Spot test-2

10 marks 10 minutes
1. Carbohydrates include monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides.

(c) Complete this table to show the components and bonding within each carbohydrate. (3)

(d) State the role of glycogen molecules and explain why they are well suited to the role. (5)
Starch
Polymer of alpha glucose
Starch are two types :
i.Amylose ;
ii.Amylopectin;
Easily hydrolyzed to glucose
It act as a food reservior
Amylose is straight chain polymer of
alpha 1,4 glycosidic bond. Amylopectin
is a branched chain of alpha 1,6
glycosidic bond.
Helical shape and branch
Cellulose
Polymer of beta glucose
It has no types
Strong molecule not easily hydrolyzed
to glucose
It act as a structural and support
molecule.
Cellulose straight chain molecule and
single polymer of beta 1,4 glycosidic
bond.
Straight chain molecule with an
excess of hydrogen bond linking the
parallel chain
 Spot test-1
15 marks 15 minutes
1. Explain why sugars such as glucose and sucrose are useful
for immediate energy, but are not suitable as long-term
energy stores. (3)
2. Write down the difference between amylose and
amylopectine.(4)
3. State the role of glycogen molecules and explain why
they are well suited to the role. (4)
4. Explain with diagram how sucrose and lactose is
formed? (4)
LIPIDS
 LIPIDS
 The lipids are an integral part of all cell membranes and are also used as an energy
store. Lipids, especially triglycerides, store about three times as much energy as the
same mass of carbohydrates.
 FATS AND OILS
 Fats and oils are important groups of lipids. Chemically they are very similar, but
fats such as butter are solids at room temperature whereas oils such as olive oil are
liquids . Fats come mainly from animal sources while oils are mainly from plant
sources.
 The chemical elements that all lipid molecules contain are carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen. However, lipids contain a much lower proportion of oxygen than
carbohydrates.
 Fats and oils contain two types of organic chemical substance, fatty acids and
glycerol (propane-I,2,3-triol). These are combined using ester bonds.
 Glycerol has the chemical formula C3H8O3 .
 All fatty acids have a long hydrocarbon chain, a folded backbone of carbon atoms
with hydrogen atoms attached and a carboxyl group (—COOH) at one end.
 Living tissues contain more than 70 different types of fatty acid. Fatty acids vary in
two ways:
a) the length of the carbon chain can differ .
b) the fatty acid may be a saturated fatty acid or an unsaturated fatty acid.
 What is Saturated Fat/ fatty acid
 In a saturated fatty acid, each carbon atom is joined to the one
next to it by a single covalent bond. A common example is stearic
acid.
 Fatty acids are made of long chains of carbon (C) atoms, and some
of these carbon atoms are connected by single bonds (-C-C-) only.

 Figure : Example of saturated fatty acid – Myristic acid

 What is Unsaturated Fat/ fatty acid
 In an unsaturated fatty acid, the carbon chains have one or more double
covalent bonds between carbon atoms in them. These fat molecules should
have at least one double bond within the fatty acid chain.
 Unsaturated fats can be again subdivided into two categories:
1.Monounsaturated and
2. Polyunsaturated fats.
 A monounsaturated fatty acid has one carbon—carbon double bond and a
polyunsaturated fatty acid has more than one carbon—carbon double bond.
Linoleic acid is an example of a polyunsaturated fatty acid. It is an essential
fatty acid in our diet because we cannot make it from other substances.

 Figure : Example for unsaturated fatty acid – Oleic acid

 Difference between Saturated and Unsaturated Fat
Saturated Fat Unsaturated Fat

Consists of saturated fatty acids. Consists of unsaturated fatty acids

Saturated fatty acids have no double which contain 1 or more than 1 double
bonds between the carbon atom of the bonds in the fatty acid chain.
fatty acids chain

Higher melting point Lower melting point

Exists as solid at room temperature Exists as liquid at room temperature

Cannot be hydrogenated Can be hydrogenated

High amount of saturated fat can be Unsaturated fat are associated with
harmful to health various health benefits
High cholesterol content Least or no cholesterol content
 FORMING ESTER BONDS/
HOW TRIGLYCERIDE IS FORMED?
 FORMING ESTER BONDS/
HOW TRIGLYCERIDE IS FORMED?
 A triglyceride is made when glycerol combines with three fatty
acids. A bond is formed in a condensation reaction between the
carboxyl group (—COOH) of a fatty acid and one of the hydroxyl
groups (—OH) of the glycerol. A molecule of water is removed
and the bond created is called an ester bond. This type of
condensation reaction is called esterification .
 Protein
 Proteins make hair, skin and nails, the enzymes needed for
metabolism and digestion, and many of the hormones that
control the different body systems.
 They enable muscle fibres to contract, make antibodies that
protect from disease, help clot our blood and transport oxygen in
the form of haemoglobin.
 Proteins contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. In addition, they
all contain nitrogen and many proteins also contain sulfur.
 Proteins are a group of macromolecules made up of many small
monomer units called amino acids joined together by
condensation reactions.
 Amino acids combine in long chains to produce proteins. There
are about 20 different naturally occurring amino acids that can
combine in different ways to produce a wide range of different
proteins.
 AMINO ACIDS
 All amino acids have the same basic structure, which is
represented as a general formula. There is always an amino group
(—NH2) and a carboxyl group (—COOH) attached to a carbon
atom.

 The group known as the R group varies between amino acids. Some
amino acids contain sulfur and selenium in their R group. The R groups
are not involved in the reactions which join the amino acids together,
but the structure of the R group does affect the way the amino acid
interacts with others within the protein molecule. This will mainly
depend on whether the R group is polar or not, and these interactions
affect the tertiary structure of the protein formed .
FORMING PROTEINS FROM AMINO ACIDS
 Amino acids join by a reaction between the amino group of one amino acid, and
the carboxyl group of another. They join in a condensation reaction and a
molecule of water is released. A peptide bond is formed when two amino acids
join, and a dipeptide is the result . The R group is not involved in this reaction.
More and more amino acids join to form polypeptide chains. A polypeptide
forms a protein when the structure of the chain changes by folding or coiling or
associates with other polypeptide chains.
 BONDS IN PROTEINS
The peptide bond between amino acids is a strong bond.
Other bonds are also made between the amino acids in a
chain, to create the 3D structures of the protein. They
depend on the atoms in the R group and include -
 Hydrogen bonds
 Disulfide bonds and
 Ionic bonds.

HYDROGEN BONDS
In amino acids, tiny negative charges are present on the oxygen of the carboxyl groups and
tiny positive charges are present on the hydrogen atoms of the amino groups. When these
charged groups are close to each other, the opposite charges attract, forming a hydrogen
bond.
 Hydrogen bonds are weak but, potentially, they can be made between any two amino acids in
the correct position. so there are many of them holding the protein together very firmly
 They are very important in the folding and coiling of polypeptide chains .
 Hydrogen bonds break easily and reform if pH or temperature conditions change.
 DISULFIDE BONDS
 Disulfide bonds form when two cysteine molecules are close together in the structure of a
polypeptide . An oxidation reaction occurs between the two sulfur-containing groups,
resulting in a strong covalent bond known as a disulfide bond.
 These disulfide bonds are much stronger than hydrogen bonds but they happen much less
often.
 They are important for holding the folded polypeptide chains in place.
 Ionic bond
 Ionic bond can form between the negative charge of the carboxyl group with the positive
charge of the amino group. This link are known as salt bridge.
 They are strong bond but they are not as common as other structural bond.
 Function or importance:
They are important for holding poly peptide chain
pg 17 fig C (all information)
 Spot test-2
10 marks 10 minutes
 1. Explain with diagram how triglycerides are formed. (5)
 2. Describe the main difference between a saturated and
an unsaturated fatty acid, and the effect of this difference
on the properties of the lipids formed from unsaturated
fatty acids compared to lipids formed from saturated
fatty acids. (5)
 DISULFIDE BONDS
 Disulfide bonds form when two cysteine molecules are close
together in the structure of a polypeptide . An oxidation
reaction occurs between the two sulfur-containing groups,
resulting in a strong covalent bond known as a disulfide
bond.
 These disulfide bonds are much stronger than hydrogen
bonds but they happen much less often.
 They are important for holding the folded polypeptide chains
in place.
 Ionic bond
 Ionic bond can form between the negative charge of the carboxyl
group with the positive charge of the amino group. This link are
known as salt bridge.
 They are strong bond but they are not as common as other
structural bond.
 Function or importance:
They are important for holding poly peptide chain
pg 17 fig C
Protein can be described as :
1. Primary structure
2.Secondary structure
3.Tertiary structure
4.Quaternary structure