo Dodo, Gogsy4, Goldfritha, Goo2you, Goodbye Galaxy, Gracefool, GraemeL, Graham87, Graymornings, GreatWhiteNortherner, GreyCat, Grika, Gtrmp, Gtstricky, Gurch, Gurko, Guyonstreets, Gwernol, Gymnophoria, Gzkn, Ha-core, Hadal, Hagerman, Haku712, Ham549, HamatoKameko, Hanchi, HappyInvader101, Harro5, Harryboyles, HeckXX, Helelen, HellecticMojo, Hempfel, Henry on a horse, Hersfold, HiddenWolf, Him6786, Himasaram, Hiphats, Hmrox, Hockeymonk, Hogyn Lleol, HongQiGong, Hotkeyz, Hugh000270, Huntscorpio, Hurda, Hut 8.5, Hyattha, Hyenaste, IDiO, Iain.dalton, Iamcon, Iceshark7, Idleguy, Ihcoyc, Ilikerps, Illustrious One, Ilmari Karonen, Imaglang, Imhavoc, Imoutofnames, Imp88, Imrankhan85, InShaneee, Indon, Information Center, InformationalAnarchist, Infoterra, Ingxiong, Instinct, Ipodchamp20, IrisKawling, IrisLaRue, Irishguy, Iritebs1, Ismael uddin, Isotope23, It Is Me Here, Itai, Ithinjkyousuck, Ivansanchez, J.J.Sagnella, J.delanoy, JDspeeder1, JForget, JFreeman, JNW, Jacek Kendysz, Jackollie, Jackson rampant, Jacob Mcneil, Jamaldub1, Jambkool, James086, Jannex, Japanandchinaoftheeast, Jarrad mcgrad, Jarretinha, Jclerman, Jedimaster Robby, Jerdwyer, Jfdwolff, Jh12, Jh51681, Jiang, Jiejunkong, Jimokay, Jimp, Jiy, Jkdw, Jkelly, Jmlk17, Jnb27, JoTp, Joe454545, JoeSmack, Joffeloff, John Cardinal, John D. Croft, John Reaves, John254, John809, Johnnyeatsgrubs777, JonHarder, Jonathinhansen22, Jopo, Jose77, Joshotoken, JoshuaZ, Jossi, Jpbowen, Jred21, Jsc83, Jtfiddle95, Julia Maureen, Julia Rossi, Juliamun111, Jumping cheese, Just plain Bill, JustAGal, Justin Eiler, Justinhful, Jwmitton, K00bine, KNHaw, Kaczor, Kaisershatner, Kaobear, Karategal, Karaveks voice, Katalaveno, Kay Dekker, Kbahey, Kbolino, Keahapana, Keegan, Keilana, Kelimaco, Kennethtennyson, Ketsuekigata, Kevin B12, Keycard, Kfogel, Khajidha, Khris Vinson, King of Cool, King of Hearts, Kirow, Kissmeintherain, KittyKatPlay, Kittybrewster, Kjun1 3, Klehti, Kmitchell19, KnowledgeOfSelf, Komodolax, Kotengu, Koyn, Krich, Kross, Krsont, Krun, Ksyrie, Kubigula, Kukini, Kungfucritics, Kurtle, Kuru, Kyle Barbour, KyraVixen, Lady Tenar, Lady Weaxzezz, Ladybugoflight, LairdOfPies, Lancer873, Larry Rosenfeld, Lcarscad, Lectiodifficilior, Lelkesa, Lemuel Gulliver, Leonidas Metello, Lezperez, Lhynard, Liberal Classic, Liftarn, Lightdarkness, LightningPower, LightningPower71, Lights, Link, Linus M., Lion Info, LisaCarrol, Little kiwi, LittleOldMe, Llooggaann2000, Llydawr, LlywelynII, Longlivefootie, Longlivegc, Lord Dagon, Lotje, Loudsox, Lowellian, LtNOWIS, LuNatic, Lucas the scot, Luciftias, Lucky0225, Luckyherb, Luk, Luna Santin, LuoShengli, Lupin, Luvcraft, Lycurgus, Lylavoie, Lyndsayruell, Lytherenth, M@RIX, MER-C, MKoltnow, MMM PIE!!!, MPF, Ma8thew, MackSalmon, Macukali, Madbehemoth, Maestlin, Magister Mathematicae, Magonaritus, Man vyi, Mandarax, Mange01, Mani1, Marek69, Maritimus, Markwiki, MarshallAmp, Martarius, MartinHarper, Martinp23, Marysunshine, Master of the Orchalcos, Masteralt1, Matthead, Max2871, McGeddon, Mcginniw, Mcorazao, Meelar, Melsaran, Mentifisto, Mermaid from the Baltic Sea, Merman, MetaManFromTomorrow, Metanoid, Methylphenidate, MetsFan76, Mgiganteus1, Mhking, Miaow Miaow, Miborovsky, Michael Hardy, Michael Patrick Wilson, Michaelbusch, Michaelritchie200, Michal Nebyla, Midas, Midasminus, Midnight08, Mike Searson, MikeyTMNT, Mildlaughter, Milesli, Minidragon74, Mirv, Misterjumble, Mith'ir, Mixer98, Mjolnir001, Mmoneypenny, Mnementh, Monkeykiss, Monkeyman1818, Monkeytree, Monsterbobslasher, Mookie89, Moonscar, Mordicai, Morgan Wick, Morinae, Mostwanted29, Mozzyepic24, Mr Taz, MrFish, Mravioli, Mrc0nman, Mrg3105, Mrhippo1210, Mrhurtin, Mrmcfeely, Mrwuggs, Mscox.au, Msyarethebest, Mud dog, Mufka, Musicandnintendo, Mwanner, Mylesp77, Mysdaao, MysteryMachine, Mzajac, NJMauthor, Naive cynic, Nakon, Nambrino, Nandesuka, Narfil Palrfalas, Nasa-verve, Nat5an, Natalie Erin, Nate5713, Nathan M. 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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Ljubljana dragon.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ljubljana_dragon.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Dani_7C3, December 2002 File:Ninedragonwallpic1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ninedragonwallpic1.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: splitbrain File:Dragon (PSF).png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dragon_(PSF).png License: unknown Contributors: PSF_D-270006.png: PSF derivative work: Kattekrab (talk) File:Wen Wu Temple 13.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wen_Wu_Temple_13.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Bernard Gagnon File:Graoully.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Graoully.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Graoully Image:Dragon on Longshan Temple.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dragon_on_Longshan_Temple.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: WikiLaurent File:Toy dragons.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Toy_dragons.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Kai Schreiber from Jersey City, USA Image:Ljubljana dragon.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ljubljana_dragon.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Dani_7C3, December 2002 File:DacianDraco.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DacianDraco.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Philg88 File:Flag of Wales 2.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Wales_2.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: AlexD, Cecil, Dbenbenn, Duduziq, F. 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Fjodor, FruitMonkey, Fry1989, Homo lupus, Iago4096, Pumbaa80, Red devil 666, Srtxg, Tha real, Torstein, Vernanimalcula, Vzb83, Wouterhagens, 4 anonymous edits File: .jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:_.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: 1mrg3105, Butko, CommonsDelinkerHelper, Shakko, Vanished user 001 File:Herb Ksistwa Czerskiego.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Herb_Ksistwa_Czerskiego.PNG License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Mathiasrex Image:Coca21.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coca21.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Amavio File:Vibriadereus.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vibriadereus.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Antoni Veciana Image:Cucaferadetarragona.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cucaferadetarragona.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Catalunyaesunanacio File:Saint Margaret 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License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Sodacan Image:C-shaped jade dragon.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:C-shaped_jade_dragon.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Wheielapn at en.wikipedia Image:Jade dragon 2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jade_dragon_2.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Lilyu, Mountain, Olivier2, PericlesofAthens File:Gilded Bronze Handle of a Dragon, Eastern Han.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gilded_Bronze_Handle_of_a_Dragon,_Eastern_Han.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: User:PericlesofAthens Image:ThreeToeDragon.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ThreeToeDragon.jpg License: Creative Commons ShareAlike 1.0 Generic Contributors: Original uploader was Leonard G. at en.wikipedia Image:DatongJiulongBi.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DatongJiulongBi.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Doron Image:Temple Dragon.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Temple_Dragon.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Jacob Jose File:Golden canteen with dragon, Ming Dynasty.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Golden_canteen_with_dragon,_Ming_Dynasty.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: User:PericlesofAthens Image:LongPao.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LongPao.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Kowloonese, 3 anonymous edits File:-seal.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:-seal.svg License: unknown Contributors: Chanueting, Erin Silversmith, Immanuel Giel, Sarang, Yug Image:Changchun-Temple-TaiQingDian-Bell-0306.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Changchun-Temple-TaiQingDian-Bell-0306.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Vmenkov Image:LugouQiao-Qianlong-bridge-rebuilding-stele-3610.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LugouQiao-Qianlong-bridge-rebuilding-stele-3610.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Vmenkov File:Freer 013.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Freer_013.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Original uploader was PericlesofAthens at en.wikipedia File:Nine Dragons, detail, Song Dynasty.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nine_Dragons,_detail,_Song_Dynasty.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Chen Rong File:Phra_Maha_Chedi_Chai_Mongkol_Naga_emerging_from_mouth_of_Makara.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Phra_Maha_Chedi_Chai_Mongkol_Naga_emerging_from_mouth_of_Makara.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Pawyilee File:Chinese silk, 4th Century BC.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chinese_silk,_4th_Century_BC.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: PericlesofAthens File:Wyvern.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wyvern.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Vexilo File:Trento-cathedral-relief with wyvern.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Trento-cathedral-relief_with_wyvern.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Matteo Ianeselli File:Flag of Wessex.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Wessex.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: could be Thomas Gun and 121.92.79.135 File:Loudspeaker.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Loudspeaker.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bayo, Gmaxwell, Husky, Iamunknown, Myself488, Nethac DIU, Omegatron, Rocket000, The Evil IP address, Wouterhagens, 9 anonymous edits File:Arms-leicester.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Arms-leicester.png License: logo Contributors: User:FairuseBot, User:Salavat, User:Smithy2471 File:Midland arms.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Midland_arms.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: chevin Image:Chinese Dragon Banner.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chinese_Dragon_Banner.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Sodacan Image:Okyo Dragon.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Okyo_Dragon.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Amcaja Image:Linteau Muse Guimet 25973.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Linteau_Muse_Guimet_25973.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Vassil Image:Dragonvietnam.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dragonvietnam.gif License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: inh Ngc Dng Image:Meddragon Liber Floridus Lambert of sint Omaars 1460.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Meddragon_Liber_Floridus_Lambert_of_sint_Omaars_1460.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: 1mrg3105, Deadstar, Joostvandeputte, Julien Demade

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:Dragon hraldique.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dragon_hraldique.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: MicheletB Image:Welsh dragon.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Welsh_dragon.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: Gian Luca Ruggero, aka Actam Image:Dragon Crop.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dragon_Crop.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:Bastianow, User:Bedwyr, User:Bastianow, User:Bedwyr Image:Mnster wawelski.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mnster_wawelski.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bearerofthecup, Smok Wawelski, 2 anonymous edits Image:Kadmos dragon Louvre E707.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kadmos_dragon_Louvre_E707.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Bibi Saint-Pol Image:Flag Kaz.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_Kaz.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: 1mrg3105 Image:stgeorge-dragon.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stgeorge-dragon.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ecelan, Estevoaei, Ham, HombreDHojalata, Infrogmation, Juiced lemon, Kalki, Pe-Jo, Ranveig, Shakko, 2 anonymous edits Image:Ulm-Muenster-NeithartKapelleFenster-061209.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ulm-Muenster-NeithartKapelleFenster-061209.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: w:de:Benutzer:Joachim KhlerJoachim Khler File:St.George rescuing the emperor's daughter.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:St.George_rescuing_the_emperor's_daughter.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Georgian artist of the 15-th century Image:Stockholm-Storkyrkan (St.Georg).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stockholm-Storkyrkan_(St.Georg).jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Jrgen Howaldt Image:Commanderie Coulommiers saint Georges.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Commanderie_Coulommiers_saint_Georges.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Myrabella File:St GeorgeEnglish.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:St_GeorgeEnglish.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Alexander Barclay File:Saint George et le dragon, enluminure.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Saint_George_et_le_dragon,_enluminure.jpg License: GNU General Public License Contributors: Anomyme Image:Rogier van der Weyden - Saint George and the Dragon.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rogier_van_der_Weyden_-_Saint_George_and_the_Dragon.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bukk, Olivier2, Pe-Jo, Rlbberlin Image:Coat of Arms of Moscow.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Moscow.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original Author: Vector-Images.com Converted to SVG by: Oren neu dag File:1914 Sydney Half Sovereign - St. George.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1914_Sydney_Half_Sovereign_-_St._George.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Karora File:St. George and the Dragon - Briton Riviere.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:St._George_and_the_Dragon_-_Briton_Riviere.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Briton Riviere (1840-1920) File:Rossetti georg sabra.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rossetti_georg_sabra.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, Gustav VH, Ham, Infrogmation, Man vyi, Mattes, Menze, PKM, Shakko, 2 anonymous edits File:Roggenbeuren St Verena Hochaltar Barbara Georg.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Roggenbeuren_St_Verena_Hochaltar_Barbara_Georg.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Photo: Veit Feger File:Naga182.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Naga182.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Mohonu, 1 anonymous edits File:Sarpa-Kavu-2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sarpa-Kavu-2.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Rajesh Kakkanatt. Original uploader was Kjrajesh at en.wikipedia File:Anantavishnu.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anantavishnu.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Abhishekjoshi, DieBuche, Ekabhishek, Fryed-peach, Jappalang, Redtigerxyz, Roland zh, 1 anonymous edits Image:Vijayanagar snakestone.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vijayanagar_snakestone.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Dineshkannambadi Image:nagtemple.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nagtemple.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Sahuajeet Image:Laonaga.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Laonaga.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Adam Carr Image:Lingam.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lingam.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Maheshkhanna Image:Patanjali.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Patanjali.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: en:Rpba File:2006 0922 wat phrathat doi suthep buddha mucalinda.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2006_0922_wat_phrathat_doi_suthep_buddha_mucalinda.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Takeaway Image:SalaKeoku.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SalaKeoku.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: http://wikitravel.org/en/User:Jpatokal Image:Wat Phra Kaew Naga.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wat_Phra_Kaew_Naga.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: The Last Melon Image:NagaPhnomPenh.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NagaPhnomPenh.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Stephan Schulz. Original uploader was Stephan Schulz at en.wikipedia File:Nagayon Paya.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nagayon_Paya.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Wagaung (talk) Image:Indischer Maler um 1640 001.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Indischer_Maler_um_1640_001.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ekabhishek, Redtigerxyz, Roland zh, Shreevatsa, Wolfmann, 3 anonymous edits Image:Hokusai Dragon.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hokusai_Dragon.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Amcaja, Petrusbarbygere, Red devil 666, 1 anonymous edits Image:Kiyohimesm.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kiyohimesm.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Katsuhagi Image:Kuniteru Gozu dragon.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kuniteru_Gozu_dragon.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Amcaja, Gryffindor, OceanSound Image:Tamatori being pursued bya dragon.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tamatori_being_pursued_bya_dragon.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Amcaja, Petrusbarbygere Image:One of the daughters of the dragon king who lives in then bottom of the sea.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:One_of_the_daughters_of_the_dragon_king_who_lives_in_then_bottom_of_the_sea.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Amcaja, Petrusbarbygere Image:Kunisada II The Dragon.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kunisada_II_The_Dragon.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Amcaja, Aotake, OceanSound Image:Kuniyoshi Utagawa, Dragon 2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kuniyoshi_Utagawa,_Dragon_2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Amcaja, Petrusbarbygere, Red devil 666 Image:Dragonn4.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dragonn4.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Sean-Jin Image:Dragonn3.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dragonn3.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Sean-Jin Image:Yoshitsuya The Fiery Dragon.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yoshitsuya_The_Fiery_Dragon.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Amcaja, Binabik155, Gryffindor, OceanSound File:Ogata Gekko - Ryu sho ten edit.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ogata_Gekko_-_Ryu_sho_ten_edit.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: User:Ceridwen, User:Ceridwen File:Chinaimg.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chinaimg.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Nat File:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370 Recode by cs:User:-xfi- (code), User:Shizhao (colors) File:Flag of the Republic of China.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: 555, Bestalex, Bigmorr, Denelson83, Ed veg, Gzdavidwong, Herbythyme, Isletakee, Kakoui, Kallerna, Kibinsky, Mattes, Mizunoryu, Neq00, Nickpo, Nightstallion, Odder, Pymouss, R.O.C, Reisio, Reuvenk,

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