Principles of Machine Shop Practice

Introduction to basic principles of the lathe, tools and techniques.

Properties of Metals

An element is a substance made up of all one kind of atom. Elements are generally classified as metals or nonmetals (although some
elements have characteristics of both; these are called metalloids). The majority of elements listed in the periodic table are metals. These
elements usually share three main properties:

 Luster: Metals are shiny when cut, scratched, or polished.

 Malleability: Metals are strong but malleable, which means that they can be easily bent or shaped. For centuries, smiths have been
able to shape metal objects by heating metal and pounding it with a hammer. If they tried this with nonmetals, the material would
shatter. Most metals are also ductile, which means they can be drawn out to make wire.
 Conductivity: Metals are excellent conductors of electricity and heat. Because they are also ductile, they are ideal for electrical
wiring.

Metals are also categorized in five different groups:

 Noble Metals are found as pure metals because they are nonreactive and don’t combine with other elements to form compounds.
Because they are so nonreactive, they don’t corrode easily. This makes them ideal for jewelry and coins. Noble metals include copper,
palladium, silver, platinum, and gold.
 Alkali Metals are very reactive. They have low melting points and are soft enough to be cut with a knife. Potassium and sodium are
two alkali metals.
 Alkaline Earth Metals are found in compounds with many different minerals. They are less reactive than alkali metals, as well as
harder, and have higher melting points. This group includes calcium, magnesium, and barium.
 Transition Metals are what we usually think of when we think of metals. They are hard and shiny, strong, and easy to shape. They
are used for many industrial purposes. This group includes iron, gold, silver, chromium, nickel, and copper, some of which are also
noble metals.
 Poor Metals are fairly soft, and most are not used very much by themselves. They become very useful when added to other
substances, though. Poor metals include aluminum, gallium, tin, thallium, antimony, and bismuth.

Cutting
Within steel and the rest of the metal working world, cutting and separating metals is a vital process. There are numerous metal cutting
methods out there, starting with basic hand-held items like hacksaws, chisels or shears. Let’s look at several machine-cutting processes,
and how they work with various metals.

 Turning involves applying the sharp point of a cutting tool to a metal surface as it’s rapidly spun. This removes the top layer of metal
to a pre-determined size.
 Grinding involves a smooth metal surface and very high-quality metal. A grinding machine has an abrasive wheel that turns while
making contact with the metal, wearing the surface down and helping separate it.
 Drilling requires a drill bit applied directly to metal, then the typical combination of force and rotation that you’d see when a screw
was being drilled into a wall. Drilling allows for very precise holes in metal where needed.
 Welding or burning techniques involve application of high heat to the surface metal, which brings it up to a temperature at which it
will soften and then break along a precise line.
 A gas Flame that reaches a temperature of above 3,500 degrees Celsius can also be used. This heats the metal to melting point, then
directs a stream of oxygen onto the spot, causing the metal to burn and melt along a line.
 Laser cutting is relatively similar – using a concentrated beam of light that can be reduced to a single point at a very high
temperature. This allows exact, precise shapes to be cut out of metal, and lasers are often controlled by a computer to get maximum
accuracy here.
 A more recent technique is Plasma cutting, which uses a plasma torch to pump either oxygen or inert gas out of the nozzle while
simultaneously sending an electrical arc through the gas. This creates plasma hot enough to melt metal while moving quickly enough
to blow metal molten away.
 Water Jets, or erosion technology, mimic the effect of water on metal in the natural environment – just at a much higher rate. This
method doesn’t rely on any heat, and can therefore be used on metals that are sensitive to high heat.

Fastening
Most machine shop time is spent turning raw materials into finished parts, but the next manufacturing step is often assembling and
fastening these parts together. This chapter looks at both fastening devices and fastening processes. Cost, weight, strength, availability,
reliability, corrosion resistance and simplicity are some of the many factors that influence the fastening method used by the prototype or
non-production machinists. There are over one hundred different fastener designs and tens of thousands of variations when size, finish
and material are counted. This chapter presents the most common fastening methods.

 Screws are externally threaded fasteners capable of being inserted into holes in assembled parts, of mating with a preformed internal
thread, of forming their own thread, and of being released by torquing their heads.
 Bolts are externally threaded fasteners designed for insertion through holes in assembled parts, and are normally intended to be tightened
or released by torquing a nut.

Finishing
Metal finishing is used to treat the exterior of a metal product by applying a thin complementary layer to its surface. There are numerous
types of metal finishing processes that can be used for a variety of purposes. Some of the general advantages of applying this finishing
treatment to a metal product include: Increased durability, improved decorative appeal, enhanced electrical conductivity, higher electrical
resistance, higher chemical resistance, higher tarnish resistance, and potential for vulcanization. Types of Metal Finishing:

 Metal plating machines use a chemical bath to coat or alter the surface of a substrate with a thin layer of metal, such as nickel or
PTFE. The electroplating method generates an electric current to coat the substrate, while electroless plating employs an
autocatalytic process in which the substrate catalyzes the reaction.
 Unlike plating, Brushed Metal finishing is an effective method for removing surface imperfections. These finishing machines create a
uniform, parallel grain surface texture to smooth out a product’s exterior.
 If your project requires a smooth, non-textured finish, then a Buff Polishing machine may be your answer. This machine uses a
cloth wheel to buff the product’s surface, resulting in a high, glossy sheen.
 Metal Grinding machines use friction, attrition and/or compression to smooth out a metal product’s surface. Most metal grinding
machines consist of a substrate within a rotating drum. Rod mills are used to make metal rods, while semi-autogenous grinding (SAG)
mills and autogenous grinding mills smooth copper, gold, platinum, and silver.
 Metal Vibratory finishing machines are used to deburr products and remove sharp edges. They position material inside a drum
filled with abrasive pellets and a substrate, then apply tumbling vibration to create a uniform random texture.
 Sand-blasting machines are typically employed in projects requiring a uniform matte texture. The process (also known as
beadblasting) forces sand, steel shots, metal pellets or other abrasives into a substrate at high speed. This results in a smooth, clean
product texture, particularly in soft metals.
 Powder Coating applies a decorative finish that is similar to paint, but with greater durability. The process involves melting dry
plastic powder onto the metal to produce a textured, matte, or glossy coating.
 Hot Blackening machines spread a thin layer of black oxide onto a product’s surface to create a matte black finish with high
abrasion resistance. It is a high-temperature hot finishing process in which the product is inserted into a series of tanks containing
cleaners, caustics, and coolants.
Equipments
Power Shear

The first step in fabricating a sheet metal component is cutting to size. Shearing machines and shearing machinery perform this function.
Shearing machines are multipurpose devices used in the cutting of alloys and other sheet metal. Some shearing machines use a scissor-like,
angular shear action to cut metal into sheets or strips. Other, larger machines use a straight shear action with the blade fixed at an angle as
opposed to the angular movement. Shearing operations are performed by the action of two blades, one fixed in the shear bed and the
other moving vertically with little or no clearance. There are several types of shearing machines that can be used to meet your specific job
needs:

 Air/pneumatic shears use a pneumatic cylinder to power the crosshead and upper blade.
 Hydraulic shears are driven or powered by a hydraulic cylinder. Hydraulic presses can generate extremely high forces to cut metals
or other materials.
 Hydromechanical shears are driven by a hydraulic cylinder or hydraulic motor.
 Mechanical shears have the moving blade driven by a rotary motor through a screw, toggle, lever, or other mechanism.
 Servo driven shears are driven by a direct connection to a servo motor.
 Manual shears are driven or powered by hand or with manual force that is magnified with screw, lever, or other mechanism.

Hand Tools

By definition, hand tools refer to any type of tool that can be used by hand and does not require any motor or electrical power. This
includes an array of tools such as hammers, wrenches, cutters, clamps, and so much more. Hand tools are basic necessities to carry out
even the smallest of household tasks. The most commonly used general purpose hand tools are as follows:

 Every home tool kit should have an industrial grade Knife. These are built with hard material and can be used for opening boxes,
letters, or cutting not so tough materials.
 Scissors are multi-purpose tools. It can be useful in opening packages or boxes.
 Screwdrivers come in various shapes and sizes. It is one of the must-have tools in a household utility kit. They can be used to screw
or unscrew nails on any surface, to tighten the hinges, install light switches, or assemble furniture. The screwdriver is made of blades
with various widths and lengths suited for special purposes.
 A Hammer is designed to deliver high force on a small area. The tool is made of a long wooden stick, attached to a block of metal. It
can be used for driving nails, breaking objects and forging metal. The hammer should be heavy, so it is effective while hammering
nails on the wall. When picking a hammer, one should choose carefully among the wide variety of sizes and weights available.
 A Wrench is used to grip and turn objects. They are helpful in assembling furniture or bike repairs where it can be used to loosen or
tighten nuts and bolts. Wrenches are also used for plumbing jobs where they are used to turn pipes. Wrenches vary from close-end
to open-end types or adjustable ones.
 Pliers are common hand tools found in almost every household. They help to hold objects firmly, bend other materials, and remove
unwanted elements. It can be used for bending or straightening wires, cutting or slicing wires, removing nails or tiny needles, or to
just hold objects firmly at one place.
 A Clamp is a fastening device used to hold or secure objects tightly together to prevent movement or separation via inward
application. Clamps can be temporary, as used to position components while fixing them together, or they can be permanent.
 Tape measure is a must-have in every home tool kit. They are useful in taking room or wall measurements.

Drill Press

Also called Drilling Machine, is a device for producing holes in hard substances. The drill is held in a rotating spindle and is fed into the
workpiece, which is usually clamped in a vise resting on a table. Although drill presses are used mainly for drilling holes, they can also be
used for enlarging holes with a boring tool or finishing holes with a reamer. With the aid of a special tapping attachment and a tap, they
can produce threads in a hole.

Shaper

Is a metal-cutting machine in which the workpiece is usually held in a vise or similar device that is clamped to a table and can be manually
operated or power driven at right angles to the path of a chisellike cutting tool with only one cutting edge held on the end of a
reciprocating ram. The adjustable mounting of the tool permits the cutting of grooves and the generation of surfaces at almost any angle
to one another. The rams on most shapers reciprocate horizontally. Shapers with vertical rams are known as slotters, or die shapers, and
are frequently provided with rotary tables. Means are provided on all shapers for varying the length of stroke and speed of the ram.

Introduction to basic principles of welding and soldering

Stick

Stick welding is technically defined as “Shielded Metal Arc Welding”. The term “stick welding” is a common slang term that the welding
industry has adopted because the electrode that welds the metal comes in the form of a “Stick”.

The simplest explanation of how stick welding works. Stick welding is a form of welding that uses electricity to melt a metal filler
rod/electrode/stick (electrode is the proper term) that melts both the metal joint and electrode all at once to fuse two pieces of metal
together and fill the joint with filler metal at the same time.

MIG

MIG welding is an abbreviation for Metal Inert Gas Welding. It is a process developed in the 1940’s, and is considered semi-automated.
This means that the welder still requires skill, but that the MIG welding machine will continuously keep filling the joint being welded and
electrodes do not need to be changed out between welds.

MIG welding is most commonly used in fabrication shops where production is high, and the possibility of wind blowing away your gas
shielding is unlikely. It’s main purpose is manufacturing and sheet metal work.

TIG

TIG Welding is a manual welding process that requires the welder to use two hands to weld. What separates TIG welding from most other
welding processes is the way the arc is created and how the filler metal is added. When TIG Welding one hand is used for holding the TIG
torch that produces the arc and the other hand is to add the filler metal to the weld joint. Because two hands are required to weld TIG
welding is the most difficult of the processes to learn, but at the same time is the most versatile when it comes to different metals. TIG
welding is mostly used for critical weld joints, welding metals other than common steel, and where precise, small welds are needed

Oxygen- Acetylen.

Oxy acetylene welding, sometimes referred to as "gas" welding, uses acetylene gas as the fuel for the welding torch. The flame produced
by an oxy acetylene welding torch heats the metals you're welding and causes them to melt together, bonding the pieces with the resulting
weld seam. Though oxy acetylene welds aren't as aesthetically pleasing as those created by other methods, they are fast and easy to
produce while being strong enough for most welding needs.