1.

Valance band and conductance bands in an p type material are at

slightly higher energy level than the valence and conduction bands
in a p type material. P-type substances contain trivalent impurities
and n-type substances contain pentavalent
impurities. Trivalent impurities act on electrons in the outer shell with
less force than pentavalent impurities. The lower force in p-type
materials means that the electron orbitals are slightly larger and
have more energy than electron orbitals in n-type materials.

The energy diagram of the p-n junction at the time of formation is

shown in Figure 1. (all). As you can see, the valence and conduction
bands of the n region have lower energy levels than the p region,
but they overlap considerably.

Free electrons in the n region energetically occupy the upper

conduction band and easily diffuse through the junction (without the
need to acquire additional energy) to temporarily become free
electrons in the lower p region, conduction band. After passing
through the transition, the electron rapidly loses energy and falls
into the hole in the valence band of the p region as shown in figure
(a).

As diffusion progresses , a depletion layer starts to form and the

energy level of the n-type conduction band decreases. The decrease
in the energy level of the n region conduction band is related to the
loss of high-energy electrons that have diffused through junction into
the p region. In Figure (b), the n-region conduction
band represents the top of the n-region conduction band, and the n-
region conduction band represents the p-region conduction band. At
this point the migration is in balance. Since diffusion has stopped,
the depletion region is complete. In the depletion region there is an
energy gradient that acts as an "energy hill" that electrons in the n
region must climb to reach the p region.

As the energy level of the conduction band in region n moves

down, the energy level of the valence band also moves down. A
valence electron still needs the same amount of energy to become a
free electron.
4. The voltage across a resistor is determined by the resistor and the
current flowing through it. Capacitors and inductors are
fundamentally different in that the current-voltage ratio is related
to the rate of change. For a capacitor, the current through the
capacitor at any given moment is the product of the capacitance and
the rate of change of the voltage across the capacitor (i.e. time
derivative).

I = C ⋅ dV/dt
Since we are using a linear voltage sweep, the current through the
capacitor will remain constant as the
voltage increases or decreases. When the voltage changes from a
positive slope (blue in Figure 5) to a negative slope (orange), the
direction of the current reverses. This is shown in the
current versus time plot as the transition from the positive
current section of the plot to the negative current section of the plot.

The IV dependence of an ideal capacitor is shown in Figure 1. 6.

The amount of current is constant, but the direction of the current
changes depending on whether the voltage changes from V1 to V2
or from V2 to V1, so two horizontal lines are needed. Current is
positive when voltage has a positive rate of change (shown by the
blue arrow). Current is negative when voltage has a negative rate
of change (indicated by the orange arrow).
5. The voltage across an inductor is the product of the inductance
and the rate of change of the current flowing through the inductor.

V = L ⋅ dI/dt
This means that current is proportional to the integral of
voltage, which can be seen in the following graph. The current
increases in magnitude as the (negative) area under the voltage
curve increases. However, as the voltage crosses the time axis, the
positive curve starts to cancel out the negative curve, causing the
current to drop to zero.
Note the difference between capacitors and inductors. In a capacitor,
current is proportional to the derivative of voltage, so a linear sweep
of voltage is converted to direct current. For inductors, current is
proportional to the integral of voltage, so a linear voltage sweep is
converted to quadratic form in a current versus time plot.

The I-V relationship of an ideal inductor is shown in Figure 8. As the

voltage changes from V2 to V1 or from V1 to V2, the amount of
current gradually increases and then decreases. The direction of
current is negative when voltage goes from V1 to V2 and
positive when voltage goes from V2 to V1.